6

SINUSOIDAL ALTERNATE

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE CIRCUITS

6.1 6.2 6.3 6. 6.% 6.6

Sinusoidal Waveforms Average value, rms value or effective value Complex Number !"asors, Circuit #lement in !"asor $omain Stead& state AC Series Circuit Anal&sis AC Circuit !o'er Absorption (!o'er )riangle*

Sinusoidal sources "ave man& important applications. +or example, electrical po'er is distributed to residences and businesses b& sinusoidal currents and voltages. Sinusoidal signals are also used in radio communication. 6.1 Sinusoidal Wavefor s

+igure 6.1 illustrates t"e convention used to denote t'o time,dependent sources t"at is $C sources and AC source (Sinusoidal source*.

+igure 6.1 )ime,dependent signal sources A Sine Wave is !enera"ed "#rou!#$ - Ele%"ro a!ne"i% Indu%"ion. - (AC generators produce sinusoidal voltages t"roug" electromagnetic induction*. / magnetic field / conductor / relative motion bet'een t"e t'o. - Ele%"roni% Si!nal Genera"ors / +unction 0enerators. multi,'aveforms 6,1

#lectrical po'er used in industr& and "ouse"old applications is generated and delivered in t"e form of eit"er %123 or 6123 sinusoidal voltages and currents. A generali3ed sinusoidal 'aveform is defined as. &'"( ) A %os ' *" + , ( '"ere A 4 pea5 value or amplitude 6 4 radian fre7uenc& (radian8sec* , 4 p"ase s"ift (radian*

+igure 6.2 natural fre7uenc& f 4

1 (2ert3 / 23* 2ert3 4 c&cle8s T

'"ere ) 4 period (time for 1 c&cle* (s* 6 4 29f (rad8s*

S#if"ed -avefor s$

+igure 6.3

v'"( ) V. %os'* " + , (

: 4 p"ase angle in degrees :4(
t t * x 361o 4 29 rad T T

29 radian 4 3611

A s#if" "o "#e lef" is .osi"ive and a s#if" "o "#e ri!#" is ne!a"ive 'as -i"# an/ fun%"ion(. A sine 'ave is a cosine 'ave 'it" a ;11 or radian p"ase s"ift.
2

6,2

V. sin(6t* 4 V. cos(6t , Rela"ive s#if" 0e"-een -avefor s$

+igure 6. 6.1 AVERAGE 2 R3S Values

Avera!e 'or DC( value 4 mean voltage or current over a period of time.

1 T

x (t *dt

Average value 4 +igure 6.% #xample Compute t"e average value of t"e signal x(t* 4 11 cos 111t . (0)

R3S 'Roo" 3ean S4uare( value A useful measure of an AC 'aveform is t"e <=S value.

is t"e s7uare root of t"e average(mean* of t"e s7uare of t"e signal.

)"e <=S value of a sine 'ave is e7ual to t"e value of an e7uivalent $C circuit t"at 'ould produce t"e same "eating effect or po'er in a load as t"e given sine 'ave.

6,3

=ost meters read in <=S and t"e voltage accessed at electrical 'all soc5ets is measured in <=S. )"is value is not valid for an& ot"er t&pe of periodic 'aveform suc" as s7uare 'aves or triangular 'aves

+igure 6.6 #xample Compute t"e rms value of t"e sinusoidal current i(t* 4 > cos 6t.

'"ere I 4 pea5 value of i(t* So, t"e rms value of a sinusoidal signal is e7ual to 1.?1? times t"e pea5 value. E&a .le 1$ An AC 'all outlet "as @<=S 4 2 1@ and f 4 %1 23. #xpress t"e voltage as a time function and s5etc" t"e voltage 'aveform.

6,

6.5 Co .le& Nu 0er A complex number can be expressed in t'o forms. 1. Re%"an!ular for . j denotes the imaginary term. 2. 6olar for .

+igure 6.?

