Post Graduate Diploma in Piping Design

Semester I

Layout Designing

This book is a part of the course by uts, Pune. This book contains the course content for Layout Designing.

uts, Pune First Edition 2011 The content in the book is copyright of uts. All rights reserved. No part of the content may in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or any other means be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or be broadcast or transmitted without the prior permission of the publisher. uts makes reasonable endeavours to ensure content is current and accurate. uts reserves the right to alter the content whenever the need arises, and to vary it at any time without prior notice.

Published by

uts

Bavdhan, Pune - 411021 Website : www.utsglobal.edu.in Tel : +91-20-41034800, +91 9011067684

Index
Content................................................................................................................................................................... II List of Figures.......................................................................................................................................................VI List of Tables. ..................................................................................................................................................... VIII Abbreviations........................................................................................................................................................IX Case Study.......................................................................................................................................................... 127 Bibliography....................................................................................................................................................... 132 Self Assessment Answers. ................................................................................................................................... 133 Book at a Glance

Contents
Chapter I........................................................................................................................................................ 1 Process Plat Layout and Plot Plan.............................................................................................................. 1 Aim................................................................................................................................................................. 1 Objectives....................................................................................................................................................... 1 Learning outcome........................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction . ............................................................................................................................................ 2 1.2 Layout Designer........................................................................................................................................ 2 1.3 Basic Layout Philosophy ......................................................................................................................... 3 1.3.1 Plan View Layout. ..................................................................................................................... 3 1.3.2 Elevation Layout . .................................................................................................................... 4 1.3.3 Diagonal Piping Runs .............................................................................................................. 4 1.3.4 Valve Manifolds ....................................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Major Considerations in Plant Layout...................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Buildings................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Major Categories of Process Plant Layout. ............................................................................................... 8 1.7 Plot Plans................................................................................................................................................ 10 Summary. ..................................................................................................................................................... 12 References.................................................................................................................................................... 12 Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 12 Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 13 Chapter II.................................................................................................................................................... 15 Traced and Jacketed Piping....................................................................................................................... 15 Aim .............................................................................................................................................................. 15 Objectives .................................................................................................................................................... 15 Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 15 2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 16 2.2 Jacketed Piping....................................................................................................................................... 16 2.3 Jacketed Lines......................................................................................................................................... 17 2.3.1 Types of Jacketed Piping........................................................................................................ 17 2.4 External Tracers ..................................................................................................................................... 20 2.4.1 External Tracer Lines.............................................................................................................. 20 2.4.2 Clips on Tracers...................................................................................................................... 21 2.4.3 Welded Tracer and Heat Conducting Paste............................................................................. 22 2.4.4 Insulation................................................................................................................................ 23 2.4.5 Sizing of External Tracers. ...................................................................................................... 24 Summary. ..................................................................................................................................................... 25 References.................................................................................................................................................... 25 Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 25 Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 26 Chapter III. .................................................................................................................................................. 28 Compressor and the Compressed Air System.......................................................................................... 28 Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 28 Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 28 Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 28 3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 29 3.2 Compressor Types................................................................................................................................... 29 3.2.1 Positive Displacement Compressor........................................................................................ 30 3.2.2 Dynamic Compressor............................................................................................................. 31 3.3 Assessment of Compressor and Compressed Air System....................................................................... 33 3.3.1 Capacity of a Compressor....................................................................................................... 33 3.3.2 Compressor Efficiency Definitions........................................................................................ 33
II/uts

3.4 Components of Compressed Air System................................................................................................ 34 3.4.1 Compressor House and Piping Layout................................................................................... 34 3.4.2 Location of Compressor. ......................................................................................................... 35 3.4.3 Air Intake Temperature........................................................................................................... 35 3.4.4 Pressure Drops in Air Filter.................................................................................................... 36 3.4.5 Elevation................................................................................................................................. 36 3.4.6 Inter and After Coolers........................................................................................................... 37 3.4.7 Pressure Settings..................................................................................................................... 37 3.4.8 Minimising Leakage............................................................................................................... 39 3.4.9 Condensate Removal.............................................................................................................. 39 3.4.10 Controlled Usage of Compressed Air................................................................................... 39 3.4.11 Compressor Controls............................................................................................................ 39 3.4.12 Maintenance Practice............................................................................................................ 40 Summary. ..................................................................................................................................................... 41 References.................................................................................................................................................... 41 Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 41 Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 42 Chapter IV................................................................................................................................................... 44 Cooling Water System and Fire Fighting System.................................................................................... 44 Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 44 Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 44 Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 44 4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 45 4.2 Cooling Tower. ........................................................................................................................................ 46 4.3 Components of a Cooling Tower............................................................................................................ 47 4.4 Tower Material........................................................................................................................................ 47 4.5 Cooling Tower Types.............................................................................................................................. 48 4.5.1 Natural Draft Cooling Tower.................................................................................................. 48 4.5.2 Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower........................................................................................... 48 4.6 Cooling System Process. ......................................................................................................................... 49 4.7 Assessment of Cooling Tower. ................................................................................................................ 50 4.8 Fire Fighting System............................................................................................................................... 51 4.8.1 Chemistry of Fire.................................................................................................................... 52 4.8.2 Fundamentals of Fire.............................................................................................................. 52 4.8.3 The Fire Triangle.................................................................................................................... 53 4.9 Classification of Fire............................................................................................................................... 53 4.9.1 Class A.................................................................................................................................... 54 4.9.2 Class B.................................................................................................................................... 54 4.9.3 Class C.................................................................................................................................... 54 4.9.4 Class D.................................................................................................................................... 54 4.10 Portable Fire Extinguishers................................................................................................................... 55 4.10.1 Inspection and Maintenance................................................................................................. 55 4.11 Application of Fire Fighting Equipments (Portable and Fixed). ........................................................... 56 4.11.1 Water Extinguishing System................................................................................................. 56 4.11.2 Foam Extinguishing System................................................................................................. 58 4.11.3 Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing System. ................................................................................ 59 4.11.4 Carbon Tetrachloride, Chlorobromomethane and Inverting-type Extinguisher................... 61 Summary. ..................................................................................................................................................... 62 References.................................................................................................................................................... 62 Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 62 Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 63

III/uts

Chapter V. .................................................................................................................................................... 65 Piping for Steam Distribution.................................................................................................................... 65 Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 65 Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 65 Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 65 5.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 66 5.2 Steam Distribution System..................................................................................................................... 66 5.3 Pipes........................................................................................................................................................ 67 5.3.1 Piping Material....................................................................................................................... 67 5.3.2 Pipeline Sizing........................................................................................................................ 67 5.3.3 Piping Layout. ......................................................................................................................... 72 5.4 Economic Velocity for Deciding Line Size............................................................................................ 73 5.5 Resistance of Valves and Fittings to Flow of Fluids............................................................................... 73 Summary. ..................................................................................................................................................... 75 References.................................................................................................................................................... 75 Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 75 Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 76 Chapter VI................................................................................................................................................... 78 Turbines and Design Consideration for Tank Farm................................................................................ 78 Aim............................................................................................................................................................... 78 Objectives..................................................................................................................................................... 78 Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 78 6.1 Introduction to Gas Turbines.................................................................................................................. 79 6.2 Gas Turbine Usage.................................................................................................................................. 79 6.3 Advantages of Gas Turbines................................................................................................................... 80 6.4 The Gas Turbine . ................................................................................................................................... 81 6.4.1 The Process............................................................................................................................. 81 6.4.2 Components............................................................................................................................ 81 6.5 Types of Gas Turbines. ............................................................................................................................ 83 6.6 Applications of Gas Turbines.................................................................................................................. 84 6.7 Tank Farm............................................................................................................................................... 85 6.8 Tank Foundation..................................................................................................................................... 85 6.8.1 Base Plate Laying................................................................................................................... 85 6.8.2 Base Plate Welding................................................................................................................. 85 6.8.3 Shell Erection. ......................................................................................................................... 86 6.8.4 Vacuum box test and Radiography......................................................................................... 86 6.8.5 Types of Tank Farm and Roof Structure ................................................................................ 86 6.9 Planning and Design of Tank Farm. ........................................................................................................ 87 6.9.1 Perimeter, Drainage................................................................................................................ 89 6.10 Tank and Protective Clearance. ............................................................................................................. 89 6.11 Storage of Petroleum Products. ............................................................................................................. 89 6.12 The Petroleum Act, 1934 (Act No. 30 of 1934). ................................................................................... 90 6.13 Licence for Storage of Petroleum Products.......................................................................................... 90 Summary. ..................................................................................................................................................... 91 References.................................................................................................................................................... 91 Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................................. 91 Self Assessment............................................................................................................................................ 92

IV/uts

Chapter VII................................................................................................................................................. 94 Towers.......................................................................................................................................................... 94 Aim .............................................................................................................................................................. 94 Objectives .................................................................................................................................................... 94 Learning outcome......................................................................................................................................... 94 7.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................................. 95 7.2 The Distillation Process.......................................................................................................................... 95 7.2.1 Batch Shell.............................................................................................................................. 95 7.2.2 Continuous Shell..................................................................................................................... 96 7.2.3 Fractional Distillation............................................................................................................. 96 7.3 Types of Towers...................................................................................................................................... 98 7.4 Design Consideration for Towers......................................................................................................... 100 7.5 Tower Elevation and Support. ............................................................................................................... 101 7.6 Nozzle Elevation and Orientation......................................................................................................... 104 7.7 Platform Arrangements......................................................................................................................... 108 7.8 Tower Piping..........................................................................................................................................114 7.9 Tower Instruments. .................................................................................................................................119 7.10 Maintenance........................................................................................................................................ 121 Summary. ................................................................................................................................................... 124 References.................................................................................................................................................. 124 Recommended Reading............................................................................................................................ 124 Self Assessment.......................................................................................................................................... 125

V/uts

List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Plan view layout................................................................................................................................ 4 Fig. 1.2 Elevation layout................................................................................................................................. 4 Fig. 1.3 Diagonal piping runs......................................................................................................................... 5 Fig. 1.4 Value manifolds................................................................................................................................. 5 Fig. 2.1 Standard jacketed piping................................................................................................................. 17 Fig. 2.2 Insert-flanged jacketed piping......................................................................................................... 18 Fig. 2.3 Swaged jacketed piping................................................................................................................... 19 Fig. 2.4 High-pressure jacketed piping......................................................................................................... 19 Fig. 2.5 Typical correct and incorrect arrangement...................................................................................... 20 Fig. 2.6 Traces line around the pump casing................................................................................................ 21 Fig. 2.7 Installation of three tracers.............................................................................................................. 22 Fig. 2.8 Insulating tracer and product lines. .................................................................................................. 23 Fig. 2.9 Typical trace line and jacketed line................................................................................................. 23 Fig. 3.1 Types of compressor........................................................................................................................ 29 Fig. 3.2 Classification of compressor........................................................................................................... 29 Fig. 3.3 Reciprocating compressor............................................................................................................... 30 Fig. 3.4 Screw compressor............................................................................................................................ 31 Fig. 3.5 Centrifugal compressor. ................................................................................................................... 32 Fig. 3.6 A Typical Compressed Air System Components and Network....................................................... 34 Fig. 3.7 Schematic arrangement of compressed air equipment.................................................................... 35 Fig. 4.1 Once thorough system..................................................................................................................... 45 Fig. 4.2 Recirculation or closed system........................................................................................................ 46 Fig. 4.3 Schematic diagram of a cooling water system................................................................................ 46 Fig. 4.4 (a) Cross flow natural draft cooling tower (b) Counter flow natural draft cooling tower............... 48 Fig. 4.5 Range and approach of cooling towers. ........................................................................................... 50 Fig. 4.6 The fire triangle............................................................................................................................... 53 Fig. 4.7 Coiling for hose............................................................................................................................... 56 Fig. 4.8 Types of foam extinguishing systems.............................................................................................. 59 Fig. 5.1 A Typical steam distribution circuit................................................................................................. 66 Fig. 5.2 Categorisation of pipeline sizing..................................................................................................... 68 Fig. 5.3 Steam pipeline sizing chart pressure drop approach.................................................................... 70 Fig. 5.4 Steam pipeline sizing chart velocity approach............................................................................. 72 Fig. 5.5 Resistance of valves and fittings to flow of fluids. .......................................................................... 74 Fig. 6.1 Schematic for a) an aircraft jet engine; and b) a land-based gas turbine......................................... 79 Fig. 6.2 A modern jet engine......................................................................................................................... 80 Fig. 6.3 Combustion area.............................................................................................................................. 82 Fig. 6.4 Turbine stage................................................................................................................................... 82 Fig. 6.5 Simplest form of combustion turbine plant with reaction type gas................................................. 84 Fig. 6.6 (  a) Internal floating roof tank, (b) domed external floating roof tank, (c) external floating roof tank.......................................................................................................... 87 Fig. 6.7 (a) Tank farm accessibility from two sides (b) Tank farm accessibility from one side................... 88 Fig. 6.8 Tank inside the tank field (shadow zone) ....................................................................................... 89 Fig. 7.1 Crude distillation of products across temperature range................................................................. 95 Fig. 7.2 Batch shell still distillation process................................................................................................. 96 Fig. 7.3 Continuous shell still distillation process........................................................................................ 96 Fig. 7.4 Multiunit Fractional still distillation process................................................................................... 97 Fig. 7.5 Fractionator tower. ........................................................................................................................... 97 Fig. 7.6 Vapour liquid flow........................................................................................................................... 98 Fig. 7.7 Vacuum tower and stripper.............................................................................................................. 98 Fig. 7.8 Trayed tower.................................................................................................................................... 99 Fig. 7.9 Packed tower. ................................................................................................................................. 100 Fig. 7.10 Tower area................................................................................................................................... 101 Fig. 7.11 Consideration for tower elevation and support. ........................................................................... 101
VI/uts

Fig. 7.12 Tower elevation requirement....................................................................................................... 102 Fig. 7.13 Tower skirt................................................................................................................................... 103 Fig. 7.14 Tower elevation sketch................................................................................................................ 104 Fig. 7.15 Elevation and Orientation requirements for maintenance access................................................ 104 Fig. 7.16 Options for internal feed piping. .................................................................................................. 105 Fig. 7.17 Reboiler connections................................................................................................................... 106 Fig. 7.18 Top head arrangement. ................................................................................................................. 107 Fig. 7.19 Bottom head arrangement. ........................................................................................................... 107 Fig. 7.20 Temperature and pressure locations. ............................................................................................ 108 Fig. 7.21 Typical platform arrangement. ..................................................................................................... 109 Fig. 7.22 Tower platform and ladder elevation requirements......................................................................110 Fig. 7.23 Platform width requirement..........................................................................................................111 Fig. 7.24 Maintenance access arrangements................................................................................................112 Fig. 7.25 Typical top head platform arrangement........................................................................................112 Fig. 7.26 Common platform........................................................................................................................113 Fig. 7.27 Bracket spacing. ............................................................................................................................113 Fig. 7.28 Ladder rung spacing.....................................................................................................................114 Fig. 7.29 Tower areas of division. ................................................................................................................115 Fig. 7.30 Tower piping supports..................................................................................................................116 Fig. 7.31 Overhead arrangement. .................................................................................................................117 Fig. 7.32 Pump suction arrangement...........................................................................................................118 Fig. 7.33 Relief valve system. ......................................................................................................................119 Fig. 7.34 Instrument vessel sketch.............................................................................................................. 120 Fig. 7.35 Arrangement of level instruments. ............................................................................................... 121 Fig. 7.36 A Typical tower davit arrangement, B. Typical tower trolley beam arrangement....................... 122 Fig. 7.37 Planned drop zone....................................................................................................................... 123

