An Introduction to Rigid Pavement Design

1. INTRODUCTION
This is an introduction to rigid pavement design for engineers. It is not intended as definitive treatise, and it does not encompass the design of flexible pavements.Engineers are cautioned that much of pavement design is governed by codes, specifications and practices of public agencies. Engineers must always determine the requirements of the regulatory authority within whose jurisdiction specific projects fall.

2. RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN 2.1 Soil Classification and Tests

All soils should be classified according to the Unified Soil Classification System (USGS) as given in ASTM D 2487. There have been instances in construction specifications where the use of such terms as "loam," gumbo, "mud," and "muck" have resulted in misunderstandings. These terms are not specific and are subject to different interpretations throughout the United States. Such terms should not be used. Sufficient investigations should be performed at the proposed site to facilitate the description of all soils that will be used or removed during construction in accordance with ASTM D 2487; any additional descriptive information considered pertinent should also be included. If Atterberg limits are a required part of the description, as indicated by the classification tests, the test procedures and limits should be referenced in the construction specifications.

2.2 Compaction 2.2.1General

Table 2-1 Modulus of Soil Reaction

Figure 2-1 Effect of Base-Course Thickness on Modulus of Soil Reaction

Compaction improves the stability of the subgrade soils and provides a more uniform foundation for the pavement. ASTM D 1557 soil compaction test conducted at several moisture contents is used to determine the compaction characteristics of the subgrade soils. This test method should not be used if the soil contains particles that are easily broken under the blow of the tamper unless the field method of compaction will produce a similar degradation. Certain types of soil may require the use of a laboratory compaction control test other than the above-mentioned compaction test. The unit weight of some types of sands and gravels obtained using the compaction method above may be lower than the unit weight that can be obtained by field compaction; hence, the method may not be applicable. In those cases where a higher laboratory density is desired, compaction tests are usually made under some variation of the ASTM D 1557 method, such as vibration or tamping (alone or in combination) with a type hammer or compaction effort different from that used in the test.

2.2.2 Requirements
For all subgrade soil types, the subgrade under the pavement slab or base course must be compacted to a minimum depth of 6 inches. If the densities of the natural subgrade materials are equal to or greater than 90 percent of the maximum density from ASTM D 1557, no rolling is necessary other than that required to provide a smooth surface. Compaction requirements for cohesive soils (LL > 25; PI > 5) will be 90 percent of maximum density for the top 6 inches of cuts and the full depth of fills. Compaction requirements for cohesionless soils (LL < 25: PI <5) will be 95 percent for the top 6 inches of cuts and the full depth of fills. Compaction of the top 6 inches of cuts may require the subgrade to be scarified and dried or moistened as necessary and recompacted to the desired density.

2.2.3 Special Soils

Although compaction increases the stability and strength of most soils, some soil types show a marked decrease in stability when scarified, worked, and rolled. Also, expansive soils shrink excessively during dry periods and expand excessively when allowed to absorb moisture. When any of these types are encountered, special treatment will be required. For nominally expansive soils, water content, compaction effort, and overburden should be determined to control swell. For highly expansive soils, replacement to depth of moisture equilibrium, raising grade, lime stabilization, prewetting, or other acceptable means of controlling swell should be considered.

2.3 Treatment of Unsuitable Soils

Soils not suitable for subgrade use should be removed and replaced or covered with soils which are suitable. The depth to which such adverse soils should be removed or covered depends on the soil type, drainage conditions, and depth of freezing temperature penetration and should be determined by the engineer on the basis of judgment and previous experience, with due consideration of the traffic to be served and the costs involved. Where freezing temperatures penetrate a frost-susceptible subgrade, special design procedures should be followed. In some instances, unsuitable or adverse soils may be improved economically by stabilization with such materials as cement, flyash, lime, or certain chemical additives, whereby the characteristics of the composite material become suitable for subgrade purposes. However, subgrade stabilization should not be attempted unless the costs reflect corresponding savings in base-course, pavement, or drainage facilities construction.