Conver"in! 0e"-een re%"an!ular for

and .olar for $

6,%

3a"#e a"i%al O.era"ions Usin! Co .le& Nu 0ers Note. Calculators are used for most numerical calculations. W"en s&mbolic calculations are used, t"e follo'ing items ma& be "elpful. 1. Addition8Subtraction / easiest in rectangular form 2. =ultiplication8$ivision / easiest in polar form Co .le& Nu 0er Addi"ion and Su0"ra%"ion Addition is most easil& performed in rectangular form A ) x + jy 7 ) z + jw A + 7 ) ' x + z ( + j ' y + w( Subtraction is most easil& performed in rectangular form A , 7 4 (x - z* A j(y - w*

Co .le& Nu 0er 3ul"i.li%a"ion and Division =ultiplication is most easil& performed in polar form A 4 AM : 7 4 BM B A 7 4 (AM BM* (: A B* $ivision is also most easil& performed in polar form A 8 7 ) 'AM 8 BM( ': 9 B( E&a .le 1. Convert to t"e ot"er form or simplif&. (a* (b* (c* (d* (e* (f* ,3 (g* ,3C ("* C6 (i* , j
1 j2

C3 C 3/C 11 31o
2+j 2j

(C* (5*

C2

6,6

6.:

6;ASORS

A p"asor is a complex number representing sinusoidal amplitude (@p* and p"ase (:*.

V 4 @p : (polar form* 4 @peC: 4 @pcos: A C@psin:. (<ectangular form*

+igure 6.D In determining the steady state sinusoidal response o linear !ir!uits" phasors V and I !an #e treated li$e !onstants % and I in &' !ir!uits. E&a .le 5 @(t* 4 Acos6t
% ( j* = Ae j 1 (+re7uenc& domain*

Acos6t 4 A 1 6#asors are used in #lectrical #ngineering to compare p"ase differences. - )"e a!ni"ude of t"e p"asor is t"e a .li"ude (pea5* - )"e an!le easure en" used is t"e .#ase an!le, : E&a .le : i(t* 4 3A cos (29ft A 31 o* 4 3A31o v(t* 4 @ cos (: , 61 o* 4 @,61 o

6,?

Cir%ui" Ele en"s in 6#asor Do ain I36EDANCE a( Indu%"or

<L

4 C6E. 4 6E ;1F

0( Ca.a%i"or

<C

4 18C6C 4 GC86C 4 (186C*

G;1F

'%( Resis"or

<R 4 < 1F =i!ure 6.> 6,D

6.?

S"ead/ s"a"e AC Series Cir%ui" Anal/sis

)"e standard circuit elements / resistors, capacitors and inductors are assigned a complex impedance H (in o"ms*. Current and voltage are t"en related b& a generali3ed version of I"mJs la'. @ 4 >H. )"e impedances are.

E&a .le ?

+ind @s .

( (.)*

)(.+o % )

+igure 6.11

6,;

E&a .le 6 Anal&3e t"e circuit in +igure 6.11 using p"asor anal&sis. Specificall&, a* +ind t"e total circuit impedance ( ( , j +.- ) b* +ind t"e total current, i(t* ( i(t) . +* !os()000t / +(*.0o ) mA) c* Kse current division to find i1(t* and i2 (t*. (2%.3 -+1-. )0mA" 11 -2.+10mA)

+igure 6.11 Solution <edra' t"e circuit in t"e fre7uenc& domain.

+igure 6.12

6,11

6.6

AC Cir%ui" 6o-er A0sor."ion

Ins"an"aneous and Avera!e 6o-er W"en linear electric circuits are excited b& a sinusoidal source, all voltages and currents in t"e circuits are also sinusoidal of t"e same fre7uenc& as t"e source. v(t* 4 @cos(6t* i(t* 4 >cos(6t,:* '"ere : 4 difference in p"ase bet'een voltage and current )"erefore, >nstantaneous po'er p(t* 4 v(t*. i(t* 4 @>cos(6t*cos(6t,:* Wit" t"e aid of trigonometric identities, >nstantaneous po'er p(t* 4 component
%I %I cos + cos(2t * 2 2

2ence, t"e instantaneous po'er dissipated b& an AC element is e7ual to t"e sum of an average
%I %I cos and a sinusoidal component cos( 2t * , oscillating at a fre7uenc& 2 2

double t"at of t"e original source fre7uenc&. >nstantaneous po'er, p(t* is not t&picall& useful. Average po'er, ! is more commonl& used. ! 4 !A@0 4 !$C 4 Average or real po'er (in 'atts, W*. +or periodic signals ('it" a period of )*. !4
1 T p (t *dt 1 T 1 T %I 1 cos(* dt A 4 1 T 2 T %I cos 2

%I cos(2t *dt 2

!A@0 4

(1*

v(t* 4 @cos(6t* 4 @ 11 i(t* 4 >cos(6t,:*4 > o

3 = %1 1 % = 1 = 3 1 1 I I

>4 3

or @ 4

I 3

(2*
1%2

1 Substituting (2* into (1* gives 4a5g = 2 3 cos or 4a5g = I 2 3 cos 2 AC po'er normall& uses rms values of t"e AC voltages and currents. )"e follo'ing expression 'ill be used.