VII/uts

List of Tables
Table 1.1 Major considerations in plant layout. .............................................................................................. 7 Table 1.2 Major categories of plant design..................................................................................................... 9 Table 1.3 Chart of process plant layout........................................................................................................ 10 Table 2.1 Steam connection size for jacketed lines...................................................................................... 17 Table 2.2 Number of 15mm tracers used with different product line sizes............................................ 24 Table 3.1 General selection criteria of compressors..................................................................................... 32 Table 3.2 Effect of intake air temperature on compressor power consumption........................................... 36 Table 3.3 Effect of pressure drop across the filter on increase in power consumption................................ 36 Table 3.4 Effect of altitude on compressor volumetric efficiency................................................................ 37 Table 3.5 Effect of reduction in delivery pressure on power consumption.................................................. 37 Table 3.6 Typical pressure drop in compressed air line for different pipe size............................................ 39 Table 4.1 Types of mechanical draft towers................................................................................................. 49 Table 4.2 Effect of CO2 on lungs.................................................................................................................. 60 Table 5.1 Pipeline size.................................................................................................................................. 69 Table 5.2 Effect of change in pipe size......................................................................................................... 73

VIII/uts

Abbreviations
NPSH ANSI VJ Km/h Mph C F Cfm Hp kW FAD Psi mmWC HVAC PVC ABS CT CW kCal L/G CO2 kV ft m kg lb ID IC CT NOx MW LHV Ppm SCR Gal Mm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Net Positive Suction Head American National Standards Institute Vacuum-jacketed pipe Kilometres per hour Metres per hour Celsius Fahrenheit Cubic feet per meter Horse power kilo watt Free Air Delivery Per square inches Mili Meter Water Column Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning Polyvinyl Chloride Antilock Braking System Cooling tower Cooling water kilo calories Liquid/Gas Carbon Dioxide Kilo Volt Feet Metre Kilogram pounds Pipe diameter Internal Combustion Combustion Turbine Oxides of nitrogen Molecular weight Lower Heating Value Parts per million Selective Catalytic Reduction Gallon Millimetre

IX/uts

Chapter I Process Plat Layout and Plot Plan

Aim
The aim of this chapter is to: elucidate basic layout philosophy explain the role of layout designer categorise process plant layout

Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to: introduce diagonal piping runs highlight the importance of conceptualisation of any process plant layout explain plot plans

Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: comprehend plant view layout and elevation layout identify the skills that any layout designer must possess understand the importance of the layout of valve manifolds

1/uts

Layout Designing

1.1 Introduction
Chemical process industries involve multiple unit processes and unit operations to convert raw materials into products. Different processes require different types of hardware like equipment, pipelines, instruments etc. Hardware items need space to locate them in process plant building. Smooth material movements ensure higher process plant productivity. There being a large number of operating steps involved, the proper operating man movement is equally critical for plant performance. Thus, the 3 Ms, viz., materials machine and man are involved in any production process and their smooth movements arte critical for better process plant operations. Conceptualisation of any process plant layout at the early stage is very important. Important facts, if not considered at the appropriate time, may lead to major troubles at a later stage. Following industrial examples elaborates problems caused due to improper process plant layout. Improper location of equipment increase operational steps. Equipment positioning influences operating steps. For example, converting gravity flow to pump flow adds one more step of pump operation. Insufficient space for insulation. Space not provided for insulation over equipment or pipeline which causes trouble during erection work. This may either be due to insufficient available gaps between two hardware parts or no approach available for laying insulation over these parts. Poor accessibility if equipment delays plant operations. Discomfort in reaching the faculty equipment causes trouble for taking up any maintenance work. It many times delays plant operations and thus, leads to high production losses. Unsafe handling of hazardous chemicals may harm the plant as well as the operating persons. Hazardous chemical handling requires special attention as they could be harmful to the life of plant personnel and a danger is plant hardware. High cost of land and hardware: If the plant space used is more than the actual required though provides more movement and space, increases the hardware cost in terms of larger amount of piping, civil and structural requirements. Haphazardly placed equipment and other hardware generates as unhealthy working environment. Everyone likes an aesthetic look to our surroundings. It provides a soothing effect and encourages us towards better performance. Haphazardly placed equipment causes confusion in regular plant operations, which generates more errors. The future entry of equipment requires dismantling of the existing equipment structure. Insufficient space in the existing plant building may be because of erected equipment and piping or building structures like wall, door, etc., causes difficulty for the entry of any new equipment in the future. The expected plant modifications or expansion needs should be considered at the conceptual stage of the process plant layout preparation. High rainwater causes operational inconvenience process plant equipment located in an open area causes inconvenience to the plant operators during rainy days and thus plant operations are badly affected. The troubles discussed above are some representative cases applicable to any typical chemical process industry.

Plant layout design plays an important role in the design and engineering phases of any industrial facility.

1.2 Layout Designer

The plant layout designer is skilled primarily in the development of equipment arrangements and piping layouts for process industries. The position offers an opportunity to demonstrate technical ability along with creative talent and common-sense approach. Process facilities must be designed and engineered within extremely short schedules while adhering to maintenance, safety, and quality standards; moreover, the design must take constructability, economics, and operations into account. Although the tools to achieve these goals are changing from pencil and paper to computer graphics terminals, the responsibilities of the plant layout design remain the same. The plant layout designer must develop layout documents during the conceptual and study phases of a project. The skills needed are:

2/uts

Common sense and the ability to reason Thorough knowledge of a particular plant design A general understanding of how process equipment is maintained and operated The ability to generate a safe, comprehensive layout within a specified time and with consideration toward constructability and cost-effectiveness Creativity Sufficient experience to avoid reinventing the wheel Knowledge of the principal roles of other design and engineering groups and the ability to use input from these other disciplines The ability to resolve unclear or questionable data Willingness to compromise in the best interest of the project The ability to generate clear and concise documents The ability to defend designs when challenged

The Logic Diagram The design of any processing plant is usually accomplished in three phases: conceptual, study and detail. Conceptual designs are made when sketchy or minimal information is used to prepare an abstract arrangement of a plot plan or equipment and piping layout. Preliminary designs are made with unchecked or uncertified data to design a facility in sufficient detail so that the documents produced can be used for detail design, confirmation of purchased equipment, and the purchase of bulk materials. In the detail phase, all designs are finalised. The designs use such checked data as steel and concrete drawings, hydraulics and certified vendor drawings for equipment, valves, and instruments. The major activities of the plant layout designer to achieve an optimum plant configuration take place during the study phase of a project. Although project schedules often dictate variations in this approach, it is intended to be an optimum condition for the most effective use of staff time. The study phase can make or break a project. Working out of sequence is acceptable within reason, but if it is over done, a project will never recover during the detail phase. The ideal situation for speed and quality is to do the job right the first time.

1.3 Basic Layout Philosophy

Each plant layout designer develops an individual layout philosophy. Although conditions (For instance, client specifications, schedule constraints, and availability of information) may change significantly among projects, the designers style remains consistent. One basic rule to remember is to avoid designing one line at a time that is, routing a line from one piece of equipment to another before thinking about the next one. Although it is possible to complete an area design using this approach, the result is a lack of consistency. An overview of all the piping within a given area should be completed before the designer proceeds with the final arrangement. This can be achieved through close review of the piping and instrumentation diagrams and free hand sketching of major piping configurations to ensure that the piping will be routed in an orderly manner. 1.3.1 Plan View Layout Both arrangements shown in the below figure are workable piping layouts for the given equipment. The design in plan A is the one-line-at-a-time approach. Along with requiring more pipe fittings and steel in support, it lacks consistency. Plan B was developed as a whole unit. Lines running to the nozzles on drums D and E are on the outside of the pipe rack and peel off first with flat piping turns. The lines to exchangers A, B, and Care located to the centre of the rack and can also peel off in most cases. This approach saves fittings and requires a shorter steel beam to support the piping. It should be noted that the use of flat turns in piping is not recommended if there is a likelihood of future expansion in an area. The alternative to accommodate future piping running north at the same elevation is to change elevation for the piping running east and west to the drums. Although it is not always necessary to plan for future expansion, it can often be done with very little additional effort and cost. Each area should be thought through on a case-by-case basis.

3/uts

Layout Designing
A B C N A B C Possible Future Expansion D

Support E

Support F

Alternative for Future Lines

Support

Support Future Lines

4 Plan A

Plan B 5

Fig. 1.1 Plan view layout (Source: www.scribd.com) 1.3.2 Elevation Layout The below figure shows two workable piping layouts. The key difference is that the arrangement on the left shows piping running at too many elevations. With a little effort, this can be corrected, as shown in the right-hand view. Adding support steel for this preferred design would require only minimal effort. The view on the left, however, would require additional engineering time and additional steel cost.

Seven Elevations

Three Elevations

Excessive Elevations

Preferred Design/Minimum Elevations

Fig. 1.2 Elevation layout (Source: www.scribd.com) 1.3.3 Diagonal Piping Runs When lines run in a congested area, a basic rule to allow is to change the elevation to avoid interference with other lines when lines are to be routed perpendicular to most adjacent piping. The arrangement shown in plan A of the below figure has a minimal offset dimension, X. Running the line at the same elevation is acceptable if it does not
4/uts

block the passage of a large number of other lines. In plan B, dimension Y would interfere with too many lines and should run at a different. There is no absolute rule, except that judgment should be used to produce a neat and orderly layout as well as to occasionally save pipe fittings when possible.

EL.110.0

5/6.4

EL. 112.0

LA. 5/6.4

LA.

EL. 112.0

Plan A

Plan B

Fig. 1.3 Diagonal piping runs (Source: www.scribd.com) 1.3.4 Valve Manifolds The layout of valve manifolds is another opportunity to exercise consistency of design. Layout A of the below figure uses an excessive number of fittings and indicates a lack of proper planning. With a little thought and extra effort, a less expensive and more practical design can be generated, as shown in layout B. Certain piping specifications may restrict the use of branch connections in lieu of reducers, but this option should be considered if at all possible.
Inconsistent Design Excessive Fittings 6 6 6 10x6 Reducers 4 3
10x6 Reducers 10 D 6 Weld Cap

Preferred Design Minimum Fittings

6 4 6 3

10 6x4 Reducers 6x3 Reducers Layout A

Branch Connections

Layout B

Fig. 1.4 Value manifolds (Source: www.scribd.com)

5/uts

Layout Designing

1.4 Major Considerations in Plant Layout

The most economical plant layout is the one in which the spacing of the main equipment is such that it minimises interconnecting pipe work and structural steel work. Normally, equipment should be laid out in sequence to suit the process flow but exception to this arises from the desirability to group certain tanks, pumps or perhaps to isolate hazardous operations according to statutory rules and regulations. The use of the single stream or multiple stream flow pattern will affect the layout. The major variables affecting the final layout are interconnected pipe sizes, insulation thickness, steel work spacing, matters of operational convenience, safety, ease of erection and maintenance which calls for expiries of critical judgment on the experience and the study of existing and know limitation. Consideration Explanation Basically, economic consideration means installing the unit in the smallest possible space, consistent with the operability ease of piping material, structural sheets and concrete with the proper layout considering further economies which can be achieved in way of pumping and utilities. Layout may be needed to isolate a section of the plan equipment, where toxic and hazardous materials are handled. It should be grouped together and where possible located separately from other areas of the plant, i.e., furnaces, flare stacks or other equipment containing naked flares. Mechanical equipment handling flammable or volatile liquids which could easily leak or spill out of the equipment thus causing flammable conditions. However, such consideration should not override considerations of cost. Process considerations may require some items be elevated to provide gravity flow of materials to accommodate pump suction requirement for NPSH. The other process consideration could be the limitation of pressure or temperature drop in the transfer lines deciding the proximity of the furnace, reactors and columns. Thought should be given to the location of equipment requiring frequent attendance by operation personnel and the relative position of the control room to obtain the shortest and most direct route for operator. When on routine operation, however, the control room should be placed, so that they are easily accessible and the indicators are easily readable. Generally, a batch or semi batch process needs more attention by the operator and therefore, more consideration has to be paid to the ergonomics of the layout. The need to remove for servicing, retuning or replacements, the heavy, servicing equipment. The indivisible plant will dictate their location when access for cranes is called for regular or rotating and other machinery calling for dismantling. This often makes their grouping within the machine house desirable. The position of items needing replacement of internal spent catalyst etc. or frequent internal cleaning has to be carefully considered.

Economic

Safety

Process

Operational

Maintenance

6/uts

Constructional

The plot should be so designed, that adequate access is available to lift the large items of equipment or columns into place. Such equipment is positioned close to the boundary limits so that erection must take place from outside these limits. A careful check must be undertaken to ascertain whether space will be available at the time of erection for positioning the crane or lifting the deliver y equipment which is known, may well arrive fairly late in the construction programme and therefore have to be fitted into place after most of the surrounding equipment has already been installed. It is important that the insulation requirement be considered during the layout of the plant. An attractively laid out plant with the equipment in rows also economically laid out gives an aesthetic appearance. The building structure and groups of equipment should form a neat, symmetrical balanced layout consistent with keeping the pipe run to a minimum and allowing proper access for maintenance. The tower and large vertical vessels should be arranged in rows with a common centreline. They should be of similar size, but if the diameter varies, due note must be taken of the building line manholes on the adjacent tower should be at a similar elevation and orientation to streams. These as far as possible should be made identical. Such arrangement for parallel streams or similar groups of process equipment require much the design work and also for construction and subsequently operation but help in reducing the amount of standby equipment. Thought should be given to the likely expansion of both equipment and pipe work, so that additions can be erected and tested with the minimum interference to plant operations. On main pipe runs, it is desirable to leave 30% space. At least 30 m distance from flame proof plant area is needed for safe welding where no special precautions are needed. Table 1.1 Major considerations in plant layout

Appearance

Future expansion

1.5 Buildings
Plant buildings should be kept to a minimum on the basis that most of equipment including pumps, heat exchanger boilers, cyclones, etc. may be safely installed in the open. The philosophy should be that the plant is supported on an open steel structure unless there is good reason not to do so. Thus, it is to be installed in the open with centralised control facilities housed in buildings. Factors which determine the selection of enclosed buildings are: Nature and frequency of the operators work- Equipment, which requires frequent maintenance in adverse weather conditions. Climate- Extreme climate conditions may determine that the plant is to be kept in a building. Type of equipment- Expensive equipment and complex machinery should have some degree of weatherproofing. Nature of process- Plants handling dust explosive and combustible solid materials require a building .To prevent contamination, food, pharmaceutical and bio-chemical plants require to be in a building. Proximity of hazards- To prevent the possible spread of fire and explosion, a building may be desirable. If enclosed buildings are planned, then consideration must be given to the following factors. Fire protection/explosion- Protection approval by the local fire authority must be obtained on fire fighting equipment and layout.

