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DISCOVERY
Carl Vogt, German scientist was the first to describe its principle in 1842. Later,Kerr,Wylie,currie
suggested the term apoptosis and they were the first to use this term.
DEFINITION
Apoptosis is programmed cell death. Derived from Greek ‘’falling off’’. It’s completely normal
physiological, energy dependent orderly process required for the maintenance of normal haemostasis.
Apoptosis takes place during fetal development (finger and toe dev), removal of endometrium
(menstrual cycle), formation of synapses in brain (loss of surplus cells).Bcl-2,Bax ,paf-1,Caspases
HISTORY
STEPS
1. Shrink.
2. Develop bubble-like blebs on their surface.
3. Chromatin (DNA + protein) begins to degrade.
4. Mitochondria break up releasing cytochrome c
5. Cells break into small membrane wrapped fragment
6. The phospholipid, phosphatidylserine is exposed on surface
7. Cell fragments are removed by phagocytosis.
MECHANISMS OF APOPTOSIS
4 Pathways
This pathway is typically engaged in the immune system and is the method used to delete activated
T-cells at the end of an immune response. This is mainly perforin/granzyme mediated
The best characterized death receptors comprise CD95 (APO-1/Fas), TNF receptor 1 (TNFRI),
TRAIL-R1 and TRAIL-R2, while the role of DR (TRAMP/Apo-3/WSL-1/LARD) orDR6 has not
exactly been defined.
Extrinsic pathway involve signals such as the binding of death inducing ligands to cell surface
receptors called death receptors. These ligands can either be soluble factors or can be expressed on the
surface of cells.
This pathway is triggered by the death factors e.g. TNF, Fas (CD95) binding with the death-receptor
superfamily e.g. Fas and TNFR-1.
FADD (Fas associated death domain protein) is recruited via its death domains
The DED (death effector domain) of FADD recruits pro-caspase 8 via its DED The complex brings
multiple pro-caspase 8 molecules in close proximity, leading to their activation through ‘induced
proximity’ (the aggregation of pro-caspase 8 molecules results in their cross-activation). This is the
DISC.
Causes of Apoptosis
MISREGULATION OF APOPTOSIS
EXPERIMENTAL ASSAY
DECTION OF APOPTOSIS
INVITRO
Binding of the death inducing ligand (Fas ligand, TNF α and TRAIL), to its receptor can lead
to the generation of ceramide. Ceramide release promotes lipid raft fusion resulting in
clustering of the death receptors which is required to amplify signalling.
TNF can induce apoptosis, although receptor ligation is not enough on its own to initiate
apoptosis as is the case with Fas ligand binding.
TRADD has the ability to recruit a number of different proteins to the activated receptor.
Recruitment of TRAF2 (TNF-associated factor-2), can lead to activation of NF-kB and the
JNK pathway.
TRADD can also associate with FADD, which leads to the induction of apoptosis via the
recruitment and cleavage of pro-caspase 8.
The ligand for Fas, FasL or CD95, activates apoptosis in a similar way to the TNF receptor.
Binding of the ligand promotes receptor clustering, DISC formation and the activation of the
caspase cascade.
The adaptor protein FADD can be recruited directly to the death domain on the fas receptor,
without requiring the prior recruitment of TRADD.
The Fas receptor is thought to only activate apoptosis and does not play an important role in
other aspects of cell signalling like the TNF receptor
Binding of TRAIL to its receptors DR4 and DR5 triggers rapid apoptosis in many cells.
There are also decoy receptors that compete for binding of TRAIL with DR4 and DR5
receptors. The decoy receptors are called DcR1 and DcR2.
Both of these receptors are capable of competing with DR4 and DR5 receptors for ligation,
however, binding does not initiate apoptosis since DcR 1 does not posses a cytoplasmic
domain, while DcR2 has a truncated death domain lacking 4 out of the 6 amino acids essential
for recruiting adaptor proteins.
ratios of the various bcl-2 proteins can often determine how much cellular stress is necessary
to induce apoptosis.