2.4 Determination of Modulus of Subgrade Reaction

For the design of rigid pavements in those areas where no previous experience regarding pavement performance is available, the modulus of subgrade reaction k to be used for design purposes is determined by the field plate-bearing test. This test procedure and the method for evaluating its results are not part of this discussion. Where performance data from existing rigid pavements are available, adequate values for k can usually be determined on the basis of consideration of soil type, drainage conditions, and frost conditions that prevail at the proposed site. Table 2-1 presents typical values of k for various soil types and moisture conditions. These values should be considered as a guide only, and their use in lieu of the field plate-bearing test, although not recommended, is left to the discretion of the engineer. Where a base course is used under the pavement, the k value on top of the base is used to determine the modulus of soil reaction on top of the base. The plate-bearing test may be run on top of the base, or figure 2-1 may be used to determine the modulus of soil reaction on top of the base. It is good practice to confirm adequacy of the k on top of the base from figure 2-1 by running a field plate-load test.

3. RIGID COURSES

PAVEMENT

BASE

3.1 General Requirements

Base courses may be required under rigid pavements for replacing soft, highly compressible or expansive soils and for providing the following: Suitable surface for the operation of construction equipment, especially slipform pavers. More Protection for Additional uniform the bearing subgrade structural surface against for detrimental the frost strength. pavement. action. Drainage.

Figure 3-1 Design Curves for Plain Concrete Streets and Roads, and RCC

Figure 3-2 Design Curves for Plain Concrete Parking and Storage Areas
Use of base courses under a rigid pavement to provide structural benefit should be based on economy of construction. The first cost is usually less for an increase in thickness than for providing a thick base course. However, thick base courses have often resulted in lower maintenance costs since the thick base course provides stronger foundation and therefore less slab movement. A minimum basecourse thickness of 4 inches is required over subgrades that are classified as OH, CH, CL, MH, ML, and OL to provide protection against pumping. In certain cases of adverse moisture conditions (high water table or poor drainage), SM and SC soils also may require base courses to prevent pumping. The designer is cautioned against the use of fine-grained material for leveling courses or choking open-graded base courses since this may create a pumping condition. Positive drainage should be provided for all base

courses to ensure water is not trapped directly beneath the pavement since saturation of these layers will cause the pumping condition that the base course is intended to prevent.

3.2 Materials
If conditions indicate that a base course is desirable under a rigid pavement, a thorough investigation should be made to determine the source, quantity, and characteristics of the available materials. A study should also be made to determine the most economical thickness of material for a base course that will meet the requirements. The base course may consist of natural, processed, or stabilized materials. The material selected should be the one that best accomplishes the intended purpose of the base course. In general, the base- course material should be a well graded, high-stability material. In this connection all base courses to be placed beneath concrete pavements for military roads and streets requirements: Percent Percent passing passing No.10 No.200 sieve; sieve: Not Not more more than than 85. 15. should conform to the following

Plasticity index: Not higher than 6. Where local experience indicates their desirability, other control limitations such as limited abrasion loss may be imposed to ensure a uniform high quality base course.

3.3 Compaction
Where base courses are used under rigid pavements, the basecourse material should be compacted to a minimum of 95 percent of the maximum density. The engineer is cautioned that it is difficult to compact thin base courses to high densities when they are placed on yielding subgrades.

3.4 Frost Requirements

In areas where subgrade soils are subjected to seasonal frost action detrimental to the performance of pavements, the requirements for basecourse thickness and gradation will follow the criteria in this discussion.

4. CONCRETE PAVEMENT
4.1 Mix Proportioning and Control
Normally, a design flexural strength at 28-day age will be used for the pavement thickness determination. Should it be necessary to use the pavements at an earlier age, consideration should be given to the use of a design flexural strength at the earlier age or to the use of high early strength cement, whichever is more Mix proportion or pavement thickness may have to economical. Flyash gains strength more slowly than cement, so that if used it may be desirable to select a strength value at a period other than 28 days if time permits.

4.2 Testing
The flexural strength of the concrete and lean concrete base will be determined in accordance with ASTM C 78. The standard test specimen will be a 6- by 6-inch section long enough to permit testing over a span of 18 inches. The standard beam will be used for concrete with the maximum size aggregate up to 2 inches. When aggregate larger than the 2-inch nominal size is used in the concrete, the cross sectional dimensions of the beam will be at least three times the nominal maximum size of the aggregate, and the length will be increased to at least 2 inches more than three times the depth.