7/uts

Layout Designing

Illumination- Natural illumination may be obtained by the use of patent glazing windows or translucent sheets in the sidewalls or the roof. Artificial lighting must be arranged to give adequate illumination where physical and chemical hazard exists. Fireproofing- Determines the plant arrangement and switch room. Ventilation- Air intake should be positioned in such a way that it should avoid the risk of drawing toxic or hazardous fumes. Exhaust may be required for treatment of filter washer, separation. Access- Proper access for maintenance and operation purposes to be considered. Heating Roofing

1.6 Major Categories of Process Plant Layout

During the preparation of any process plant layout, either for equipment to be fitted in the existing plant building as part of modification or expansion, these points needs to be critically viewed. Chemical process industries involve multiple operations for the conversion of raw materials to finished products using various types of equipment and other hardware. Though most of the equipment may be operating on its own, manual involvement is required to control their operation. The overall plant operations are divided into three categories viz. plant start up, normal plant operation and plant shut down. The operational points are usually viewed on a priority basic as any trouble in the plant operations directly effects the production. Insufficient elevation differences disturb material flows and cause drying or flooding of the processing system.

Operations

Hardware equipment like piping instruments, etc. used in the process industries are either pre-fabricated/procured directly from the market or fabricated at site. Finished or unfinished fabricated materials are moved in position by various Fabrication and available manual or mechanised devices like cranes, monorails forklifts etc. Erection Likewise along with the material movement and placement, the plant erection contractor is provided with the necessary access to carry out the fabrication and erection work properly. The process plant handles both static and dynamic equipment, which undergoes maintenance as per the type of equipment and operations. Rotary equipment like pumps, blowers, agitators etc. due to their moving parts, are highly prone to maintenance work as compared to static equipment. Routine maintenance work is preferred to minimise trouble, while emergency maintenance work cant be avoided. Poor facilities delay maintenance work. Thus the necessary provisions in the plant layout are considered during the conceptualisation of layouts. Poor access to hardware parts also delays the maintenance work. The process plant layout is also critically viewed in terms of maintenance requirements. Process plants handle various hazardous chemicals and operations. They demand safety norms, governed by statutory rules and regulations. Run away type reactions, high pressure, and temperature operations etc. are critical examples which require safe distances between two-equipment. Fire safety measures, etc. are considered during the preparation of the process plant layout.

Maintenance

Safety

8/uts

Economic

Addition of hardware or land adds up to the cost of the process plant. A rotary unit like a pump adds up to utility cost in the form of electricity every moment. Capital and operating costs play a major role in plant economics. For process plant layout conceptualisation is a major proper concern in minimising the capital as well as operating costs. Haphazardly placed equipment gives a bad appearance to the process plant and causes confusion in plant operations, which leads to poor plant performance. Too many pipeline crossings due to improper equipment placement and pipe routings make pipeline tracing difficult and takes away the aesthetic look of the cess plant. Incorrect identification of operating valves leads to wrong operation and even sometimes disaster too. Increase in the process plant capacity requires expansion in terms of its hardware like reactors, pumps, pipeline instruments, etc. Addition of hardware requires space in process plant as it is built in multiple phases due to various reasons like low market demand for product, low availability of raw material, available capital funds, government clearances, test product launching. Accordingly, the plant is also installed in phases. Investment is minimised in the initial phase but necessary provisions are made to minimise cost in terms of hardware and reduced plant stoppages in the later stages. Continuation of new plant expansion with the existing hardware is critical in terms of material flow, movement/ maintenance space. Geographical factors indirectly affect the process plant layout. For example, seismically prone areas require more equipment and building foundation space, increasing the land requirements. High rainfall regions are provided with better drainage facility, elevated plinth levels and covered plant buildings, etc. Table 1.2 Major categories of plant design

Aesthetic

Expansion

Geographical factors

Material Movement Material movement starts from its entry at the factory gate in the form of raw material. It passes through various unit processes and operations before its final conversion to the product. Chemical process industries handle different types of materials in the forms of solids, liquids, and gases for raw materials, intermediates, and final product streams. Various points related to materials movements in the process plant layouts are shown in the following table. Operations Start up Material Equipment charging Machine Equipment cleaning and testing Start-up of equipment Operating and standby units Process monitoring Measurement Inspection Sampling Control Man Operator movements for multiple operation

Normal Flow of materials Material inventory

9/uts

Layout Designing

Shut down

Material recovery

Cleaning operation

Operator movements for system cleaning Cutting and welding works High elevation works Maintenance bays/ space In-place maintenance facilities Safety escapes Minimum safe distances Body protection from high temperature Combined operations Good appearance Comfortable operations New facilities like canteen, rest rooms, parking space Bad weather protection

Fabrication and Erection

Loading and unloading Material storage Fabrication Material movement

Lifting devices Insulation Instrumentation requirements Equipment replacement Lifting Cut-outs In-place Projections Safe distances

Maintenance

Draining/ disposing of materials

Safety

Flammable materials Toxic chemicals

Economics

Material transportation cost Closed storage Closed internal transportation Material flow Future connectivity

Reduced cost of piping, civil, structure, materials Systematic equipment laid down Pipeline routing Hardware addition Entry of new units

Aesthetic

Expansion operations

Geographical factors

Instrumental factors like temperature, humidity, etc.

Wind direction Soil strength Earthquake zones

Table 1.3 Chart of process plant layout

1.7 Plot Plans

A plot plan is an architectural drawing that shows all the major features and structures on a piece of property. The information included on a plot plan can vary by project and region, but will generally include the location of all buildings, porches, decks, and sheds. The plan may also include swimming pools and landscaping features, as well as underground and aboveground utilities. Most plot plans will also show the plot lines marking the boundaries of the property along with a brief description of adjacent properties.

10/uts

Plot plans are typically required with all permit and zoning applications submitted to local permitting agencies. They may be used during zoning reviews or as part of the construction permit review process. The plot plan helps the reviewing agency check for conflicts with neighbours, building codes, or surrounding utility lines before a permit is issued. The plot plan can also be used to plan landscaping designs or special outdoor features like decks or pools. Once the plan is approved, it may be used by the builder when laying out the property. Local permit or zoning agencies issue their own specific requirements for plot plans. In many cases, the plan must be drawn to scale so that features are shown in relation to one another. A directional arrow or compass should be shown that indicates how the property is oriented. Dimensions are often required as well, though in some cases, only building or overall dimensions need to be shown. The location of existing structures as well as all proposed changes or additions should be included on the plot plan. More complex plot plans may require elevations and land contours, which require the work of a surveyor. This may include simple elevation changes or items such as driveway slopes or curb cuts. In instances where trees or building features may interfere with overhead utility lines, pictorial elevations may be required to illustrate how the lines will be protected. Depending on the complexity of the project, plot plans may be drawn by surveyors, architects, engineers, or homeowners. When developing a plot plan, it is easiest to start with an existing plot plan or plat, which can often be found at the local land records office. If this plan is not available, the person creating the plan must start from scratch by taking measurements or surveying the land. Once the plot plan is submitted to the local permit agency, a copy is often kept on record for future use or reference.

11/uts

Layout Designing

Summary
Chemical process industries involve multiple unit processes and unit operations to convert raw materials into products. Different processes require different types of hardware like equipment, pipelines, instruments etc. Conceptualisation of any process plant layout at the early stage is very important. Important facts, if not considered at the appropriate time may lead to major troubles at a later stage. The plant layout designer is skilled primarily in the development of equipment arrangements and piping layouts for process industries. The design of any processing plant is usually accomplished in three phases: conceptual, study, and detail. Each plant layout designer develops an individual layout philosophy. When lines run in a congested area, a basic rule to allow is to change the elevation to avoid interference with other lines when lines are to be routed perpendicular to most adjacent piping. The layout of valve manifolds is another opportunity to exercise consistency of design. The most economical plant layout is that in which the spacing of the main equipment is such that it minimises interconnecting pipe work and structural steel work. Plant buildings should be kept to a minimum on the basis that most of equipment including pumps, heat exchanger boilers, cyclones, etc. may be safely installed in the open. Material movement starts from its entry at the factory gate in the form of raw material. A plot plan is an architectural drawing that shows all the major features and structures on a piece of property.

References
Bausbacher, E., Hunt, R., 1993. Process plant layout and piping design, PTR Prentice Hall. Parisher, R. A., Rhea, R. A., 2001. Pipe Drafting and Design, 2nd ed., Gulf Professional Publishing. Nayyar, M.L., 2000. Piping Handbook, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill.

Recommended Reading
Pennock, J. O., 2001. Piping engineering leadership for process plant projects, Gulf Professional Publishing Silowash, B., 2009. Piping Systems Manual, McGraw Hill Professional. Smith, P. 2007. The Fundamentals of Piping Design: Drafting and Design Methods for Process Applications, Gulf Pub.

12/uts

Self Assessment
1. _____________ plays an important part in the design and engineering phases of any industrial facility. a. Plant layout design b. Plot plan c. Compressor d. Gas turbines 2. The ________________ is skilled primarily in the development of equipment arrangements and piping layouts for process industries. a. gas turbine operator b. plant layout designer c. plot plan d. layout document 3. Each plant layout designer develops an individual _____________. a. plant layout b. plot plan c. layout philosophy d. process plan design 4. The layout of ________is another opportunity to exercise consistency of design. a. diagonal piping runs b. elevation layout c. plant layout d. value manifolds 5. Which statement is true? a. The most economical plant layout is that in which the spacing of the main equipment is such that it minimises interconnecting pipe work and structural steel work. b. The use of the single stream or multiple stream flow pattern will affect the plot plan. c. The plant layout is another opportunity to exercise consistency of design. d. Basically, safety consideration means installing the unit in the smallest possible space, consistent with the operability ease of piping material. 6. What should be kept to a minimum on the basis that most of equipment including pumps, heat exchanger boilers, cyclones, etc. may be safely installed in the open? a. Plant layout b. Plant building c. Plot plan d. Value manifolds 7. __________________ movement starts from its entry at the factory gate in the form of raw material. a. Machine b. Man c. Material d. Layout

13/uts

Layout Designing

8. _______________ is an architectural drawing that shows all the major features and structures on a piece of property. a. Process plant layout b. Plant building c. Layout designer d. Plot plan 9. _____________ are typically required with all permit and zoning applications submitted to local permitting agencies. a. Plot plan b. Plant layout c. Plant building d. Layout design 10. Once the ______ is submitted to the local permit agency, a copy is often kept on record for future use or reference. a. plot plan b. plant layout c. plant building d. layout design

14/uts

Chapter II Traced and Jacketed Piping

Aim
The aim of this chapter is to: explain the advantages of pipe tracing systems introduce jacketed piping explain external tracer

Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to: explain Swaged jacketed piping introduce vacuum jacketed piping elucidate high pressure jacketed piping

Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: enlist the types of jacketed piping understand external tracer lines comprehend the importance of clips on tracers

15/uts

Layout Designing

2.1 Introduction
Preventing pipes from freezing during winter is essential for residential, commercial and industrial consumers alike. Pipe tracing products are the most effective means of combating property damage caused by frozen, damaged pipes. The advantages of the pipe tracing systems are: Ice-free pipes Constant flow in pipes Depth reduction for underground pipes No repair costs after a hard winter No hardening of fatty products in pipe systems Efficient hot water supply

The temperature of the process liquids being transferred through pipelines must be maintained regularly, to meet the requirements of a process, to prevent thickening and solidification, or simply as an anti-frost measure. This is achieved by the use of jacketed pipes; or by attaching to the product line one or more separate tracer lines carrying a heating medium such as steam or hot water. The steam usage may be relatively small, but the tracing system is often a major part of the steam installation, and the source of many of the problems. Many large users and plant contractors have their own in-house rules for tracer lines, but the following guide-lines may be useful in other cases.

2.2 Jacketed Piping

A jacketed pipe is a pipe protected by an insulating cover. Typically used for the transportation of hot steam or hot water, a jacketed pipe maintains the temperature of the material flowing through it. Often found in buildings and ships, jacketed pipes also can be found in very large-scale pipelines that carry oil in severely cold areas, such as the U.S. Alaskan oil pipeline. The jacketed pipe used in such large pipelines prevents the harsh elements outside from turning the oil inside from becoming so thick that it can no longer flow through the pipeline. In large buildings, a jacketed pipe is often used to carry super-heated steam from heating units located in the basement of the building to heating units in the uppermost floors. In order to maintain the heat, the jacketed pipe is manufactured with very heavy fibre glass insulation. The fibreglass insulation is often coated with a foil-like material in order to enhance the heat retention properties of the insulation. Seams and joints in the covered pipe are taped with an insulating tape to create a seamless cover. Not only heated pipes but jacketed pipes are also used to insulate very cold pipes. One example is a pipe transporting liquid oxygen, an extremely cold material that is often used aboard ships. In an effort to prevent the pipes carrying the cold liquid from becoming frost and ice covered, as they snake through the ship, the heavily insulated cover keeps the cold inside the pipe. If not for the insulation covering the pipe, any contact with skin could result in a cold burn that would require immediate medical attention. Pipes carrying refrigeration materials are also covered with thick insulation. By covering the pipes with insulation, the compressors and evaporators are not worked as hard in order to maintain the cold setting of the refrigeration units. The use of a jacketed pipe also aids in the reduction of condensation-based water dripping from the supercold pipeline. This reduces the risk of slip-and-fall accidents in areas where the pipeline passes through walk ways and passenger corridors. In the largest form, a jacketed pipe is often created by applying spray-on insulating foam to large pipelines. This type of insulation-covered pipeline, used in cold climates, prevents material such as crude oil from becoming cold and thick. Without the insulation, oil flowing through the massive pipeline could become too thick to pump and could virtually stop flowing. This would hinder any attempts at loading the crude onto ships or trucks for transportation to refineries.