6,11

%rms =

% 2

and

I rms =

I 2

)"erefore, 4a5g = Notation used.

1 2 2 3 cos I 3 cos 4 I rms 2

or

4a5g =%rms I rms cos

%rms =%

and

I rms = I

E&a .le @ Compute t"e average and instantaneous po'er dissipated b& t"e <E load. >t is assumed t"at rms values are used in t"e calculation.

<E Eoad +igure 6.13 v(t* 4 1 .1 sin(3??t* 4 1 .1 cos(3??t,

1.6 H 4 A C(3??*(Dm* 4 A C3 4 %

*4 L

1 .1 4 11 @ 2 2 2

11 % 2 = 2 2.21% A I = = 3 %1.6

Average !o'er 4

% I cos

4 (11*(2*cos(1.6

* 4 16 W

>nstantaneous !o'er, p(t* 4 v(t*.i(t* 4 M1 .1 sin(3??t*NM2 2 cos(3??t / 2.21%*N 4 1sin(3??t*cos(3??t / 2.21%* W

6,12

6OWER =ACTOR )"e average po'er dissipated b& an AC load is dependent on t"e cosine of t"e angle of t"e impedance H. >n AC po'er computation, cos : is referred to as t"e po'er factor (pf*. +or pure inductance E, cos : 4 cos ;11 4 1. +or pure capacitance C, cos : 4 cos (,;11* 4 1. +or pure resistance <, cos : 4 cos 11 4 1. !o'er factor range. 1 O pf O 1

Apparent po'er 4 @rms >rms (@A* <eal po'er 4 !avg 4 @rms >rms cos : (W* >f : O 1, p.f. is leading (> leads @ Capacitive load* >f : P 1, p.f. is lagging (> lags @ >nductive load* E&a .le A $etermine t"e average po'er and po'er factor for eac" case belo'. ((- 6" 0 6" 0 6" +* 6" +* 6)

+igure 6.1

6,13

CO36LEB 6OWER >f 5(t* 4 @m cos(6t* 1 (p"asor using t"e pea5 value of 5(t** )"en, % =%m % = % 1 (p"asor using t"e rms value of 5(t** rms and rms )"e use of p"asors 'it" rms values is ver& convenient for po'er calculations.Q +igure 6.1%
%
rms

=%rms 1

% 1 %rms % rms = rms = 3 3 3 t"erefore, I rms = I rms I rms =

complex po'er conCugate.

7 = % rms .I rms R

volt,amperes (@A*

Rdenotes t"e complex

7 =%rms I rms +

+igure 6.16
7 = 4 + j8

'"ere ! 4 @rms>rmscos(:* ('att*, 4 !avg 'real .o-er( S 4 @rms>rmssin(:* (@A<* 4 'Rea%"ive .o-er(@A< 4 @olt,Amp <eactive
7

4 A..aren" .o-er (@A*

@A 4 @olt,Amp

RNote. A positive value of S means reactive po'er is inductive '"ile a negative value of S means reactive po'er is capacitive 6o-er fa%"or 4 cos(:* 4 7
4

6,1

E&a .le > Calculate t"e real and reactive po'er for t"e load HE in +igure 6.1? b& using t"e definition for complex po'er.

0iven v(t* 4 111 cos(6t A 1.262*@ and i(t* 4 2 cos(6t , 1.262* A. +igure 6.1? Solu"ion Ksing rms values.
% = 111 1.262% 2 2 I = 1.262 A 2
7 =% I
R

Ksing definition for complex po'er.