4.3 Special Conditions

Mix proportion or pavement thickness may have to be adjusted due to results of concrete tests. If the tests show a strength gain less than predicted or retrogression in strength, then the pavement would have to be thicker. If the concrete strength was higher than predicted, then the thickness may be reduced. Rather than modifying the thickness required as a result of tests on the concrete, the mix proportioning could be changed to increase or decrease the concrete strength, thereby not changing the thickness.

5. PLAIN CONCRETE PAVEMENT DESIGN

5.1 Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements
Roller-compacted concrete pavements (RCCP) are plain concrete pavements constructed using a zeroslump portland cement concrete mixture that is placed with an AC paving machine and compacted with vibratory and rubber-tired rollers.

5.2 Design Procedure

For convenience in determining design requirements, the entire range of vehicle loadings and traffic intensities anticipated during the design life of pavements for the various classifications of roads and streets has been expressed as an equivalent number of repetitions of an 18,000- pound single-axle loading. To further simplify the design procedure, the range of equivalent repetitions of the basic loading thus determined has been designated by a numerical scale defined as the pavement design index. This index extends from 1 through 10 with an increase in numerical value indicative of an increase in pavement design requirements. Values for the design index are determined using standard procedures. Once the design index has been determined the required thickness of plain concrete pavement is then obtained from the design chart presented in figure 5-1 for roads and streets. Figure 5-2 is used to determine the thickness of parking and storage areas except that the thickness of rollercompacted concrete parking and storage areas will be designed using figure 5-1. These design charts are graphical representations of the interrelation of flexural strength, modulus of

subgrade reaction k, pavement thickness, and repetitions (design index) of the basic 18,000-pound single-axle loading. These design charts are based on the theoretical analyses supplemented by empirical modifications determined from accelerated traffic tests and observations of pavement behavior under actual service conditions. The design charts are entered using the 28-day flexural strength of the concrete.A horizontal projection is then made to the right to the design value for k. A vertical projection is then made to the appropriate design-index line. A second horizontal projection to the right is then made to intersect the scale of pavement thickness. The dashed line shown on curves is an example of the correct use of the curves. When the thickness from the design curve indicates a fractional value, it will be rounded up to the next -inch thickness. All plain concrete pavements will be uniform in cross-sectional thickness. Thickened edges are not normally required since the design is for free edge stresses. The minimum thickness of plain concrete for any military road, street, or open storage area will be 6 inches.

6. REINFORCED PAVEMENT DESIGN

6.1 Application

CONCRETE

Under certain conditions, concrete pavement slabs may be reinforced with welded wire fabric or formed bar mats arranged in a square or rectangular grid. The advantages of using steel reinforcement include a reduction in the required slab thickness, greater spacing between joints, and reduced differential settlement due to nonuniform support or frost heave.

6.1.1 Subgrade conditions

Reinforcement may reduce the damage resulting from cracked slabs. Cracking may occur in rigid pavements founded on subgrades where differential vertical movement is a definite potential. An example is a foundation with definite or borderline frost susceptibility that cannot feasibly be made to conform to conventional frost design requirements.

6.1.2 Economic considerations

In general, reinforced concrete pavements will not be economically competitive with plain concrete pavements of equal load-carrying capacity, even though a reduction in pavement thickness is possible. Alternate bids, however, should be invited if reasonable doubt exists on this point.

6.1.2.1 Plain concrete pavements

In otherwise plain concrete pavements, steel reinforcement should be used for the following conditions: Odd-shaped slabs. Odd-shaped slabs should be reinforced in two directions normal to each other using a minimum of 0.05 percent of steel in both directions. The entire area of the slab should be reinforced. An odd-shaped slab is considered to be one in which the longer dimension exceeds the

shorter dimension by more than 25 percent or a slab which essentially is neither square nor rectangular. Figure 6-1 includes examples of reinforcement required in oddshaped slabs.

Figure 6-1 Typical Layout of Joints at Intersection

Mismatched joints. A partial reinforcement or slab is required where the joint patterns of abutting pavements or adjacent paving lanes do Dot match, unless the pavements are positively separated by

an expansion joint or slip-type joint having less than -inch bond-breaking medium. The pavement slab directly opposite the mismatched joint should be reinforced with a minimum of 0.05 percent of steel in directions normal to each other for a distance of 3 feet back from the juncture and for the full width or length of the slab in 8 direction normal to the mismatched joint. Mismatched joints normally will occur at intersections of pavements or between pavement and fillet areas as shown in figure 6-1.