16/uts

2.3 Jacketed Lines

Ideally, jacketed lines should be constructed in no more than 6m, 20 ft lengths and the condensate removed from each section. Steam should enter at the highest end, so that there is a natural fall to the condensate out let. When it is considered impractical to trap each length, a number of lengths up to a total of 24-30m (80-100 ft) approximately may be formed together in moderate climates, but in extremely cold parts of the world, 12 m (40 ft) should be maximum. Always avoid connecting solely through the bottom loop. This can only handle the condensate and baulks the free of steam as. Product Line Size 65 mm - 21/2 80 mm - 3 100 mm - 4 150 mm - 6 200 mm - 8 250 mm - 10 Jacket Size 100 mm 4 150 mm 6 150 mm 6 200 mm 10 250 mm 10 300 mm 12 Table 2.1 Steam connection size for jacketed lines 2.3.1 Types of Jacketed Piping Jacketed piping can be classified into four main types which are explained below. Standard Jacketed Piping Standard jacketed piping provides the most uniform application of heat to the process and maintains the most uniform process temperatures. The core pipe is welded to the front and back of a slip-on flange, and the jacket pipe is welded to the back of the flange. Flanges can be a large heat sink for the process, and this construction allows the heating medium to heat the flanges as well as the process piping, thus preventing cold flanges from disrupting the process. Oversized flanges are required to allow sufficient room for bolting up the flanges during pipe installation. Consequently, all equipment (valves, pumps, meters, etc.) must also utilize oversized flanges or special flange adapters. Standard jacketed piping is used most frequently with processes that have a narrow temperature range, require very uniform temperature maintenance, and/or must have maximum heat input for melt-out or heat exchanger service. Steam Connection 15 mm 1/2 20 mm 3/4 20 mm 3/4 25 mm 3/4 25 mm 1 25 mm 1

Heating Fluid

Process

Jacket-Size Flange
Fig. 2.1 Standard jacketed piping (Source: http://www.csiheat.com)

17/uts

Layout Designing

Insert-flanged Jacketed Piping Insert-Flanged jacketed piping features all the thermal benefits of standard jacketed piping with improved bolt-up flexibility. Rather than a standard slip-on flange, an insert flange is utilised. This flange is comprised of an insert (or hub) and a backing flange which is free to rotate on the insert (to ensure bolt hole alignment during installation). The core and jacket pipes are welded to the insert in the same manner as in standard jacketed piping.

Heating Fluid

Process

Core-Size Flange Jacket-Size Flange

Process

Heating Fluid

Fig. 2.2 Insert-flanged jacketed piping (Source: http://www.csiheat.com) There are two types of insert flanges: reducing and non-reducing. Reducing insert flanges have the same size requirements as standard jacketed piping; the backing flange size matches the nominal size of the jacket pipe. In order to fit the reducing insert flange, equipment must have oversized flanges. Non-reducing insert flanges are sized to match the core pipe and allow the use of core-sized equipment. In this regard, non-reducing insert-flanged jacketed piping is similar to swaged jacketed piping; but unlike swaged construction, non-reducing insert flanges enable back-of-flange heating for more uniform temperature control. Due to its smaller size, the non-reducing insert flange demands more dexterity of installation personnel than does a reducing insert flange. For this reason, many designers specify reducing flanges on pipe-to-pipe connections and non-reducing flanges on pipe-to-equipment connections. Swaged Jacketed Piping In swaged jacketed piping, the jacket is terminated prior to the flange. This is accomplished via a jacket-sized pipe cap which is welded to the core pipe a short distance from the back of the flange. The principal benefit of this construction is the ability to use core-size flanges on both, piping and mating equipment. Using equipment with standard, core-size flanges favourably impacts the cost of a piping system. Another benefit is the ability to significantly limit the potential for cross contamination by avoiding concealed welds. Because swaged jacketed piping does not directly provide heat to the back of the flange, its usage is limited to processes which can accommodate a broader temperature range and colder flanges.

18/uts

Heating Fluid Process

Core-Size Flange Heating Fluid Process

Core-Size Flange Core-Size Flange

Process Heating Fluid

Fig. 2.3 Swaged jacketed piping (Source: http://www.csiheat.com) High-pressure Jacketed Piping In many high-pressure applications, designers often prefer to use hub-type (Grayloc) connectors for pipe-to-pipe connections. The hubs save both, weight and space compared to ANSI Class 1500 or 2500 flanges. In standard hubtype designs, the heating medium must be transferred across the connector via external jumpovers. But, hub-type connectors are also available in flow-through designs which allow the heating medium to be directly transferred from one pipe spool to another.

Hub

Process

Heating Fluid

Fig. 2.4 High-pressure jacketed piping (Source: http://www.csiheat.com)

19/uts

Layout Designing

Vacuum Jacketed Piping Vacuum-jacketed pipe (VJ) is an efficient, safe, cost-saving piping solution for flowing liquid nitrogen and carbon dioxide from your storage vessel(s) to the places within your facility in which the liquefied gas is to be used. This specially-designed piping is actually a combination of an inner pipe (through which the liquid gas flows), an outer pipe and the space between the two which creates the vacuum jacket. By creating a vacuum between the two pipes, you are able to greatly reduce the effects of heat loss that is created through radiation, convection, and conduction, thus minimising product loss during transfer from your bulk vessel to your need point within the facility.

2.4 External Tracers

In horizontal runs, the steam will generally flow parallel to the product line but as far as possible, steam should enter from the high end to allow free flow of the condensate to the low end, i.e., it should always be self-draining. It is generally considered preferable to fit one tracer on the bottom of the line as two tracers at 300, as three tracers at 450. In vertical lines, the tracers would be spaced uniformly. The maximum permissible length of tracer will depend to some extent of the size and initial steam pressure. 2.4.1 External Tracer Lines One or more heat carrying lines of sizes ranging from 10 mm (3/8) up to 25 mm (1) nominal bore are attached to the main product pipe. Transfer of heat to the product line may be done in three ways; by conduction through direct contact, by convection currents in the air pocket formed inside the insulating jacket, and by radiation. The tracer lines may be of carbon steel or copper, or sometimes stainless steel. The product line is of a particular material should be chosen so as to suit the fluid it is carrying. The material for the tracer line must avoid electrolytic corrosion at any contact points.
Steam Fall

Steam Trap Steam Fall

Steam Trap

Incorrect arrangement Steam Trap Correct arrangement Incorrect arrangement

(a)

(b)

(c)

Correct arrangement

Incorrect arrangement

Fig. 2.5 Typical correct and incorrect arrangement (Source: http://www.pipingguide.net)

20/uts

For short runs of tracer, such as around short vertical pipes, or valves and fittings, small bore copper pipes perhaps 6 mm (1/4) bore may be wound around the product lines. The layout should be arranged to give a continuous fall along the tracers.
Steam Grayscale Steam Grayscale Incorrect arrangement Steam trap Steam Steam Grayscale Steam trap Grayscale Steam trap Steam

Grayscale Steam trap

3/8 (10mm) OD 15/4 (6mm) bore

Tracers

Steam Steam trap Steam 3/6/10 mm OD 1/4(6mm) bore Steam trap

Headers

Steam trap

Tracers

Steam trap

Fig. 2.6 Traces line around the pump casing (Source: http://www.pipingguide.net) 2.4.2 Clips on Tracers The simplest form of tracer is one that is clipped or wired on to the main product line. The maximum heat flow is achieved when the tracer is in tight contact with the product line. The securing clips should be no further apart than 0.3 to 0.45m (12 to 18) on 10 mm (3/8) tracers, 0.45 to 0.6 to 0.9m (24 to 36) on 20 mm (3.4) and larger. The tracer pipes can be literally wired on, but to maintain close contact it is better to use either galvanised or stainless steel bands, about 15mm (1/2) wide and 1.25mm or 0.9mm (18 to 20 SEG) thickness. One very practical method is to use a packing case banding machine. Where tracers are carried around bends particular care should be taken to ensure that good contact is maintained by using three or more bands.

21/uts

Layout Designing
x Reducer coupling x Reducer coupling Traced pipe Tracer dia. NB tracer Traced pipe
NB tracer

450

Top entry Installation of two tracers

Side entry Arrangement of distributors

360 1NB steam supply Lead 80 100 100 80 80 100

460 100 100 80

NB tracers

NB tracers Tracers Min Tracers

450

Side entry

Top entry

Fig. 2.7 Installation of three tracers (Source: http://www.pipingguide.net) 2.4.3 Welded Tracer and Heat Conducting Paste The tracer may be welded to the product line when the temperature difference between the tracer and the product is low. This can be done either by short run welds as in figure 2.8a or by a continuous weld as in figure 2.5b for maximum heat transfer. In these cases, the tracer is sometimes laid along the top of the pipe rather than at the bottom, which greatly simplifies the welding procedure. The product being carried in the line can be sensitive to temperature in some cases and it is then important to avoid any local not spots on the pipe. This is done by introducing a strip of insulating material between the tracer and the product pipe using gals fibre or mineral wool or sometimes packing blocks of inert material as distance pieces.

22/uts

Lagging Product Air space Tracer attached to product line

(a)

Lagging

(b)
Continuous fall on wrap around tracer Heat conducting paste

Product

Heat conducting paste

Lagging

Lagging Product

Lagging Product

Product

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 2.8 Insulating tracer and product lines (Source: http://www.pipingguide.net) 2.4.4 Insulation The insulation must cover both, the product line and the tracer but it is important that the air space remains clear. This can be achieved in many ways. The product line and tracer can first be wrapped with aluminium, foil, or by galvanized steel sheet, held on by wiring and the insulation is then applied outside this sheet. Alternatively, a small mesh galvanised wire netting can be used in the same way as metal sheet.
Process line Internal guide flat bar L=50mm 300 Jacket line D 300 Internal guide flat bar L=50mm 300 D

300

Jacket line

Jacket line E A B Detail process line dia 1/z to 20 A B Detail process line dia 1 and bigger

Fig. 2.9 Typical trace line and jacketed line (Source: http://www.pipingguide.net/2010/02/traced-and-jacketed-piping.html)

23/uts

Layout Designing

Sectional insulation, preformed to one or two sizes larger than the insulation is then applied outside this sheet. Alternatively, small mesh galvanised wire netting can be used in the same way as metal sheet. Preformed sectional insulation is usually preferred to plastic material because being rigid, It retains its thickness and efficiency better. In all cases, the insulation should properly cover all parts otherwise it becomes useless as heat conserving material if mechanical damage is allowed.

2.4.5 Sizing of External Tracers The tracing or jacketing of any line normally aims at maintaining the contents of the line at a satisfactory working temperature under all conditions of low ambient temperature with adequate reserve to meet extreme conditions. On some exposed sites, with an ambient still air temperature of say-180C (0F), the effect of a 24 km/h (15 mph) wind will lower the temperature to an equivalent of-380 C (360 F). Even 00C (320 F) in still air can be lowered to an effective-160C (40 F) with a 30 km/h (20 mph) wind. Such circumstances must be taken into consideration when studying the tracer line requirements. Most of the sizing of external tracers is done by rule of thumb. Rule of thumb practices are generally based on the experiences of a certain company on a particular process and do not necessarily apply elsewhere. There are also widely differing opinions on the layout: some say that multiple tracers should all be below the centre line of the product line whilst others say with equal conviction that it is perfectly satisfactory to space the tracers equally around the line. Type A would suffice for most fuel oil requirements and would also meet the requirement of those lines carrying acid, phenol, water and some other chemicals but in some cases spacer tracing would be employed. The steam pressure is important and must be chosen according to the product temperature required. Type A
Where solidification may occur at temps below 24 deg. C (75 deg. F)

Type B
Where solidification may occur at temps between 24-66 deg. C (75-150 deg. F)

Type C
Where solidification may occur at temps between 66-149 deg. C (150-300 deg. F)

Product Line Size 25mm 1 40mm 11/2 50mm 2 80mm 3 100mm 4 150mm 6 200mm 8 250-350mm 10 12 450-400mm 14-16 450-500mm 18-20 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2

No. Of 15mm Tracers 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 6 8 10

Table 2.2 Number of 15mm tracers used with different product line sizes (Source: http://www.pipingguide.net/2010/02/traced-and-jacketed-piping.html)

24/uts

Summary
Preventing pipes from freezing during winter is essential for residential, commercial and industrial consumers alike. Pipe tracing products are the most effective means of combating property damage caused by frozen, damaged pipes. The steam usage may be relatively small, but the tracing system is often a major part of the steam installation, and the source of many of the problems. A jacketed pipe is a pipe protected by an insulating cover. Typically used for the transportation of hot steam or hot water, a jacketed pipe maintains the temperature of the material flowing through it. Transfer of heat to the product line may be done in three ways; by conduction through direct contact, by convection currents in the air pocket formed inside the insulating jacket, and by radiation. The simplest form of tracer is one that is clipped or wired on to the main product line. The tracer may be welded to the product line when the temperature difference between the tracer and the product is low. The tracing or jacketing of any line normally aims at maintaining the contents of the line at a satisfactory working temperature under all conditions of low ambient temperature with adequate reserve to meet extreme conditions.

References
Bausbacher, E., Hunt, R., 1993. Process plant layout and piping design, PTR Prentice Hall. Boyce, M. P., 2002. Gas turbine engineering handbook, 2nd ed., Gulf Professional Publishing Nayyar, M.L., 2000. Piping Handbook, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill.

Recommended Reading
Dickenson, T. C., 1999. Valves, piping, and pipelines handbook, 3rd ed., Elsevier Silowash, B., 2009. Piping Systems Manual, McGraw Hill Professional. Smith, P. 2007. The Fundamentals of Piping Design: Drafting and Design Methods for Process Applications, Gulf Pub.

25/uts

Layout Designing

Self Assessment
1. ___________ is a pipe protected by an insulating cover. a. Jacketed pipe b. Traced pipe c. Process pipe d. Steam traced pipe 2. In large buildings, a ____________ is often used to carry super-heated steam from heating units located in the basement of the building to heating units in the uppermost floors. a. traced pipe b. jacketed pipe c. heat tracing pipe d. steam tracing pipe 3. Which statement is true? a. The material for the tracer line must have electrolytic corrosion at any contact points. b. The hardest form of tracer is one that is clipped or wired on to the main product line. c. The tracer pipes can be literally wired on, but to maintain close contact it is better to use either galvanised or stainless steel bands. d. The maximum heat flow is achieved when the tracer is not in contact with the product line. 4. ______________ should be constructed in no more than 6m, 20 ft lengths and the condensate removed from each section. a. Tracers b. Tracing pipes c. Steam tracing pipes d. Jacketed lines 5. Jacketed piping is categorised in ___________ types. a. four b. three c. two d. one 6. ________________ provides the most uniform application of heat to the process and maintains the most uniform process temperatures. a. Insert-flanged jacketed piping b. Standard jacketed piping c. Swaged jacketed piping d. High-pressure jacketed piping 7. Designers often prefer to use hub-type (Grayloc) connectors for pipe-to-pipe connections in which of these type of piping? a. Insert-flanged jacketed piping b. Standard jacketed piping c. High-pressure jacketed piping d. Swaged jacketed piping

26/uts

8. In ____________, the jacket is terminated prior to the flange. a. insert-flanged jacketed piping b. standard jacketed piping c. high-pressure jacketed piping d. swaged jacketed piping 9. Insert flanges are divided in___________. a. two parts b. three parts c. four parts d. five parts 10. _________________ features all the thermal benefits of standard jacketed piping with improved bolt-up flexibility. a. Insert-flanged jacketed piping b. Standard jacketed piping c. Swaged jacketed piping d. High-pressure jacketed piping

27/uts

Layout Designing

Chapter III Compressor and the Compressed Air System

Aim
The aim of this chapter is to: introduce compressor and compressed air system explain the assessment of compressor and compressed air system elucidate pressure settings

Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to: explicate compressor house and piping layout introduce the pressure drops in air filter explain the inter and after coolers

Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: understand maintenance practice enlist the different types compressors infer components of a compressor

28/uts

3.1 Introduction
Air compressors account for significant amount of electricity used in Indian industries. Air compressors are used in a variety of industries to supply process requirements, to operate pneumatic tools and equipment, and to meet instrumentation needs. It is simple to use, but complicated and costly to create.

