ES 600 ASSIGNMENT 1 SWADIPTA ROY (MEMS, M.TECH, MM4) ROLL NO. 133110042 1.

Ecological risk assessments and human health risk assessments follow similar processes, but they differ in important ways. Discuss three differences that YOU think are significant. ANSWER: Ecological risk assessments and human health risk assessments follow similar processes, but they differ in many ways. Similarity: Similar structure both types of risk assessments consist of a problem formulation, hazard assessment, exposure assessment and risk characterization. Both can use models to estimate exposure to receptors (i.e., human health risk assessment assess exposure to humans via ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact, while ecological risk assessments may assess exposure to terrestrial animals via ingestion). Both compare measured environmental chemical concentrations against environmental quality guidelines in the problem formulation phase. Difference: Different in terms of dose-scaling or allometric regression. It is used to extrapolate the effects of a chemical stressor to another species. Allometry is the study of change in the proportions of various parts of an organism as a consequence of growth and development. Processes that influence toxic kinetics (e.g., renal clearance, basal metabolic rate, food consumption) tend to vary across species according to allometric scaling factors that can be expressed as a nonlinear function of body weight. These factors can be used to estimate bioaccumulation and to improve interspecies extrapolations Although allometric relationships are generally used for human health risk assessments, they have not been applied for ecological effects. For chemical stressors, allometric relationships can enable an assessor to estimate toxic effects to species not commonly tested, such as native mammals. It is important that the assessor consider the taxonomic relationship between the known species and the one of interest. The closer they are related, the more likely the toxic response will be similar. Allometric approaches should not be applied to species that differ greatly in uptake, metabolism, or depuration of a chemical. Other differences are: Human health risk assessment is usually concerned with protecting life of individual human beings. Ecological risk assessment are more concerned about populations of organisms (i.e., individual species of fish in a river) or ecological integrity (i.e., will the types of species living in the river change over time?). Ecological risk assessment exposure models are like human health risk assessment exposure models, but only consider ingestion pathways to terrestrial animals. The same models also consider foraging range for animals. Foraging range not considered in human health risk assessments.

Larger reliance on signs of impacts (i.e., toxicity studies, measurements of fish health, aquatic insect surveys, visible abnormalities on animals or discoloration of plants). Although the exposure guidelines offer many useful suggestions that can be applied to human health risk assessment, it was not possible to generalize the concepts to ecological risk assessment.

2. Name the major classes of ecological stressors and give at least one example of each. ANSWER: Environmental stress refers to physical, chemical, and biological constraints on the productivity of species and on the development of ecosystems. When the exposure to environmental stressors increases or decreases in intensity, ecological responses result. Stressors can be natural environmental factors, or they may result from the activities of humans. Some environmental stressors exert a relatively local influence, while others are regional or global in their scope. Stressors are challenges to the integrity of ecosystems and to the quality of the environment. The three classes of Stressors are: Physical (e.g., volcanic eruptions, windstorms, explosions, dams, fishing nets suspended sediments) Chemical (e.g., toxics or nutrients such as ozone, sulphur di-oxide, pesticides) Biological (e.g., exotic or genetically engineered organisms). 3. Name three ecological receptors and at least one measure of effect for each. ANSWER: Ecological receptors includes any living organisms other than humans, the habitat which supports such organisms, or natural resources which could be adversely affected by environmental contaminations resulting by a release at or migration from a site. Typical receptor categories may be:

Wider-ranging ecological receptors that may frequent the affected property and use less mobile receptors (e.g., plants, soil invertebrates, small rodents) as a food source, Benthic invertebrates within waters in a region. Habitat: Ecological habitats are defined as area or type of environment in which organisms and biological populations normally live or interact. Natural Resources: Natural systems with intrinsic value to the public, regardless of actual current or planned future use of the resource such as species and communities that are important in maintaining the integrity and biodiversity of the environment. Chemical Stressor: Contaminant that can induce an adverse ecological response

The other ecological receptors are tissues, organisms, populations, communities, and ecosystems. Ecosystem/Receptor measures are Climate, geographic barriers, host suitability, extent of potential host species. 4. What is a measure of ecosystem characteristics? Name three ecosystem characteristics and one measure for each. ANSWER: Measures of ecosystem characteristics are that influence the behaviour and location of entities selected as the assessment endpoint, the distribution of a stressor, and life history characteristics of the assessment endpoint or its surrogate that may affect exposure or response to the stressor. Measures of Ecosystem and Receptor Characteristics are: It is normally an open system with a continuous, but variable influx and loss of materials and energy. An ecosystem is an overall integration of the whole mosaic of interacting organisms and their environment. It is a basic, functional unit with no limits of boundaries. It consists of biotic and abiotic components interacting with each other. Its functional unit is capable of energy transformation, circulation and accumulation. An ecosystem is the smallest unit of biosphere, different in different areas. Abundance and distribution of suitable breeding substrate. Abundance and distribution of suitable food sources for fry.

Feeding, resting, and breeding behaviour. Natural reproduction, growth, and mortality rates.

Nutrient Cycles: Ecosystems are mostly defined by various organic compounds that must circulate through the ecosystem. Organisms of various types are constantly struggling to acquire these compounds in order to maintain essential biological processes. Important nutrients for an ecosystem include carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and water. These nutrients must cycle through the biosphere and not leave the ecosystem or form compounds that are not usable by the life forms. For example, most organisms need nitrogen in some form. But this nitrogen is not

accessible by the majority of these organisms, so they have to rely on microorganisms such as bacteria, which have the ability to fix these nutrients. Also, much of the ecosystem relies on plants and animals passing back and forth oxygen and carbon dioxide, as these organisms consume and release these chemicals as byproducts. Predators and Prey: Another important part of the ecosystem are the food chains. These food chains consist of some organisms serving as predators and other organisms serving as prey. Obviously, the prey organisms are beneficial to the predators, and dwindling prey can cause a predator species to die off. But predators also help the prey species by reducing overpopulation so that the prey species does not run out of food. Without predators, many prey species can consume food to the extent that their populations rapidly expand. However, once these populations reach a point where they consume all of the food, these species can rapidly decline until they reach a very small number or even die off. Sustainable ecosystems have the right balance of predators and prey. These organisms must also maintain biodiversity, or else the balances of predator and prey relationships can become disrupted. Living Soil: Many of the most crucial nutrients end up in the form of soil. These nutrients come from eroding rock and mountains. While this soil may not look alive, soil usually contains a diverse array of microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi and soil-dwelling animals. These organisms are often the building blocks of all of the life above the soil. Most of the nitrogen fixation occurs among the bacteria in the soil. Worms poke holes in the soil, aerating it. Plants depend on this soil, which allows them to generate food and oxygen for a vast array of other species. Many areas become barren when soil loses many of its crucial organisms, so soil must be continually replenished for an ecosystem to survive.

Measures of ecosystem characteristics and exposure are determined by the entity and attributes selected and serve as important information in conceptual model development.