Comprised of pro apoptotic molecules: Bax, Bek, Bad ......and anti-apoptotic molecules: BCl-
2, Bcl-X and Mcl-1.
Upon apoptosis induction – pro-apoptotic BCl-2 proteins with multidomains i.e Bax,
translocate into the mitochondria and form a pore like structure by oligomerization. They
promote cytochrome C release.
The release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria is a particularly important event in the
induction of apoptosis. Once cytochrome C has been released into the cytosol it is able to
interact with a protein called Apaf-1.
This leads to the recruitment of pro-caspase 9 into a multi-protein complex with cytochrome
C and Apaf-1 called the apoptosome. Formation of the apoptosome leads to activation of
caspase 9 and the induction of apoptosis.
Translocation into the mitochondria is dependent on proteins which contain a BH3 domain.
Anti-apoptotic molecules exert their effect by sequestering BH3 domain only proteins in
mitochondrial complexes, preventing their activation or translocation.
Caspases are a family of proteins that are one of the main executors of the apoptotic process.
They belong to a group of enzymes known as cysteine proteases and exist within the cell as
inactive pro-forms or zymogens. These zymogens can be cleaved to form active enzymes
following the induction of apoptosis.
Induction of apoptosis via death receptors typically results in the activation of an initiator
caspase such as caspase 8 or caspase 10. These caspases can then activate other caspases in a
cascade.
This cascade eventually leads to the activation of the effector caspases, such as caspase 3 and
caspase 6. These caspases are responsible for the cleavage of the key cellular proteins, such as
cytoskeletal proteins, that leads to the typical morphological changes observed in cells
undergoing apoptosis.
These mutations target the death domain resulting in malfunction of apoptotic signal
transduction.
Caspases
Mutations have been found in some tumours including colorectal cancer as well as head and
neck carcinomas.
It is believed that these caner cells have impaired caspase expression and function caused by
epigenetic mechanisms such as gene silencing.
Mutations of Caspase-10 and Fas have lead to the inactivation of death effector domain which
is necessary for the caspase-10/FADD interaction in the DISC. This has been indentified in
15% of BNHL patients.
Translocations involving the BCL-2 gene are the hallmark of follicular lymphoma.
The translocations causes BCL-2 deregulated expression by placing BCL-2 under the control
of IgHµ enhancer, resulting in high levels of Bcl-2 protein.
The translocated BCL-2 can accumulate somatic point mutations. These mutations may
contribute to deregulation of BCL-2 gene expressions or alter the function of the protein.
The translocation t(1;14)(p22; q32) is associated with MALT- lymphoma affecting the BCL-
10 gene. This results in deregulation expression of the gene.
Activation of apoptotic pathways is a key mechanism by which cytotoxic drugs kill tumour
cells.
Cytotoxic drugs activate the mitochondrial, intrinsic, pathway of apoptosis. Death receptor
extrinsic pathways contributes to sensitivity of tumour cells towards cytotoxic treatment.
Mutations or altered expression of pro/anti apoptotic molecules can drastically alter drug
response in experimental systems.
Clinical correlative studies have shown that high level expression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2
confers a clinically important chemoresistant phenotype on cancer cells.
Likewise, reduced BAX levels are associated with poor responses to chemotherapy and
shorter overall survival in breast/colon carcinoma.
In addition to regulation of apoptosis, IAP members such as survivin, are involved in the
regulation of mitosis.
IAP activity is stimulated in part by transcription factor NFкB and negatively regulated by
caspase mediated cleavage.
In addition, Smac/Diablo and Omi, two proteins released from the mitochondria upon
apoptosis induction , neutralize IAPS through binding to them and displacing them.
IAPS cause inhibition of drug induced apoptosis and high IAP expression correlates with poor
treatment response and adverse prognosis.
The IAP inhibitor Smac/Diablo has prompted interest: expressing Smac/Diablo in the
erythroplasma of tumor cells may overcome IAP mediated inhibition of apoptosis induction
in tumours.