3.2 Compressor Types

Compressors are broadly classified as follows:

Compressor

Positive Displacement Compressor

Dynamic Co mpressor

Fig. 3.1 Types of compressor Positive displacement compressors increase the pressure of the gas by reducing the volume. Positive displacement compressors are further classified as reciprocating and rotary compressors. Dynamic compressors increase the air velocity, which is then converted to increased pressure at the outlet. Dynamic compressors are basically centrifugal compressors and are further classified as radial and axial flow types.

The flow and pressure requirements of a given application determine the suitability of a particulars type of compressor. Compressor is further classified as

Compressor

Positive Displacement

Dynamic

Reciprocating

Rotary

Centrifugal

Axial

Single-Acting
Double-Acting

Helical-Screw

Liquid Ring

Scroll

Sliding-Vane

Lobe

Fig. 3.2 Classification of compressor (Source: www.em-ea.org)

29/uts

Layout Designing

3.2.1 Positive Displacement Compressor These compressors are available in two types: reciprocating and rotary. Reciprocating compressor In industry, reciprocating compressors are the most widely used types for both, air and refrigerant compression. They work on the principles of a bicycle pump and are characterised by a flow output that remains nearly constant over a range of discharge pressures. Also, the compressor capacity is directly proportional to the speed. The output, however, is a pulsating one.

Fig. 3.3 Reciprocating compressor (Source: http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org) Reciprocating compressors are available in many configurations, the four most widely used of which are horizontal, vertical, and horizontal balance-opposed and tandem. Vertical type reciprocating compressors are used in the capacity range of 50 150 cfm. Horizontal balance opposed compressors are used in the capacity range of 200 5000 cfm in multi-stage design and up to 10,000 cfm in single stage designs. The reciprocating air compressor is considered single acting when the compressing is accomplished using only one side of the piston. A compressor using both sides of the piston is considered double acting. A compressor is considered to be single stage when the entire compression is accomplished with a single cylinder or a group of cylinders in parallel. Many applications involve conditions beyond the practical capability of a single compression stage. Two stage machines are used for high pressures and are characterised by lower discharge temperature (140 to 1600C) compared to single-stage machines (205 to 240o C). For practical purposes most plant air reciprocating air compressors over 100 horsepower are built as multi-stage units in which two or more steps of compression are grouped in series. The air is normally cooled between the stages to reduce the temperature and volume entering the following stage. Reciprocating air compressors are available either as air-cooled or water-cooled in lubricated and non- lubricated configurations, may be packaged, and provide a wide range of pressure and capacity selections.

30/uts

Rotary compressor Rotary compressors have rotors in place of pistons and give a continuous pulsation free discharge.They operate at high speed and generally provide higher throughput than reciprocating compressors. Their capital costs are low, they are compact in size, have low weight, and are easy to maintain. For this reason, they have gained popularity. They are most commonly used in sizes from about 30 to 200 hp or 22 to 150 kW.

Fig. 3.4 Screw compressor (Source: http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org) Types of rotary compressors include: Lobe compressor (roots blower) Screw compressor (rotary screw of helical-lobe, where mail and female screw rotors moving in opposite directions and trap air, which is compressed as it moves forward) Rotary vane / sliding- vane, liquid-ring, and scroll-type

Rotary screw compressors may be air or water-cooled. Since the cooling takes place right inside the compressor, the working parts never experience extreme operating temperatures. The rotary compressor, therefore, is a continuous duty, air cooled or water cooled compressor package. Because of the simple design and few wearing parts, rotary screw air compressors are easy to maintain, operate, and provide great installation flexibility. Rotary air compressors can be installed on any surface that will support the static weight. 3.2.2 Dynamic Compressor Dynamic compressors are mainly centrifugal compressors and operate on similar principles to centrifugal pump. These compressors have appreciably different characteristics as compared to reciprocating machines. A small change in compression ratio produces a marked change in compressor output and efficiency. Centrifugal machines are better suited for applications requiring very high capacities, typically above 12,000 cfm. The centrifugal air compressor depends on transfer of energy from a rotating impeller to the air. The rotor accomplishes this by changing the momentum and pressure of the air. This momentum is converted to useful pressure by slowing the air down in a stationary diffuser. The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free compressor by design. The oil-lubricated running gear is separated from the air by shaft seals and atmospheric vents. The centrifugal is a continuous duty compressor, with few moving parts, and is particularly suited to high volume applications, especially where oil free air is required.

31/uts

Layout Designing

Housing Air out Air thrown off at rim of impeller

Air

Impeller

Air enters in center

Fig. 3.5 Centrifugal compressor (Source: http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org) A single-stage centrifugal machine can provide the same capacity as a multi-stage reciprocating compressor. Machines with either axial or radial flow impellers are available. Axial flow compressors are suitable for higher compression ratios and are generally more efficient than radial compressors. Axial compressors typically are multi-stage machines, while radial machines are usually single-stage designs. The following table shows the general selection criteria for compressor.

Types of Compressor

Capacity (m3/h) From To 30000

Pressure (bar) From 0.1 To 1

Roots blower compressor single stage Reciprocating -Single/Two stage -Multi stage Screw -Single stage -Two stage Centrifugal

100

100 100 100 100 600

12000 12000 2400 2200 300000

0.8 12.0 0.8 0.8 0.1

12 700 13 24 450

Table 3.1 General selection criteria of compressors (Source: http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org)

32/uts

3.3 Assessment of Compressor and Compressed Air System

Compressor performance is measured on the following basis. 3.3.1 Capacity of a Compressor Capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow of gas compressed and delivered at conditions of total temperature, total pressure and composition prevailing at the compressor inlet. It sometimes means actual flow rate, rather than rated volume of flow. This also termed as Free Air Delivery (FAD), i.e., air at atmospheric conditions at any specific location. Because the altitude, barometer, and temperature may vary at different localities and at different times, it follows that this term does not mean air under identical or standard conditions. 3.3.2 Compressor Efficiency Definitions Several different measures of compressor efficiency are commonly used: volumetric efficiency, adiabatic efficiency, isothermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency. Adiabatic and isothermal efficiencies are computed as the isothermal or adiabatic power divided by the actual power consumption. The figure obtained indicates the overall efficiency of compressor and drive motor. Isothermal Efficiency Isothermal efficiency = Isothermal power(kW) = P1 X Q1 X logcr/36.7 Where, P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/cm2 Q1 = Free air delivered m3/hr r = Pressure ratio P2/P1 The calculation of isothermal power does not include power needed to overcome friction and generally gives an efficiency that is lower than adiabatic efficiency. The reported value of efficiency is normally the isothermal efficiency. This is an important consideration when selecting compressors based on reported values of efficiency. Volumetric Efficiency Volumetric Efficiency = Compressor Displacement = D = Cylinder bore, metre L = Cylinder stroke, metre S = Compressor speed rpm = 1 for single acting and 2 for double acting cylinder n = No. Pf cylinders For practical purposes, the most effective guide in comparing compressor efficiencies is the specific power consumption, i.e., kW/volume flow rate, for different compressors that would provide identical duty.

33/uts

Layout Designing

3.4 Components of Compressed Air System

Compressed air systems consist of following major components: Intake air filters, inter-stage coolers, after coolers, air dryers, moisture drain traps, receivers, piping network, filters, regulators, and lubricators.

Supplemental Aftercooler

Dryer

Air Receiver Distribution system

Air Inlet Filter Compressor Package Enclosure

Air Filter

Aftercooler and Lubricant Cooler Pneumatic Tool

Control Panel Motor Compressor Air End Lubricant Air Separator

Filter, Regulator and Lubricator

Fig. 3.6 A Typical Compressed Air System Components and Network (Source: www.em-ea.org) Intake Air Filters: Prevent dust from entering compressor. Dust causes sticking valves, scoured cylinders, excessive wear etc. Inter-stage Coolers: Reduce the temperature of the air before it enters the next stage to reduce the work of compression and increase efficiency. They are normally water-cooled. After Coolers: The objective is to remove the moisture in the air by reducing the temperature in a water-cooled heat exchanger. Air-dryers: The remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler are removed using air dryers, as air for instrument and pneumatic equipment has to be relatively free of any moisture. The moisture is removed by using adsorbents like silica gel /activated carbon, or refrigerant dryers, or heat of compression dryers. Moisture Drain Traps: Moisture drain traps are used for removal of moisture in the compressed air. These traps resemble steam traps. Various types of traps used are manual drain cocks, timer based / automatic drain valves etc. Receivers: Air receivers are provided as storage and smoothening pulsating air output - reducing pressure variations from the compressor.

3.4.1 Compressor House and Piping Layout If the compressor is handling a gas heavier than air, eliminate pits or trenches in the compressor house to avoid a suffocation or explosion risk. Provide air entry louvers, if a compressor takes air from within a compressor house or other building. Provide maintenance facilities, including a lifting rail or access for mobile lifting equipment. Allow adequate floor space for use during maintenance. Additional access may be required for installation.

34/uts

Prevent transmission of vibration by providing a foundation for the compressor, separate from the compressorhouse foundation. Consider the use of noise-absorbing materials and construction for a compressor house. The vendors drawings should be examined to determine what auxiliary piping, valves and equipment covered in the design points are to be supplied with the compressor by the vendor. Install the compressor on a concrete pad or elevated structure. Piling is often a necessary part of the foundation. Large reciprocating compressors are often installed on an elevated structure to allow access to valves and provide space for piping. Provide a platform for operation and maintenance of such an installation. Keep piping clear of cylinders of reciprocating compressors and provide withdrawal space at cylinder heads. Use long-radius elbows or bends, not short-radius elbows or mitres. If the compressor and the pressurised gas are cooled with water, route cooling water first to the after cooler, then to the intercooler (for a two stage machine), and lastly to the cylinder jackets (or casing jacket, if present, in other types of compressor). Arrange an air compressor, associated equipment, and piping so that water is able to drain continuously from the system. Pipe a separate trapped drain for each pressure stage. Ensure that the pressure into which any trap discharges will be lower than that of the system being drainedless the pressure drop over the trap and its associated piping. Do not pipe different pressure stages through separate check valves to a common trap. If a toxic or otherwise hazardous gas is to be compressed, vent possible shaft seal leakage to the suction line to avoid a dangerous atmosphere forming around the compressor. Do not overlook substantial space required for lube oil and seal oil control consoles for compressors.

Silencer Filter Separator

PI

PI

PI

TI
After Cooler

TI
Separator

PI
Receiver

TI
To Users

1st stage
Driver

Inter Cooler

2st stage

To Drain

Fig. 3.7 Schematic arrangement of compressed air equipment (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/31596482/Compressor-and-Copmressed-Air-Systems) 3.4.2 Location of Compressor The location of air compressors and the quality of air drawn by the compressors will have a significant influence on the amount of energy consumed. Compressor performance as a breathing machine improves with cool, clean, dry air at intake. 3.4.3 Air Intake Temperature The effect of intake air on compressor performance should not be underestimated. Intake air that is contaminated or hot can impair compressor performance and result in excess energy and maintenance costs. If moisture, dust, or other contaminants are present in the intake air, such contaminants can build up on the internal components of the compressor, such as valves, impellers, rotors, and vanes. Such build-up can cause premature wear and reduce compressor capacity.
35/uts

Layout Designing

The compressor generates heat due to its continuous operation. This heat gets dissipated to compressor room/ chamber leading to hot air intake. This results in lower volumetric efficiency and higher power consumption. As a general rule, Every 4oC rise in inlet air temperature results in a higher energy consumption by 1 percent to achieve equivalent output. Hence, the intake of cool air improves the energy efficiency of a compressor. Inlet Temperature (oC) 10.0 15.5 21.1 26.6 32.2 37.7 43.3 Relative Air Delivery (%) 102.0 100.0 98.1 96.3 94.1 92.8 91.2 Power Saved (%) +1.4 NIL -1.3 -2.5 -4.0 -5.0 -5.8

Table 3.2 Effect of intake air temperature on compressor power consumption (Source: http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org) When an intake air filter is located at the compressor, the ambient temperature should be kept at a minimum, to prevent reduction in mass flow. This can be accomplished by locating the inlet pipe outside the room or building. When the intake air filter is located outside the building, and particularly on a roof, ambient considerations may be taken into account. 3.4.4 Pressure Drops in Air Filter A compressor intake air filter should be installed in, or have air brought to it from a clean, cool location. The compressor manufacturer normally supplies, or recommends, a specific grade of intake filter designed to protect the compressor. Better the filtration at the compressor inlet, lower is the the maintenance at the compressor. However, the pressure drop across the intake air filter should be kept at a minimum (by size and by maintenance) to prevent a throttling effect and a reduction in compressor capacity. A pressure differential gauge is one of the best tools to monitor the condition of the inlet filter. The pressure drop across a new inlet filter should not exceed 3 pounds per square inch (psi). Pressure drop across air filter (mmWC) 0 200 400 600 800 Increase in power consumption 0 1.6 3.2 4.7 7.0

Table 3.3 Effect of pressure drop across the filter on increase in power consumption (Source: http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org) As a general rule For every 250 mm, WC pressure drop increase across at the suction path due to choked filters etc, the compressor power consumption increases by about 2 percent for the same output. Hence, it is advisable to clean inlet air filters at regular intervals to minimize pressure drops. Manometers or differential pressure gauges across filters may be used to monitor pressure drops so as to plan filter-cleaning schedules. 3.4.5 Elevation Altitude has a direct impact on the volumetric efficiency of a compressor. It is evident that compressors located at higher altitudes consume more power to achieve a particular delivery pressure than those at sea level, as the compression ratio is higher.
36/uts

Altitude Meters Sea level 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Barometric Pressure milli bar*

Percentage Relative Volumetric Efficiency Compared with Sea Level At 7 bar 100.0 97.7 95.2 92.7 90.0 87.0

At 4 bar 1013 100.0 945 98.7 894 97.0 840 95.5 789 93.9 737 92.1 -3 1 milli bar = 1.01972 x 10 kg/cm2 Table 3.4 Effect of altitude on compressor volumetric efficiency (Source: http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org)