6.2 Design Procedure 6.2.1 Thickness design on unbound base or subbase

Figure 6-2 Reinforced Rigid Pavement Design

The design procedure for reinforced concrete pavements uses the principle of allowing a reduction in the required thickness of plain concrete pavement due to the presence of the steel reinforcing. The design procedure has been developed empirically from a limited Dumber of prototype test pavements subjected to accelerated traffic testing. Although some cracking will occur in the pavement under the design traffic loadings, the steel reinforcing will hold the cracks tightly closed. The reinforcing will prevent spalling or faulting at the cracks and provide a serviceable pavement during the anticipated design life. Essentially, the design method consists of determining the percentage of steel required, the thickness of reinforced concrete pavement, and the minimum allowable length of the slabs. Figure 6-2 presents a graphic solution for the design of reinforced concrete pavements. Since the thickness of a reinforced concrete pavement is a function of the percentage of steel reinforcing, the designer may determine either the required percentage of steel for a predetermined thickness of pavement or the required thickness of pavement for a predetermined percentage of steel. In either case, it is necessary to determine the required thickness of plain concrete pavement by the method outlined. The plain concrete thickness h (to the nearest 0.1 inch) is used to enter the nomograph in Figure 6-2. A straight line is then drawn from the value of hd to the value selected for either the reinforced concrete thickness hr or the percentage of reinforcing steel S. It should be noted that the S value indicated by figure 6-2 is the percentage to be used in the longitudinal direction only. For normal designs, the percentage of steel used in the transverse direction will be one- half of that to be used in the longitudinal direction. In fillets, the percent steel will be the same in both directions. Once the h and S values have been determined, the maximum allowable slab length L is obtained from the intersection of the straight line and the scale for L. Difficulties may be encountered in sealing joints between very long slabs because of volumetric changes caused by temperature changes.

6.2.2 Thickness design on stabilized base or subgrade

To determine the thickness requirements for reinforced concrete pavement on a stabilized foundation, it is first necessary to determine the thickness of plain concrete pavement required over the stabilized layer using procedures set forth above. This thickness of plain concrete is then used with figure 6-2 to design the reinforced in the same manner discussed above for nonstabilized foundations.

6.3 Limitations
The design criteria for reinforced concrete pavement for roads and streets may be subject to the following limitations. No reduction in the required thickness of plain concrete pavement should be allowed for percentages of longitudinal steel less than 0.05 percent. No further reduction in the required thickness of plain concrete pa vement should be allowed over that indicated in figure 6-2 for 0.5 percent longitudinal steel, regardless of the percentage of steel used.

 The maximum length L of reinforced concrete pavement slabs should not exceed 75 feet regardless of the percentage of longitudinal steel, yield strength of the steel, or thickness of the pavement. When long slabs are used, special consideration must be given to joint design and sealant requirements.

Figure 6-3 (Part 1) Design Details of Reinforced Rigid Pavement with Two Traffic Lanes

Figure 6-3 (Part 2) Design Details of Reinforced Rigid Pavement with Two Traffic Lanes
The minimum thickness of reinforced concrete pavements should be 6 inches, except that the minimum thickness for driveways will be 5 inches and the minimum thickness for reinforced overlays over rigid pavements will be 4 inches.

6.4 Reinforcing Steel 6.4.1 Type of reinforcing steel

The reinforcing steel may be either deformed bars or welded wire fabric. Deformed bars should conform to the requirements of ASTM A 615, A 616, or A 617. In general, grade 60 deformed bars should be specified, but other grades may be used if warranted. Fabricated steel bar mats should conform to ASTM A 184. Cold drawn wire for fabric reinforcement should conform to the requirements of requirements of ASTM A 82, and welded steel wire fabric to ASTM A 185. The use of epoxy coated steel may be considered in areas where corrosion of the steel may be a problem.