4 (

111 2 1.262*( 1.262* 2 2

4 111 1.%2 @A 4 D6.6 A C%1 @A

7 = 4 + j8 ,

! 4 D6.6 W (real po'er* S 4 %1 @A< (reactive po'er* / >N$KC)>@# EIA$ Ano"#er e"#od$ <eal po'er,

! 4 @rms>rms cos : 4 (
111 2 *( * cos(1.262 + 1.262* 4 D6.6 W 2 2

<eactive po'er,

S 4 @rms>rms sin : 4(
111 2 *( * sin(1.262 + 1.262* 4 %1 @A< 2 2

6,1%

CO36LEB 6OWER AND 6OWER TRIANGLE E&a .le 1C +ind t"e reactive and real po'er of t"e load.

+igure 6.1D HE 4 3 A C; / C% 43AC 4 % 1.;2?3 L Eoad current, I 9 = Complex po'er,

%7 611 = = 12 1.;2?3 A 39 %1.;2?3
7 =% I
R

4 (61 1*(12 1.;2?3* 4 ?21 1.;2?3 4 32 A C%?6 @A

7 = 4 + j8 ,

! 4 32 W (real po'er* S 4 %?6 @A (reactive po'er* C"ec5ing.

8' = I 9 89 = I 9
2

.: '

4 (12*2(,%* 4 ,?21 @A< 4 (12*2(;* 4 12;6 @A<

.: 9

S 4 SC A SE 4 ,?21 A 12;6 4 %?6 @A< 6OWER TRIANGLE

+igure 6.1;

>mportant facts related to complex po'er

6,16

+igure 6.21

Power Factor Correction

!o'er companies c"arge t"eir customers based on t"e real po'er (!* used. >f t"e customer "as a significant amount of reactive po'er (or a lo' po'er factor* t"is "as no effect on !, but results in "ig"er current levels. !o'er companies TencourageU t"eir large customers to TcorrectU t"eir po'er factor. >f t"eir po'er factor drops too lo', t"e po'er compan& ma& c"arge "ig"er rates. Earge companies often "ave lagging po'er factors due to large amounts of mac"iner& (inductive loads* and t"e& can correct t"eir po'er factor b& adding in large parallel capacitors. )"is generates negative reactive po'er '"ic" cancels t"e positive reactive po'er due to t"e inductive loads resulting in a po'er factor '"ic" is near or close to unit&. )"e corrected po'er factor results in lo'er current levels and t"us lo'er line losses (>2 <* as t"e po'er compan& delivers t"e po'er to t"e customer.

6,1?

E&a .le 11 6o-er =a%"or Corre%"ion Calculate t"e complex po'er for t"e circuit in +igure 6.21 and correct t"e p.f. to unit& b& connecting a parallel reactance to t"e load. Calculate t"e value of t"e capacitor.

+igure 6.21 Eoad HE 4 %1 ACD6.? 4 111 1.1 ? L Eoad >E 4

%9 11? 1 = = 1.1?1.1 ? A 39 111 1.1 ?
R

Complex !o'er,

S 4 %9 I 9 4 (11? 1* (1.1? 1.1 ?* 4 13? 1.1 ? 4 6D. A C11D.% @A t"erefore ! 4 6D. Watt S 4 11D.% @A< 6o-er Trian!le.

+igure 6.22 )o eliminate t"e reactive po'er due to inductance, an e7ual and opposite reactive po'er component is needed. ,SE 4 ,11D.% @A< t"erefore a capacitor to give SC 4 ,11D.% @A< is needed. : SC 4 I
2 9 '

:' =

8' I9
2

11D.% = 11% (1.1?* 2

:' =

'

4 11% 6,1D

C4

1 1 = = 23.1; : ' (3??*(11%*

Co .u"e "#e %orre%"ion.

a!ni"ude of "#e %urren" dra-n 0/ "#e sour%e af"er "#e .o-er fa%"or

+igure 6.23 Ne' H) 4 (%1 A CD6.?*88(,C11%* 4 211 ,1.13D L

IT = 11? 1 11? 1 = = 1.%D 1.13D A 3T 2111.13D

NI)#. Current dra'n b& source before p.f. correction 4 1.1? A Current dra'n b& source after p.f. correction 4 1.%D A

6,1;