3.4.6 Inter and After Coolers Most multi-stage compressors use intercoolers, which are heat exchangers that remove the heat of compression between the stages of compression. Intercooling affects the overall efficiency of the machine. As mechanical energy is applied to the gas for compression, the temperature of the gas increases. After-coolers are installed after the final stage of compression to reduce the air temperature. As the air temperature is reduced, water vapour in the air is condensed, separated, collected, and drained from the system. Most of the condensate from a compressor with intercooling is removed in the intercooler(s), and the remainder in the after-cooler. Almost all industrial systems, except those that supply process air to heat-indifferent operations, require after-cooling. In some systems, after-coolers are an integral part of the compressor package, while in other systems the after-cooler is a separate piece of equipment. Some systems have both. Ideally, the temperature of the inlet air at each stage of a multi-stage machine should be the same as it was at the first stage. This is referred to as perfect cooling or isothermal compression. But in actual practice, the inlet air temperatures at subsequent stages are higher than the normal levels resulting in higher power consumption, as larger volume is handled for the same duty. 3.4.7 Pressure Settings For the same capacity, a compressor consumes more power at higher pressures. Compressors should not be operated above their optimum operating pressures as this not only wastes energy, but also leads to excessive wear, leading to further energy wastage. The volumetric efficiency of a compressor is also less at higher delivery pressures. Reducing Delivery Pressure The possibility of lowering (optimising) the delivery pressure settings should be explored by careful study of pressure requirements of various equipments, and the pressure drop in the line between the compressed air generation and utilisation points. Pressure Reduction Fro (bar) 6.8 6.8 To (bar) 6.1 5.5 Single-stage Water-cooled 4 9 Power Saving (%) Two-stage Water-cooled 4 11 Two-stage Aircooled 2.6 6.5

Table 3.5 Effect of reduction in delivery pressure on power consumption (Source: http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org)

37/uts

Layout Designing

If one point-of-use or a minority of users require higher pressures than the remainder of the plant, consider putting those operations on its own system or add a booster package at the point of- use, therefore keeping the larger system operating at lower pressures. The operating of a compressed air system gently affects the cost of compressed air. Operating a compressor at 120 PSIG instead of 100 PSIG, for instance, requires 10percent more energy as well as increasing the leakage rate. Every effort should be made to reduce the system and compressor pressure to the lowest possible setting. Note: A reduction in the delivery pressure by 1 bar in a compressor would reduce the power consumption by 6 10 percent. Compressor modulation by optimum pressure setting Very often in an industry, different types, capacities and makes of compressors are connected to a common distribution network. In such situations, proper selection of a right combination of compressors and optimal modulation of different compressors can conserve energy. Where more than one compressor feeds a common header, compressors have to be operated in such a way that the cost of compressed air generation is minimal. If all compressors are similar, the pressure setting can be adjusted such that only one compressor handles the load variation, whereas the others operate more or less at full load. If compressors are of different sizes, the pressure switch should be set such that only the smallest compressor is allowed to modulate (vary in flow rate). If different types of compressors are operated together, unload power consumptions are significant. The compressor with lowest no load power must be modulated. In general, the compressor with lower part load power consumption should be modulated. Compressors can be graded according to their specific energy consumption, at different pressures and with energy efficient ones made to meet most of the demand

Segregating high and low pressure requirement If the low-pressure air requirement is considerable, it is advisable to generate low-pressure and high-pressure air separately and feed to the respective sections instead of reducing the pressure through pressure reducing valves, which invariably waste energy Design for minimum pressure drop in the distribution line Pressure drop is a term used to characterise the reduction in air pressure from the compressor discharge to the actual point-of-use. Pressure drop occurs as the compressed air travels through the treatment and distribution system. A properly designed system should have a pressure loss of much less than 10 percent of the compressors discharge pressure, measured from the receiver tank output to the point-of-use. The longer and smaller diameter the pipe is, the higher the friction loss. To reduce pressure drop effectively, a loop system with two-way flow can be used. Pressure drop caused by corrosion and the system components themselves are important issues. Excess pressure drop due to inadequate pipe sizing, choked filter elements, improperly sized couplings and hoses represent energy wastage. Following table illustrates the energy wastage, if the pipes are of smaller diameter. Typical acceptable pressure drop in industrial practice is 0.3 bar in mains header at the farthest point and 0.5 bar in distribution system.

38/uts

Pipe Nominal Bore (mm) 40 50 65 80 100

Pressure drop (bar) per 100 meters 1.80 0.65 0.22 0.04 0.02

Equivalent power losses (kW) 9.5 3.4 1.2 0.2 0.1

Table 3.6 Typical pressure drop in compressed air line for different pipe size (Source: http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org) 3.4.8 Minimising Leakage Compressed air leakage accounts for substantial power wastage. Since air leaks are almost impossible to see, other methods must be used to locate them. The best way to detect leaks is to use an ultrasonic acoustic detector, which can recognise the high- frequency hissing sounds associated with air leaks. Ultrasonic leak detection is probably the most versatile form of leak detection. It is readily adapted to a variety of leak detection situations. Leaks occur most often at joints and connections. Stopping leaks can be as simple as tightening a connection or as complex as replacing faulty equipment, such as couplings, fittings, pipe sections, hoses, joints, drains, and traps. In many cases, leaks are caused by failed cleaning of threads or by bad or improperly applied thread sealant. Select high quality fittings, disconnects, hose, tubing, and install them properly with appropriate thread sealant to avoid future leakages. 3.4.9 Condensate Removal After compressed air leaves the compression chamber, the compressors after-cooler reduces the discharge air temperature well below the dew point (for most ambient conditions) and therefore considerable water vapour is condensed. To remove this condensation, most compressors with built- in after-coolers are furnished with a combination condensate separator/trap. In situations such as this, an isolation valve should be mounted near the compressor discharge. A drain line should be connected to the condensate drain in the base. The drain line must slope downward from the base to work properly. It is possible that additional condensation can occur if the downstream piping cools the air even further and low points in the piping systems should be provided with drip - legs and traps. It is also important that the discharge piping is the same size as the discharge connection at the compressor enclosure. All piping and fittings must be suitably rated for the discharge pressure. Careful review of piping size from the compressor connection point is essential. Lengths of pipes, sizes of pipes, number, and type of fittings and valves must be considered for optimum efficiency of the compressor. 3.4.10 Controlled Usage of Compressed Air Since the compressed air system is already available, plant engineers may be tempted to use compressed air to provide air for low-pressure applications such as agitation, pneumatic conveying or combustion air. Using a blower that is designed for lower pressure operation will cost only a fraction of compressed air generation energy and cost. 3.4.11 Compressor Controls Air compressors become inefficient when they are operated at significantly below their rated cfm output. To avoid running extra air compressors when they are not needed, a controller can be installed to automatically turn compressors on and off, based on demand. Also, if the pressure of the compressed air system is kept as low as possible, efficiency improves and air leaks are reduced.

39/uts

Layout Designing

3.4.12 Maintenance Practice Good and proper maintenance practices will dramatically improve the performance efficiency of a compressor system. Following are a few tips for efficient operation and maintenance of industrial compressed air systems: Lubrication: Compressor oil pressure should be visually checked daily, and the oil filter changed monthly. Air Filters: The inlet air filter can easily become clogged, particularly in dusty environments. Filters should be checked and replaced regularly. Condensate Traps: Many systems have condensate traps to gather and (for those traps fitted with a float operated valve) flush condensate from the system. Manual traps should be periodically opened and re-closed to drain any accumulated fluid; automatic traps should be checked to verify they are not leaking compressed air. Air Dryers: Drying air is energy-intensive. For refrigerated dryers, inspect and replace prefilters regularly as these dryers often have small internal passages that can become plugged with contaminants. Regenerative dryers require an effective oil-removal filter on their inlets, as they will not function well if lubricating oil from the compressor coats the desiccant. The temperature of deliquescent dryers should be kept below 100F to avoid increased consumption of the desiccant material, which should be replenished every 3-4 months depending on the rate of depletion.

40/uts

Summary
Air compressors are used in a variety of industries to supply process requirements, to operate pneumatic tools and equipment, and to meet instrumentation needs. They are simple to use, but complicated and costly to create. Compressors are broadly classified as Positive Displacement Compressor and Dynamic Compressor. Capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow of gas compressed and delivered at conditions of total temperature, total pressure and composition prevailing at the compressor inlet. Several different measures of compressor efficiency are commonly used: volumetric efficiency, adiabatic efficiency, isothermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency. Compressed air systems consist of following major components: Intake air filters, inter-stage coolers, after coolers, air dryers, moisture drain traps, receivers, piping network, filters, regulators, and lubricators. The location of air compressors and the quality of air drawn by the compressors will have a significant influence on the amount of energy consumed. Intake air that is contaminated or hot can impair compressor performance and result in excess energy and maintenance costs. Where more than one compressor feeds a common header, compressors have to be operated in such a way that the cost of compressed air generation is minimal. Compressed air leakage accounts for substantial power wastage. Air compressors become inefficient when they are operated at significantly below their rated cfm output. Good and proper maintenance practices will dramatically improve the performance efficiency of a compressor system.

References
Bausbacher, E., Hunt, R., 1993. Process plant layout and piping design, PTR Prentice Hall. Elliot, B., 2006. Compressed air operations manual: an illustrated guide to selection, installation, applications, and maintenance, McGraw-Hill Professional. Nayyar, M.L., 2000. Piping Handbook, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill.

Recommended Reading
Talbott, E. M., 1993. Compressed air systems: a guidebook on energy and cost savings, 2nd ed., The Fairmont Press, Inc. Silowash, B., 2009. Piping Systems Manual, McGraw Hill Professional. Smith, P. 2007. The Fundamentals of Piping Design: Drafting and Design Methods for Process Applications, Gulf Pub.

41/uts

Layout Designing

Self Assessment
1. Reciprocating compressor is a type of _______________. a. positive displacement compressor b. dynamic compressor c. centrifugal compressor d. rotary compressor 2. Lobe is a type of _____________ compressor a. dynamic b. rotary c. reciprocating d. centrifugal 3. Single-acting is a type of _____________ compressor. a. dynamic b. rotary c. reciprocating d. centrifugal 4. Which compressors are suitable for higher compression ratios and are generally more efficient than radial compressors? a. rotary compressor b. centrifugal compressor c. root blower compressor d. axial flow compressor 5. Compressors are broadly classified into how many types? a. Two b. Three c. Four d. Five 6. Which statement is false? a. Reciprocating compressors are available in many configurations. b. A compressor using both sides of the piston is considered centrifugal compressor. c. A compressor is considered to be single stage when the entire compression is accomplished with a single cylinder. d. Reciprocating air compressors are available either as air-cooled or water-cooled in lubricated and nonlubricated configurations. 7. Which compressors have rotors in place of pistons and give a continuous pulsation free discharge? a. Reciprocating compressor b. Centrifugal compressors c. Rotary compressors d. Single-acting compressors

42/uts

8. _________________ are mainly centrifugal compressors and operate on similar principles to centrifugal pump. a. Positive displacement compressors b. Reciprocating compressors c. Axial compressors d. Dynamic compressors 9. ____________ accounts for substantial power wastage. a. Compressed air leakage b. Condensate removal c. Compressor control d. Usage of compressed air 10. Axial compressor is a type of________________. a. positive displacement compressor b. dynamic compressor c. rotary compressor d. centrifugal compressor

43/uts

Layout Designing

Chapter IV Cooling Water System and Fire Fighting System

Aim
The aim of this chapter is to: introduce cooling water system explain the fire fighting system elucidate cooling towers

Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to: explicate cooling system process introduce chemistry of fire explain the cooling tower types

Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: understand classification of fire enlist the different components of a cooling tower infer components of a compressor

44/uts

4.1 Introduction
Water is the most efficient tool of dissipating unwanted heat. The most commercial buildings and industries use water to cool their HVAC and process machinery. A cooling tower is the most important piece of equipment in any industry whose primary purpose is to remove heat while minimising water usage. The amount of water consumed for cooling varies with the type of cooling system employed. The cooling system could be classified in three broad categories. Once through system In once through system, the cooling water passes through the heat exchange equipment only once. Water is simply drawn from estuary, lake, or river to the process equipment/heat exchanger and discharged back to river. This system is used where large volume of cooling water is required and where the water is available in plenty. Local environment authority having jurisdiction must permit such installation as the environment issues in many states do not permit discharging hot water directly to river because of water pollution and aquatic life concerns.

Cooling water users

Cooling water pump Screen

Cold water in

River

Hot water out

Fig. 4.1 Once thorough system Dry towers Dry towers or closed recirculation sy stem uses the same cooling water repeatedly in a continuous cycle. In dry cooling, there is no direct contact of water with air. This type of cooling system consumes little or no water, but it is very costly to construct. These systems are very common in countries where there is acute scarcity of water. The example of such countries are Middle East countries.

45/uts

Layout Designing

Cooling water users

Evaporation losses Cooling tower

Circulation pump Make up water from river etc. Make up water pump

Fig. 4.2 Recirculation or closed system Evaporative systems Evaporative systems such as wet cooling towers, cooling ponds, or spray ponds recirculate the water. A cooling tower is a device that cools water that gets heated in process cooling. Cooling towers are provided to re-use the same water for cooling again and again rather than discharging it to the environment. The cooling tower reduces the environmental impact of water pollution and promotes water conservation. In general, the most applications rely on the use of evaporative cooling tower systems.

4.2 Cooling Tower

Cooled water is needed for, for example, air conditioners, manufacturing processes, or power generation. A cooling tower is equipment used to reduce the temperature of a water stream by extracting heat from water and emitting it to the atmosphere. Cooling towers make use of evaporation whereby some of the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and subsequently discharged into the atmosphere. As a result, the remainder of the water is cooled down significantly. Cooling towers are able to lower the water temperatures more than devices that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator in a car, and are therefore more cost-effective and energy efficient.
Drift Evaporation Warm water Water sprayed downward Heat Exchanger Flow meter Make-up water Water with concentrated Mineral Salts Treatment chemicals Flow meter Blowdown Pump Cool water

Fig. 4.3 Schematic diagram of a cooling water system (Source: www.retscreen.net)

46/uts

4.3 Components of a Cooling Tower

The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, fill, cold-water basin, drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans. These are described below. Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures (casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some glass fiber units, the casing may essentially be the frame. Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by maximising water and air contact. There are two types of fill: Splash fill: Water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fills promote better heat transfer than wood splash fills. Film fill: This consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads, forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated, honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill. Cold-water basin: The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom of the tower, and it receives the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has a sump or low point for the cold-water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the coldwater basin is beneath the entire fill. In some forced draft counter flow design, however, the water at the bottom of the fill is channelled to a perimeter trough that functions as the coldwater basin. Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to blow the air up through the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted on legs, providing easy access to the fans and their motors. Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise would be lost to the atmosphere. Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an entire side of a tower (cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or the bottom of the tower (counter-flow design). Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to equalise air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower designs do not require louvers. Nozzles: These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed and spray in a round or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-section towers. Fans: Both, axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally, propeller fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found in forced draft towers. Depending upon their size, the type of propeller fans used is either fixed or variable pitch. A fan with non-automatic adjustable pitch blades can be used over a wide kW range because the fan can be adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in response to changing load conditions.