6.4.2 Placement of reinforcing steel

The reinforcing steel will be placed at a depth of hd + 1 inch from the surface of the reinforced slab. This will place the steel above the neutral axis of the slab and will allow clearance for dowel bars. The wire or bar sizes and spacing should be selected to give, as nearly as possible, the required percentage of steel per foot of pavement width or length. In no case should the percent steel used be less than that required by figure 6-2. Two layers of wire fabric or bar mat, one placed directly on top of the other, may be used to obtain the required percent of steel; however, this should only be done when it is impracticable to provide the required steel in one layer. If two layers of steel are used, the layers must be fastened together (either wired or clipped) to prevent excessive separation during concrete placement. When the reinforcement is installed and concrete is to be placed through the mat or fabric, the minimum clear spacing between bars or wires will be 1 times the maximum size of aggregate. If the strike-off method is used to place the reinforcement (layer of concrete placed and struck off at the desired depth, the reinforcement placed on the plastic concrete, and the remaining concrete placed on top of the reinforcement), the minimum spacing of wires or bars will not be less than the maximum size of aggregate. Maximum bar or wire spacing or slab thickness shall not exceed 12 inches. The bar mat or wire fabric will be securely anchored to prevent forward creep of the steel mats during concrete placement and finishing operations. The reinforcement shall be fabricated and placed in such a manner that the spacing between the longitudinal wire or bar and the longitudinal joint, or between the transverse wire or bar and the transverse joint, will not exceed 3 inches or onehalf of the wire or bar spacing in the fabric or mat. The wires or bars will be lapped as follows: Deformed steel bars will be overlapped for a distance of at least 24 bar diameters measured from the tip of one bar to the tip of the other bar. The lapped bars will be wired or otherwise securely fastened to prevent separation during concrete placement. Wire fabric will be overlapped for a distance equal to at least one spacing of the wire in the fabric or 32 wire diameters, whichever is greater. The length of lap is measured from the tip of one wire to the tip of the other wire normal to the lap. The wires in the lap will be wired or otherwise securely fastened to prevent separation during concrete placement.

Figure 6-4 Design Details of Reinforced Rigid Pavement with Traffic and Parking Lanes

CIVIL ENGINEERING BASIC QUESTIONS What are the steps involved in the concreting process, explain? The major steps involved in the process of concreting are as follows: 1. Batching 2. Mixing 3. Transporting and placing of concrete 4. Compacting. > Batching: The process of measurement of the different materials for the making of concrete is known as batching. batching is usually done in two ways: volume batching and weight batching. In case of volume batching the measurement is done in the form of volume whereas in the case of weight batching it is done by the weight. > Mixing: In order to create good concrete the mixing of the materials should be first done in dry condition and after it wet condition. The two general methods of mixing are: hand mixing and machine mixing. > Transportation and placing of concrete: Once the concrete mixture is created it must be transported to its final location. The concrete is placed on form works and should always be dropped on its final location as closely as possible. > Compaction of concrete: When concrete is placed it can have air bubbles entrapped in it which can lead to the reduction of the strength by 30%. In order to reduce the air bubbles the process of compaction is performed. Compaction is generally performed in two ways: by hand or by the use of vibrators. Describe briefly the various methods of concrete curing. Curing is the process of maintaining the moisture and temperature conditions for freshly deployed concrete. This is done for small duration of time to allow the hardening of concrete. The methods that are involved in saving the shrinkage of the concrete includes: (a) Spraying of water: on walls, and columns can be cured by sprinkling water. (b) Wet covering of surface: can be cured by using the surface with wet gunny bags or straw (c) Ponding: the horizontal surfaces including the slab and floors can be cured by stagnating the water. (d) Steam curing: of pre-fabricated concrete units steam can be cured by passing it over the units that are under closed chambers. It allows faster curing process and results in faster recovery. (e) Application of curing compounds: compounds having calcium chloride can be applied on curing surface. This keeps the surface wet for a very long time.