TUTORIAL 1. A circuit consists of a resistance of 21 L in series 'it" an inductance of ;%.6 m2 and a capacitor of 31D V+. it is connected to a %111,@, 2% 23 suppl&. Calculate t"e current in t"e circuit and t"e po'er factor. ((1.) A" 0.0< lead) 2. a circuit ta5es a current of 3 A at a po'er factor of 1.6 lagging '"en connected to a 11%,@, %1 23 suppl&. Anot"er circuit ta5es a current of % A at a po'er factor of 1.?1? leading '"en connected to t"e same suppl& if t"e t'o circuits are connected in series across a 231,@, %1 23 suppl&, calculate. (a* t"e current (b* t"e po'er consumed (c* t"e po'er factor. (-.- A" ++22 6" 0.0)0 lag) 3. >n a series <C circuit 'it" a voltage source (@s*, t"e voltage across t"e resistor is 1% @ and t"e voltage across t"e capacitor is 11 @. )"e current 'as measured to be % A. )"e fre7uenc& of t"e source 'as 11,111 rad8s. +ind t"e values of <, C and @s. () =" -0 >;" +2 -)).<0) . A series circuit consists of a c"o5e coil "aving a resistance of 11 L and a capacitor. W"en connected to a 2 1,@, %1 23 suppl&, t"e current 'as 6 A lagging t"e applied voltage. Calculate t"e inductance of t"e coil and t"e capacitance of t"e capacitor. (12 m2, 1 V+* %. )"e current in a series <EC circuit lags t"e applied voltage b& 31o. t"e voltage across t"e inductance is t'ice t"at of t"e voltage across t"e capacitance. )"e applied source voltage is 21 @ and t"e value of t"e resistance is 1?.3 L. +ind. (a* t"e current (b* t"e values of E and C assuming t"at 6 4 1111 rad8s. (+ 00 A" (0 m?" +00 >;) 6. +ind t"e load impedance H of t"e circuit and compute average po'er dissipated b& t"e load. (1.2 -)).-0" (+0).1 6)

+igure 6.2 6,21

?. +ind t"e real and reactive po'er for t"e load using t"e definition for complex po'er. 0iven. % s = 1111 , <s 4 2 L, <E 4 % L, C 4 2111 V+ and f 4 61 23. (+.+0( 6" -)+* %A@(!apa!iti5e load)) D. $etermine t"e p.f. of t"e load for eac" of t"e follo'ing t'o cases. (a* v(t* 4 % 1 cos(6t A 1% o* i(t* 4 % cos(6t A ?o* ((<0 -)( o = leading) o (b* v(t* 4 1%% cos(6t / 1% * i(t* 4 % cos(6t , 1%o* (-<.- < o = lagging) ;. +ind t"e complex po'er of t"e load in eac" of t"e follo'ing situations. (a* ! 4 1111 W, p.f. 4 1.?1? leading. (+1+1 -1- o %A) (b* S 4 %11 @A<, p.f.41.D lagging (2)).) )*.0 o %A) (c* S 4 D11 @A, ! 4 ?11 W (inductive load* (200 (0 o %A) (d* S 4 211 @A, S 4 161 @A< (capacitive load* ((00 --).+ o %A) 11. +ind t"e po'er factor and t"e real po'er dissipated b& a load '"ose impedances is H 4 21mA C31 L if t"e applied voltage is v(t* 4 1 .1 2 cos(1111t* @. Ibtain t"e complex po'er and all t"e po'er parameters relating to t"e load. (0.--1< lagging" +.-)2 6) 11. A 61 23, 1121 @ source delivers 1 5W of po'er to a load. )"e current flo'ing in t"e load is 1% A. find t"e po'er factor of t"e load and t"e impedance of t"is inductive load. (0.---* lagging" 2 -*.(- o =" @ . 1.11 = " 9 . +<.*1 m? ) 12. +ind t"e re7uired parallel capacitor connected capacitor needed to improve t"e p.f. of a 111 5@A, 1.6 p.f. lagging motor to unit&. )"e suppl& is a 11 5@, %11 23 source. (0.(- >;) 13. A capacitor is used to correct t"e po'er factor of t"e load in +igure 6.2%. $etermine t"e reactive po'er '"en t"e capacitor is not in t"e circuit and compute t"e re7uired value for perfect po'er factor correction. (<- $%A@" ++<0 >;)

+igure 6.2%

6,21