4.4 Tower Material

Originally, cooling towers were constructed primarily with wood, including the frame, casing, louvers, fill and coldwater basin. Sometimes the cold-water basin was made of concrete. Today, manufacturers use a variety of materials to construct cooling towers. Materials are chosen to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and promote reliability and long service life. Galvanised steel, various grades of stainless steel, glass fibre, and concrete are widely used in tower construction, as well as aluminium and plastics for some components. Frame and casing: Wooden towers are still available, but many components are made of different materials, such as the casing around the wooden framework of glass fibre, the inlet air louvers of glass fibre, the fill of plastic and the cold-water basin of steel. Many towers (casings and basins) are constructed of galvanised steel or, where a corrosive atmosphere is a problem, the tower and/or the basis are made of stainless steel. Larger towers sometimes are made of concrete. Glass fibre is also widely used for cooling tower casings and basins, because they extend the life of the cooling tower and provide protection against harmful chemicals.
47/uts

Layout Designing

Fill: Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and other polymers. When water conditions require the use of splash fill, treated wood splash fill is still used in wooden towers, but plastic splash fill is also widely used. Because of greater heat transfer efficiency, film fill is chosen for applications where the circulating water is generally free of debris that could block the fill passageways. Nozzles: Plastics are also widely used for nozzles. Many nozzles are made of PVC, ABS, polypropylene, and glassfilled nylon. Fans: Aluminium, glass fibre, and hot-dipped galvanised steel are commonly used fan materials. Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanised steel. Propeller fans are made from galvanised steel, aluminium, or moulded glass fibre reinforced plastic.

4.5 Cooling Tower Types

Cooling towers fall into tow main sub-divisions: natural draft and mechanical draft. 4.5.1 Natural Draft Cooling Tower The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes use of the difference in temperature between the ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower. As hot air moves upwards through the tower (because hot air rises), fresh cool air is drawn into the tower through an air inlet at the bottom. Due to the layout of the tower, no fan is required and there is almost no circulation of hot air that could affect the performance. Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height of up to 200 m. These cooling towers are mostly only for large heat duties because large concrete structures are expensive.
Vertical ribs Reinforced concrete shell Void Upper stiffening beam Void Hot-water distribution basin Drift eliminators Fill Hot water inlet Foundation ring hot-water risers Vertical ribs Reinforced concrete shell

Annular fill area Louvers Air in Cold-water collecting basin (a)

Diagonal columns Hot-water distribution basin Fill

Diagonal columns

Air in

Cold-water return

Cold-water collecting basin (b)

Fig. 4.4 (a) Cross flow natural draft cooling tower (b) Counter flow natural draft cooling tower There are two main types of natural draft towers: Cross flow tower (a): Air is drawn across the falling water and the fill is located outside the tower. Counter flow tower (b): Air is drawn up through the falling water and the fill is therefore, located inside the tower, although design depends on specific site conditions.

4.5.2 Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or draw air through circulated water. The water falls downwards over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the water and the air - this helps maximise heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend upon various parameters such as fan diameter and speed of operation, fills for system resistance etc. Mechanical draft towers are available in a large range of capacities.
48/uts

Towers can be either factory built or field erected for example concrete towers are only field erected. Many towers are constructed so that they can be grouped together to achieve the desired capacity. Thus, many cooling towers are assemblies of two or more individual cooling towers or cells. The number of cells they have, e.g., an eight-cell tower, often refers to such towers. Multiple-cell towers can be lineal, square, or round depending upon the shape of the individual cells and whether the air inlets are located on the sides or bottoms of the cells. The three types of mechanical draft towers are summarised in the following table. Type of Cooling Tower Forced draft cooling tower: Air is blown through the tower by a fan located in the air inlet. Advantages Suitable for high air resistance due to centrifugal blower fans Fans are relatively quiet. less recirculation than forced draft towers because the speed of exit air is 3-4 times higher than entering air Disadvantages Recirculation due to high air-entry and low air-exit velocities, which can be solved by locating towers in plant rooms combined with discharge ducts Fans and the motor drive mechanism require weatherproofing against moisture and corrosion because they are in the path of humid exit air.

Induced draft cross flow cooling tower: Water enters at top and asses over fill Air enters on one side (singleflow tower) or opposite sides (double-flow tower) An induced draft fan draws air across fill towards exit at top of tower

Induced draft counter flow cooling tower: Hot water enters at the top. Air enters bottom and exits at the top. Uses forced and induced draft fans. Table 4.1 Types of mechanical draft towers

4.6 Cooling System Process

Cooling towers come in all shapes and sizes. They all work on the same principle of evaporation as the means of cooling. They are designed to expose the maximum water surface to the maximum flow of air, for the largest period of time. The hot water enters the tower at the top and is distributed within the structure in a manner that exposes a very large water surface to the air passing through. Water distribution is accompanied by means of spray nozzles or distribution pans and by means of various types of fill media. The fill media is generally in form of open plastic mesh that increases the exposed water surface to maximise contact with air. The water trickles in droplets through the fill media. A cooling tower blows air across the mesh to have direct contact with the falling water so that some of the water evaporates. The evaporation cools the stream of water. Some of the water is lost to evaporation; the water is constantly added to cooling tower basin to make up the difference. Both, the evaporative and sensible heat transfer occur as the warmer water comes in contact with the cooler air. The total heat transferred is equal to the heat of evaporation plus the sensible heat. Evaporation results in cooling.
49/uts

Layout Designing

4.7 Assessment of Cooling Tower

The performance of cooling towers is evaluated to assess present levels of approach and range against their design values, identify areas of energy wastage and to suggest improvements. During the performance evaluation, portable monitoring instruments are used to measure the following parameters: Wet bulb temperature of air Dry bulb temperature of air Cooling tower inlet water temperature Cooling tower outlet water temperature Exhaust air temperature Electrical readings of pump and fan motors Water flow rate Air flow rate Hot water temperature (In)

Range

(In) to the Tower (Out) from the Tower

Cold-water temperature (Out)

Approach Wet bulb temperature (Ambient)

Fig. 4.5 Range and approach of cooling towers These measured parameters and then used to determine the cooling tower performance in several ways. (Note: CT = cooling tower; CW = cooling water). These are: Range: Difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature is shown in the above figure. A high CT Range means that the cooling tower has been able to reduce the water temperature effectively, and is thus performing well. The formula is: CT Range (C) = [CW inlet temp (C) CW outlet temp (C)]

50/uts

Approach: Difference between the cooling tower outlet, coldwater temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature is shown in the above figure. Lower the approach, better will be the cooling tower performance. Although, both, range and approach should be monitored, the Approach is a better indicator of cooling tower performance. CT Approach (C) = [CW outlet temp (C) Wet bulb temp (C)] Effectiveness: This is the ratio between the range and the ideal range (in percentage), i.e., difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature, or in other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach). The higher this ratio, the higher the cooling tower effectiveness. CT Effectiveness (%) = 100 x (CW temp CW out temp) / (CW in temp WB temp) Cooling capacity: This is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass flow rate of water, specific heat, and temperature difference. Evaporation loss: This is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty. Theoretically the evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3 for every 1,000,000 kCal heat rejected. The following formula can be used (Perry): Evaporation loss (m3/hr) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2) T1 - T2 = temperature difference between inlet and outlet water Cycles of concentration (C.O.C): This is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to the dissolved solids in make up water. Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation losses and is given by formula: Blow down = Evaporation loss / (C.O.C. 1) Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio: The L/G ratio of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the air mass flow rates. Cooling towers have certain design values, but seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning of water and air flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness. Adjustments can be made by water box loading changes or blade angle adjustments. Thermodynamic rules also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the heat absorbed by the surrounding air. Therefore the following formulae can be used: L(T1 T2) = G(h2 h1) L/G = (h2 h1) / (T1 T2)

Where: L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg) T1 = hot water temperature (0C) T2 = cold-water temperature (0C) h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature (same units as above) h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature (same units as above)

4.8 Fire Fighting System

Fire is a phenomenon with which everyone is familiar. We use it daily to heat our homes and cook our meals. When harnessed, the power and energy from fire serves us well; however, when it is uncontrolled, a fire can quickly consume and destroy whatever lies in its path. While we are all familiar with fire, few of us are aware of its nature and complex processes.

51/uts

Layout Designing

4.8.1 Chemistry of Fire Chemistry of fire can be well illustrated by explaining the following sections. Oxidation Oxidation is a chemical reaction between the molecules of a substance and the oxygen molecules in the surrounding atmosphere. There are many common examples of oxidation, including the rusting of iron, the tarnishing of silver, or the rotting of wood. What is known as fire is actually a chemical reaction involving the oxidation of the fuel molecules. However, the reaction occurs at a much faster rate and only under certain conditions (e.g., elevated temperatures, proper mixture, etc.). In addition, what is called burning or combustion is actually the continuous rapid oxidation of millions of fuel molecules. Recognising that the fire or combustion process is actually a chemical reaction (involving the oxidation of the fuel molecules) is critical to understanding the basics of the fire phenomena. The oxidation reaction is an exothermic process (i.e., one in which heat is given off). The molecules oxidise by breaking apart into individual atoms and recombine with the oxygen atoms to form new molecules. During this process, a certain amount of energy is released. In the examples of rusting iron or rotting wood, the amount of energy released is minimal since these oxidation processes occur at a very slow rate. However, in a fire, the oxidation rate of the fuel molecules is much faster. Because of this rapid reaction, energy is released at a much greater rate. The released energy is actually felt and seen in the form of heat and light. The more rapid the oxidation rate, the greater intensity in which the energy is released. An explosion is, in fact, the oxidation of a combustible media at an extremely fast rate. State of Products in Fire Oxidation Process All substances exist in one of three states: as a solid, a liquid or a vapour (gas). For the oxidation process to occur, there must be an adequate intermixing of the oxygen and fuel molecules. For fuel molecules in either a solid or liquid state, the molecules are tightly bound and cannot be effectively surrounded by the oxygen molecules in the atmosphere. Therefore, molecules in either a liquid or solid state are not directly involved in the rapid chemical reaction of oxidation in a fire. However, fuel molecules in a vapour state are free to mix with the atmosphere. These molecules become effectively surrounded by the oxygen molecules in the atmosphere and are available to become involved in the oxidation process. In fact, only fuel molecules in a vapour state are actually involved in the oxidation process. While fuel molecules in the solid or liquid states are not directly involved in the oxidation process, when heated, these molecules will move about more rapidly. If enough heat (energy) is applied, some fuel molecules break away from the surface to form a vapour just above the surface. This new vapour can now mix with oxygen and can become involved in the oxidation process. Accordingly, the fuel molecules in a solid or liquid state do serve as the source of additional fuel vapours when exposed to heat. 4.8.2 Fundamentals of Fire The combustion process, or burning, is in fact the rapid oxidation of millions of fuel molecules in the vapour form. Once there is sufficient oxygen and the fuel vapour molecules properly mix, an ignition source is typically needed for oxidation to be initiated. However, once oxidation is initiated, it is an exothermic process. If sufficient energy is released during the reaction to maintain the elevated temperature of surrounding oxygen and fuel molecules, and there are sufficient oxygen and vaporised fuel molecules available, then the oxidation process will continue. The heat released by the oxidation of the fuel molecules is radiant heat, which is pure energy, the same sort of energy radiated by the sun and felt as heat. It radiates, or travels, in all directions. Thus, part of it moves back to the seat of the fire, to the burning solid or liquid (the fuel). The heat that radiates back to the fuel is called radiation feedback. This part of the heat serves to release more vapours and also serves to raise the vapour (fuel and oxygen molecule mixture) to the ignition temperature. At the same time, air is drawn into the area where the flames and vapour meet. The result is that the newly-formed vapour begins to burn and the flames increase, which starts a chain reaction. The burning vapour produces heat, which releases and ignites more vapour. The additional vapour burns, producing more heat, which releases and ignites still more vapour. As long as there is fuel and oxygen available, the fire will continue to grow.
52/uts

For a fuel source with a limited amount of surface area available, the amount of vapour released from the fuel reaches a maximum rate and begins to level off, producing a steady rate of burning. This usually continues until most of the fuel has been consumed. When there is less fuel vapour available to oxidise, less heat is produced and the process begins to die out. A solid fuel may leave an ash residue and continue to smoulder for some time, while a liquid fuel usually burns up completely. 4.8.3 The Fire Triangle There are three components required for combustion to occur: Fuel to vaporise and burn Oxygen to combine with fuel vapour Heat to raise the temperature of the fuel vapour to its ignition temperature

The following is the typical fire triangle, which illustrates the relationship between these three components:

Oxygen

Heat

Fuel
Fig. 4.6 The fire triangle (Source: http://pdf-world.net/pdf/304139/FIRE-FIGHTING-SYSTEMS-pdf.php) There are two important factors to remember in preventing and extinguishing a fire: If any of the three components are missing, then a fire cannot start. If any of the three components are removed, then the fire will go out.

It is important to have a clear understanding of these three components and their inter-reactions in a fire. The following Paragraphs examine each of these items in further detail.

4.9 Classification of Fire

The characteristics of fires and the effectiveness of extinguishing agents differ with the fuels involved. While particular extinguishing agents are very effective on fires involving certain fuels, they may be much less effective or even hazardous for use on other types of fires. Take for example, the use of a portable water extinguisher. Water is a good extinguishing medium and is very effective on deep-seated fires, such as burning wood or rubbish. However, a fire-fighter would not want to use a portable water extinguisher on a fire involving a live electrical panel or switchboard due to the conductivity of the water and the possible shock that could result. Considering the different types of fuels that may be involved in a fire, the different types of extinguishing agents available and the different mechanisms which the various agents use to extinguish a fire, it is important to be able to identify the type of fire on which a particular medium will be effective. The job of selecting the proper extinguishing agent has been made easier by the classification of fires into four types, or classes, lettered A through D, based upon the fuels involved. Within each class are fires involving those materials with similar burning properties and requiring similar extinguishing agents. Thus, knowledge of these classes is essential to efficient fire-fighting operations, as well as familiarity with the burning characteristics of materials that may be found aboard a vessel.

53/uts

Layout Designing

4.9.1 Class A Class A fires involve three groups of materials commonly found onboard a vessel, including: Wood and wood-based materials Textiles and fibres Paper Plastics and rubber

4.9.2 Class B Class B fires involve two groups of materials commonly found onboard a vessel: Flammable liquids Flammable gases

Flammable or inflammable (identical in meaning) liquids do not themselves burn or explode, but, as pointed out previously, the gases or vapours formed when they are heated and evaporated explode; that is, the change of state from liquid to gas must first occur. As long as they are in a liquid state with no vapours being given off, there is little or no hazard. For the more volatile liquids, such as gasoline, storage in a closed container is a necessity. In order for any vapour to explode, it must have the correct vapour-air ratio, just as in the carburettor of a car. When the engine is flooded with gas, the mixture is too rich and fails to ignite. The same holds true in gasoline storage. The danger is when the gases being poured from one container to another, thus giving the vapours the chance to mix with the correct amount of air to form an explosive moisture. The same circumstances hold true with all flammable oils when enough heat is present to release vapours from the liquid. Keeping in mind that a flammable liquid is not hazardous as long as it is not hot enough to give off vapours which can mix with the oxygen in air and burn, two things can be done: (a) The liquid can be cooled down to the point where no vapours are given off; and (b) the supply of oxygen can be blanketed out. Some flammable liquids give off vapours at temperatures ordinarily considered cold. For example, gasoline vaporises at -43 EC (-45 EF) or lower. 4.9.3 Class C Electrical equipment involved in fire, or in the vicinity of a fire, may cause electric shock or burns to fire-fighters. This Subsection discusses some electrical installations found aboard a vessel, their hazards, and the extinguishment of fires involving electrical equipment. When equipment is de-energised, extinguishers for class A or B fires could be used safely; however, in fighting an electrical fire there are two important things to be taken into consideration: namely (a) damage to the equipment far beyond what the fire could do, and (b) danger to the Individuals fighting the fire. To avoid these two possibilities, de-energise the circuit and use only the types of extinguishment recommended for class C fires. 4.9.4 Class D Metals are commonly considered to be non-flammable. However, they can contribute to fires and fire hazards in a number of ways. Sparks from the ferrous metals, iron and steel, can ignite nearby combustible materials. Finely divided metals are easily ignited at high temperatures. A number of metals, especially in finely divided form, are subject to self-heating under certain conditions; resulting in fires. Alkali metals such as sodium, potassium, and lithium react violently with water, liberating hydrogen, and sufficient heat is generated in the process to ignite the hydrogen. Most metals in powder form can be ignited as a dust cloud, and violent explosions have resulted. In addition to all this, metals can injure fire-fighters through burning, structural collapse and toxic fumes. Many metals, such as cadmium, give off noxious gases when subjected to the high temperatures of a fire. Some metallic vapours are more toxic than others. However, breathing apparatus should be used whenever fires involving metals are fought.