What do you understand by preset during the installation process of bridge bearings? During the installation of bridge bearings the size of the upper plates is reduced to save the material costs. This process is known as preset. Generally the upper bearing plate comprises of the following components: > Length of bearing > 2 x irreversible movement. > 2 x reversible movement. The bearing initially is placed right in the middle point of the upper bearing plate. No directional effects of irreversible movement is considered. But since the irreversible movement usually takes place in one direction only the displaced direction is placed away from the midpoint. In such cases the length of the upper plate is equal to the length of the length of the bearing + irreversible movement + 2 x reversible movement. Why are steel plates inserted inside bearings in elastomeric bearings? In order to make a elastomeric bearing act/ function as a soft spring it should be made to allow it to bulge laterally and also the stiffness compression can be increased by simply increasing the limiting amount of the lateral bulging. In many cases in order to increase the compression stiffness of the bearing the usage of metal plates is made. Once steel plates are included in the bearings the freedom of the bulge is restricted dramatically, also the deflection of the bearing is reduced as compared to a bearing without the presence of steel plates. The tensile stresses of the bearings are induced into the steel plates. But the presence of the metal plates does not affect the shear stiffness of the bearings. What reinforcements are used in the process of prestressing? The major types of reinforcements used in prestressing are: > Spalling Reinforcement: The spalling stresses leads to stress behind the loaded area of the anchor blocks. This results in the breaking off of the surface concrete. The most likely causes of such types of stresses are Poisson`s effects strain interoperability or by the stress trajectory shapes. > Equilibrium reinforcements: This type of reinforcements are required where several anchorages exist where the prestressing loads are applied in a sequential manner. > Bursting Reinforcements: These kinds of stresses occur in cases where the stress trajectories are concave towards the line of action of load. In order to reduce such stresses reinforcements in the form of bursting is required. 6. In the design of bridge arguments what considerations should be made to select the orientation of the wing walls?

Some of the most common arrangements of wing walls in cases of bridge arguments are as follows: > Wing walls parallel to abutments: This method is considered to take least amount of time to build and is simple as well. But on the downside this method is not the most economical. The advantage of this type of design being that they cause the least amount of disturbance to the slope embankment. > Wing walls at an angle to abutments: This design method is considered to be the most economical in terms of material cost. > Wing walls perpendicular to abutments: The characteristic of this design is it provides an alignment continuous with the bridge decks lending a support to the parapets. 7. In case if concrete box girder bridges how is the number of cells determined? When the depth of a box girder bridge exceed 1/6th or 1/5th of the bridge width then the design recommended is that of a single cell box girder bridge. But in case the depth of the bridge is lower than 1/6th of the bridge width then a twin-cell or in some cases multiple cell is the preferred choice. One should also note that even in the cases of wider bridges where there depths are comparatively low the number of cells should be minimized. This is so as there is noticeably not much improvement in the transverse load distribution when the number of cells of the box girder is higher than three or more. 8. Under what circumstances should pot bearings be used instead of elastomeric bearings? Pot bearings are preferred over elastomeric bearings in situations where there are chances of high vertical loads in combinations of very large angle of rotations. Elastomeric bearings always require a large bearing surface so that a compression is maintained between the contact surfaces in between the piers and the bearings. This is not possible to maintained in high load and rotation environment. Also the usage of elastomeric bearings leads to the uneven distribution of stress on the piers. This results in some highly induced stresses to be targeted at the piers henceforth damaging them. Due to the above reasons pot bearings are preferred over elastomeric bearings in such cases. 9. Why should pumping be not used in case of concreting works? During the pumping operation the pump exerted pressure must overcome any friction between the pumping pipes and the concrete, also the weight of the concrete and the pressure head when the concrete is placed above the pumps. Since only water is pump able, all the pressure generated is by the water that is present in

the concrete. The major problem due to pumping are segregation effects and bleeding. In order to rectify and reduce these effects, generally the proportion of the cement is increased in order to increase the cohesion , which leads to the reduction of segregation and bleeding. Also if a proper selection of the aggregate grading can vastly improve the concrete pump ability. 10. Why should curing not be done by ponding and polythene sheets? The primary purpose of curing is to reduce the heat loss of concrete that is freshly placed to the atmosphere and in order to reduce the temperature gradient across the cross-section of the concrete. Ponding is not preferred for curing as this method of thermal curing is greatly affected by cold winds. In addition to that in ponding large amounts of water is used and has to be disposed off from the construction sites. Polythene sheets are used on the basis that it creates an airtight environment around the concrete surface henceforth reducing the chances of evaporation over fresh concrete surfaces. But the usage of polythene can be a drawback as it can be easily blown away by winds and also the water lost by self-desiccation cannot be replenished. 11. What are the different type of slump test indications? Slump tests are performed to empirically measure the workability of fresh concrete. It is used to measure the consistency of the concrete. In general there are three different types of slumps that occur in slump tests. They are as follows: > True Slump > Shear Slump > Collapse Slump True Slump: This type of slump is characterized by the general drop of the concrete mass evenly without visible signs of deterioration or disintegration. Shear Slump: It indicates that the concrete mix is deficient in cohesion. This type of slump leads to segregation and bleeding. Henceforth in the long run effecting the durability of the concrete. Collapse Slump: This type of slump is indicates that the mix of concrete is simply too wet. The mix is considered to be harsh and lean. 12. Why is propping required for long structures once the formwork is removed? Once the process of concreting is performed the striking of the formworks should be done as soon as possible as delay in this process can lead to the discoloration of the concrete structures. In case of long structures particularly long span structures once the structures have attained enough strength to support themselves it is essential to provide them with propping as creep deflection can take place which

can greatly reduce the integrity of the structure. Due to the above mentioned reasons propping should be done after the removal of formwork. Also the props should not be made to stand long as it can lead to overstress for the structures. 13. Explain the mechanism of cavitations in pipes and drains? The formation of air bubbles in a fluid due to low pressure conditions lower than the saturation pressure is known as cavitations. This is considered to be a high potential damage condition where the strength and durability of the pipes can be greatly reduced. Cavitation works on the principle of Bernoulli's Equation. When fluids are at high velocities the pressure head of fluids reduce accordingly. But since the fluid pressure is lower than the saturation pressure the dissolved gases get released from the flowing fluid. These air bubbles suddenly collapse on entering a region of high pressure. This leads to the damage of the pipelines as a high level of dynamic pressure is created. 14. For what purpose bedding is used under storm water drains, explain? Beddings are primarily made up of granular or concrete materials. They are primarily used for the following purposes: > They are used to provide a more uniform support for the under pipes so that the bending moment longitudinally can be reduced greatly. > In order to enable the pipes to get more load-supporting strength. > They are also used to act as a platform to achieve a more correct alignment and level pre and post construction. > In case of pipes which contain spigot and socket joints, it enables pipes to get supported along pipe lengths in place of sockets. Otherwise it can lead to uneven stress being induced on the pipes eventually damaging it. 15. Why are pull-out tests performed for soil nails? Pull out tests are performed for primarily the following reasons: > In order to detect and the verification of the bond strength among the soil and the grout adopted during the design of soil nails. This is considered to be as the primary objective of performing pull out tests for soil nails. > For the detection of any slippage or occurrence of creeps. > To detect the elastic and deformations (plastic) of any of the test nails employed. Observations are made during the loading and unloading cycles of the soil nails repetitively. > To achieve the perfect balance the test nails should always be loaded so that the ultimate soil/grout mixture with an upper limit of 80%.

16. Describe briefly the advantages and disadvantages of using plastic and timber fenders? The advantages and disadvantages of using plastic fenders are as follows: Plastic fenders are low in strength with a relatively high resistance to abrasion. Plastic fenders are resistant to chemical and biological attacks. Plastic fenders have moderate energy absorption capacity. The berthing reactions are also comparatively moderate and depends on the point of contact. Also since they are made from recycled material they are environmental friendly. The advantages and disadvantages of using timber fenders are: timber fenders are low in strength and are very susceptible to marine borer attacks and rotting. The energy absorption capacity is very low. Also generally the contact pressure between the vessels and the fender are high. 17. Explain why concrete barriers have curved surface profiles? The concrete safety fencings are made to contain vehicles in their carriageway being travelled so as to reduce the chances of rebounding into the roads leading to more hazards. In the case of normal fencings upon vehicle crashes the fencings give away so as to absorb as much energy as possible henceforth reducing the impact on the vehicles. But in the case of concrete barriers their purpose is not to absorb energy of vehicles crashing into the barrier but to retain them. They have a curved design so as to allow the vehicles that hit them to slightly go up on the barrier but not overturn. They also prevent the vehicle from again getting back on the road by rebounds. This helps in vastly reducing the chances of other vehicle hazards. 18. Why is the use of granular sub-base in concrete carriageways not preferred, explain? Some of the reasons why granular sub-base is not preferred in concrete carriageways: > Sub bases are permeable and hence water can seep through them easily. The soil particles get pumped out through the joints on the application of traffic loads. This results in the creation of voids underneath the pavement structure. This leads to the weakening of the concrete surface and it can crack easily upon intense traffic loads. > Instead if lean concrete is used for carriageways it greatly increases the strength of the roads and the load carrying capacity of the roads is increased. > Sub-bases implementation requires a lot of workmanship which can lead to an

un-uniform distribution of the sub-base. This can lead to the cracking of the carriageway when there is severe traffic loading. 19. Why are separation membranes used between concrete pavement slab and subbase? The purpose of separation membrane between the concrete pavement slab and the sub-base are as follows: > The separation membrane reduces the frictional forces between the concrete slabs and the sub-base. The membrane aids the movement of the concrete slab in reference to the sub-base when changes in the level of the moisture and temperature occurs. > It aids in the segregation of sub-base materials from freshly placed concrete. > The separation membrane also helps in the reduction of cement and water loss in the form of immature concrete. Immature concrete greatly affects the strength of the concrete. It also affects the durability of it. A good example of a separation membranes is polythene sheeting which is commonly used. 20. In the roof of a pumping station explain briefly the components of a waterproofing system. The components of a typical waterproofing system on the roof of a pumping station are as follows: > Right above the structural finish level of the roof ( concrete ) a uniform thickness screed is applied so as to facilitate the application of the waterproofing membrane. The surface provide for the membrane should always possess good cohesion properties and must be thin so as to prevent any un-uniformity. This thin layer also acts as a layer of thermal insulation. > Right above this layer the waterproofing membrane is deployed to secure the water tightness of the roof. > In order to enhance the thermal insulation of the roof an insulation board is sometime placed right above the waterproof membrane. The insulation board helps in the maintenance of a stable temperature in both weathers. 21. During reclamation how can the occurrence of mud waves can be rectified? There are several solution to the rectification of the problem of mud waves: > Complete removal of all the disturbed mud: This method can be considered to be one of the fastest methods. As soon as the disturbed mud is removed some filling material is used to replace the disturbed mud. But economically this method can be

expensive as compared to others. > Accelerated consolidation of disturbed mud: In this method surcharging loads are placed on top of the mud waves. Along with this band drains are installed to accelerate the consolidation process. This method is quite slow compared to the other methods. > Partial removal of the disturbed mud: This method is the hybrid of the above two methods where the top layer is removed whereas the lower level is treated with the surcharging process. 22. In reclamation works what are the importance of geotextiles and sand? The primary purposes of geotextiles and sand in reclamation works are as follows: > Geotextiles: They are used to separate the marine mud from the reclamation fill. Also geotextiles are used as reinforcements in reclamation processes to increase its stability. It is still debated as to whether the usage of geotextiles is better or are the old processes followed are better as the performance has not been comparable to the conventional methods. > Sand: In reclamation process sand is used to spread the load of any future public dumps placed on top of it. Sand also acts as a drainage for the excess pore water pressure of band drain installations. 23. In block work seawalls what is the purpose of slip joints? Joints which are formed from the cope level to the toe level of seawalls through a complete vertical plane are known as slip joints. Such joints are designed so as to handle the differential settlements between the seawalls adjacent panels. In the slip joints the aggregates inside the half-rounds channels enables some vertical movements. These vertical movements are induced by differential settlements. This enables in the interlocking of the adjacent panels of the seawalls to link the panels in one unit against the earth pressure ( lateral ) which is exerted on the seawalls. 24. For a washout valve why are two gate valves required in normal practice? The washout valves are primarily used for normal maintenance works such as that of water main. This can be like to allow water to flow out during the cleaning of the water main. The junctions at which a pipe branches out to a washout point usually a gate valve is installed so that the two pipelines are separated. The gate valve installed above usually remains open during normal operation. Another gate valve is installed further downstream and this remains closed during normal operation of the washout valve. In case this valve is not installed then the pipe section of the branched out pipe would remain dry during normal operation and high chances of damage and leakage can take place. When the downstream valve is

installed the branched out water main contains water under normal operation. With two gate valves installed a leakage can be detected immediately. 25. What are the different approaches in designing the floors of the service reservoirs? In general there are two main approaches of designing the reservoir floors to prevent leakage of water due to seasonal and shrinkage movements: > In this approach the movement joints of the reservoir floor panels are such that the free expansion and contraction of the panels takes place. Every panel is isolated from the other panels and two panels have a sliding layer between them to help in sliding. > The second method does not provide any room for free movement. With seasonal and shrinkage movements, some cracks are designed to voluntarily occur on the floors of the service reservoirs. These tiny cracks are spread throughout the floor and are simply too minute to cause any leakage or corrosion of the floors. But the difference also in this method is that the amount of reinforcement used is much more than the first approach