54/uts

4.10 Portable Fire Extinguishers

All extinguishers of a portable type act as a first-aid appliance for extinguishing fires in their incipient stage, and they cannot be expected to be effective after a fire has spread to involve a large amount of combustible material. The action of all extinguishers is by cooling the burning substance below its ignition temperature and by excluding the air supply (blanketing out the oxygen), or by a combination of these methods. Also, some types tend to inhibit oxidation by chemical action. Extinguishers for Class A Fires Multipurpose dry chemical Foam extinguishers Loaded stream extinguishers Extinguishers for Class B Fires Multipurpose dry chemical Foam Carbon dioxide (CO2) Dry chemicals Loaded stream extinguishers Bromotrifluoromethane - Halon 1301 Extinguishers for Class C Fires Multipurpose dry chemical Bromotrifluoromethane - Halon 1301 Carbon dioxide (CO2) Dry chemicals Extinguishers for Class D Fires Extinguishers or extinguishing agents for class D fires shall be types approved for use on the specific combustible metal. 4.10.1 Inspection and Maintenance Portable extinguishers shall be maintained in a fully charged and operable condition, and kept in their designated placed at all times when they are not being used. Each extinguisher shall be equipped with a tag for registering inspection date. Aluminium tags on which the date can be punched are preferred for a lasting record. Inspection Inspection is a quick check that an extinguisher is available and will operate. Extinguishers shall be inspected monthly, and the following items shall be checked: The extinguisher shall be in its designated place. Access to, or visibility of, the extinguisher shall not be obstructed. The operation instructions on the extinguisher nameplate shall be legible and face outward. Any seals or tamper indicators that are broken or missing shall be replaced. For water types without gauges, their fullness shall be determined by hefting. Any obvious physical damage, corrosion, leakage, or clogged nozzles shall be noted. Pressure-gauge readings when not in the operable range shall be noted.

The date the inspection was performed and the initials of the person performing the inspection shall be recorded. When an inspection reveals that tampering has occurred, or that the extinguisher is damaged, impaired, leaking, under or overcharged, or has obvious corrosion, the extinguisher shall be subjected to applicable maintenance procedures.

55/uts

Layout Designing

Maintenance Maintenance is a thorough check of the extinguisher intended to give maximum assurance that an extinguisher will operate effectively and safely. It includes a thorough examination and any necessary repair or replacement. Maintenance shall be performed at regular intervals, not more than 1 year apart or when specifically indicated by an inspection. Any extinguishers removed from the premises to be recharged shall be replaced by spare extinguishers during the period they are gone. Refill all extinguishers as soon as they are used. Stored pressure-dry chemical extinguishers that require a 12-year hydrostatic test will be emptied and subjected to applicable main tenance procedures every 6 years. Dry chemical extinguishers having non-refillable, disposable containers are exempt from this requirement. Hydrostatic Tests If, at any time, an extinguisher shows evidence of corrosion or mechanical injury, it should be subjected to hydrostatic pressure tests or replaced. In addition, the hydrostatic test intervals for extinguishers listed below should be followed. Extinguishers requiring discharge for hydrostatic testing or refuelling should be utilised for demonstration purposes, giving each employee an opportunity to handle an extinguisher and apply the extinguishing agent to a fire.

4.11 Application of Fire Fighting Equipments (Portable and Fixed)

Different applications for portable and fixed fire fighting equipments are mentioned below. 4.11.1 Water Extinguishing System Water was mans first means of fighting fire and is still one of the best all-around weapons. However, it should be borne in mind that water can be damaging to insulated conductors and windings, such as in motors and generators, and to switchboard wiring. The damage to the insulation from soaking may require extensive drying out or rewiring operations and the damage from water may be as much or more than the damage caused by the fire itself. For this reason, water should be used on a fire of this type only as a last resort. Water may also be undesirable from the standpoint that it is sometimes difficult to de-energise all circuits with which the water might come in contact. Since waters effectiveness depends on the speed with which it is applied to the fire after the fire is first discovered, the fire fighting force must function as a well-organised team in laying the hoses in order to get the water on the fire. Handling of fire hose The hose must be unrolled, so that male and female ends are in the correct position for coupling. All couplings must be made tightly to guard against leakage and loss of pressure. The hose must be spread out or laid so that it will not kink or tangle when the line is advanced toward the fire. Unless all these tasks are performed quickly and efficiently, valuable time will be lost that may mean the difference between a fire being quickly extinguished and situation getting out of control. Hose, when coiled as illustrated in the figure shown below, can be run out without tangling or kinking.

Mole end --4-Ft.--

Fig. 4.7 Coiling for hose (Source: http://www.usbr.gov/power/data/fist/fist5_2/vol5-2.pdf)

56/uts

The male end always runs in the direction of the fire. This is done because all nozzles and fittings are equipped with female couplings. By having the female end on the outside of the coil, the correct end is always at the correct place for coupling, and the threads on the male end are protected against abrasion or damage. To unroll the hose, the foot is placed on the female end, the male end is snapped up sharply and run toward the fire. To roll the hose in a coil, the length is first laid straight, then doubled over, placing the male end on the top about 1.2 m (4 ft) from the female end. Grasped at the fold, the hose is rolled tightly as slack is taken up. Care should be taken to obtain an even, compact roll. Coiled in this manner, the ends are in the correct position, the male end always on the inside. Connecting hose is usually a two-person operation. One person holds the male end firmly; the second person engages the threads of the female swivel. The swivel is given a half turn back to align the thread. This prevents the threads from fouling and speeds up the coupling operation. When the connection is made by one person, the male end is held in position with the foot, leaving both hands free to engage the swivel. In making all couplings, the person handling the female end should make sure the rubber gasket is in place. Without it, the connection will leak and pressure will be lost. Fog Nozzles for Electrical Installations The form in which water is used is determined by the type of fire to be extinguished. Flammable- liquid fires can be extinguished with water only in the form of a fine spray or fog. (The terms fog and spray are used interchangeably.) Fog is also used to protect the fire-fighter in approaching a fire. Fires involving materials other than liquids require a balanced stream to break up or penetrate the burning material. Water fog has two characteristics that render it more suitable than solid streams to most fire fighting applications with which electric power personnel are concerned: (a) Water fog is more effective on fires of combustible liquids such as oil fires, and (b) the spray is essentially nonconductive to electricity at distances over 5 m (15 ft). Since both of these characteristics are needed around electrical equipment, such installations should be equipped only with fog nozzles which cannot produce a solid stream. There are two suitable types, the fixed-fog nozzle, and the adjustable nozzle. The latter may produce a cone of spray from a 30-degree cone to a nearly flat curtain, and shut off. (This adjustable nozzle is not to be confused with the all- purpose type which, with the handle in one position, will produce a solid stream.) While there will seldom be occasion to deliberately direct a spray on electrical conductors, the liberty, and limitations within which this can be done should be understood by anyone who may have occasion to fight fires in or near electrical apparatus. To withhold use of water fog until all electrical circuits have been de-energised might occasion lengthy and disastrous delay. Instructions for Fog-Nozzle Use Breaking the water stream up into small droplets increases the electrical resistance of the stream in such a way that dangerous electrical currents cannot flow if reasonable distances are kept. General instructions and limitations for use of fog nozzles are summarised as follows: Allow air and scale to clear from system before directing near energised conductors. See that fog, not solid stream, is produced. Allow clearance of over 5 m (15 ft) from energised conductors for 15 to 230 kV and allow at least 1 m (3 ft) on conductors up to 16 kV. All systems should be flushed periodically.

Class C Fire Precautions Oil switches, oil-filled transformers, and other electrical equipment containing oil of a relatively high flashpoint may be heated and ignited by excessive current or an electric arc. As mentioned before, when a fire breaks out, deenergise the circuit and proceed on the oil fire with CO2, dry chemical, or water (fog nozzle).

57/uts

Layout Designing

There is ordinarily no danger from playing hose streams on low-voltage circuits; however, for safety, always use a fog or fine spray. Electrical equipment should always be approached carefully during a fire, due to the possibility of some electrical breakdown causing electrical shock. The greatest danger lies primarily in accidental physical contact with live wires or equipment. However, under certain conditions, enough current can flow through a hose stream to injure the man holding the nozzle. With this in mind, if you must fight a fire on live electrical equipment, be sure that the fog nozzle is operated at its designed pressure to produce a fine spray before using it on the live electrical equipment and maintain distance in excess of 5 m (15 ft) from live conductors. Solid-Stream Nozzles Prohibited The use of solid-stream nozzles in electric power installations is prohibited because of the hazards involved in applying a stream of water with possible high electrical conductivity. General Use of Fog Nozzles In situations involving liquid fires, low velocity fog should be used, produced by a fog head at the end of an applicator. An applicator is an extension pipe 1.2 to 3.6 m (4 to 12 ft) in length with the end bent at an angle. The applicator head provides a greater spread and finer diffusion of the water. This increases the rate of cooling, and since the entire area must be cooled below the ignition temperature of the fuel before the fire can be extinguished, the applicator should be used whenever possible on liquid fires. Another advantage of the applicator is the ease with which it can be manipulated at the seat of the fire. Applied close to the burning surface, the finely diffused water particles form a steam blanket that aids in extinguishing. Metal applicators should not be used in switchyards and substations because of the danger of making contact with energised circuits. High-velocity fog extinguishes fires in flammable liquids by a complete coverage of the burning surface with a fine spray which cools the surface, dilutes the flammable vapours, or emulsifies the flammable liquid, while the extinguishing action of low velocity fog, as previously mentioned, depends on cooling and dilution. Both the types of fog nozzles have their limitations; for example, burning gasoline flowing over a large area on the ground could be extinguished by a fog nozzle, but it would be more difficult than if the same gasoline were in an open tank. 4.11.2 Foam Extinguishing System Fire fighting foam is a mass of gas-filled bubbles which is lighter than flammable liquids. The foam can float on all flammable liquids and produces an air-excluding, cooling, continuous layer of vapour-sealing, water-bearing material for purposes of halting or preventing combustion. Two main types of foam are available. These are low- and high-expansion foam as discussed below. The following general rules apply to the application and use of ordinary air foams. Most foam are adversely affected by contact with vaporising liquid extinguishing agents and by many dry chemical agents. These materials should not be used simultaneously with air foams. Gases from decomposing plastic materials have a similar breakdown effect on foams. Foam solutions are not recommended for use on electrical fires as the foam is conductive. High-expansion foam can seem to completely submerge and apparently extinguish fires, while the fire continues to burn quietly beneath it. This can occur when burning vapours beneath the foam support the foam blanket on heated air.

58/uts

Foam Extinguishing System

Low-Expansion Foam The normal expansion ratios for low-expansion foam range form 4:1 to 12:1. The expansion ratio is the volume of foam generated, divided by the volume of solution used. The primary method of extinguishment with low-expansion foam is smothering, although cooling is a factor. The minimum foam depth for extinguishing a fire is about 6 mm (1/4 inches) with an average depth of 76mm (3 inches) or more.

Low-Expansion Foam The normal expansion ratios for high-expansion foam range from 100:1-1000:1. The primary method of extinguishment is the smothering and cooling effect of water. High-expansion foam is particularly suited as a flooding agent for use in confined spaces, for transporting wet foam masses in inaccessible places, and for volumetric displacement of vapour, heat and smoke.

Fig. 4.8 Types of foam extinguishing systems (Source: http://www.usbr.gov/power/data/fist/fist5_2/vol5-2.pdf) Limitations of Foam Foams are primarily used for control and extinguishment of fires involving flammable or combustible liquids, and the following criteria must usually be met for the foam to be effective: The liquid must be below its boiling point at the ambient condition of temperature and pressure. If foam is applied to liquids with a bulk temperature higher than 1000C (2120F), the foam forms an emulsion of steam, air, and fuel. This may produce a fourfold increase in volume. The foam must not be highly soluble in the liquid to be protected, and the liquid must not be unduly destructive to the foam. The liquid must not be water reactive. The fire must be a horizontal surface fire as falling fuel fires cannot be extinguished by foam unless the fuel has a relatively high flashpoint and can be cooled to extinguishment by the water in the foam. However, some types of foam are capable of following a flowing fuel fire.

4.11.3 Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing System The use of CO2 as an extinguishing agent is based on the principle of using an inert gas to reduce and displace the oxygen content of the air. Most fires where there are no flowing embers to maintain a high degree of heat for reigniting can be extinguished by a reduction of the oxygen content from the normal 21 percent to 15 percent. Since CO2 is heavier than air, it has the ability to penetrate into loose material and confined spaces where water or foam might not. The rapid expansion of the gas on discharging produces a refrigerating effect, as indicated by the CO2 snow, which has a temperature of minus 79 VC (-110 VF). This snow turns into gas and in the process absorbs heat from the surrounding atmosphere. Uses CO2 may be used on a large variety of fires, such as: flammable liquids in practically any type container, all types of electrical machinery and apparatus, and any situation where water would be damaging to the material after the fire is extinguished. CO2 is not suitable for use on pyroxylin plastics (photographic film).

59/uts

Layout Designing

Precautions in using CO2 The characteristics of carbon dioxide are such that certain precautionary measures are necessary. As far as safety to life is concerned, CO2, if not breathed in excessive amounts, is not dangerous; however, a concentrated atmosphere inhaled for several minutes will produce suffocation, as illustrated in the following tabulation: CO2 Concentration 2 percent 3 percent 5 percent 9 percent Increase in lung activity 50 percent 100 percent 300 percent Can be tolerated only for a few minutes

Table 4.2 Effect of CO2 on lungs (Source: http://www.usbr.gov/power/data/fist/fist5_2/vol5-2.pdf) Breathing a higher concentration than 9 percent CO2 can render a person helpless almost immediately. As CO2 design concentrations for fire extinguishing generally exceed 25 percent, it is potentially dangerous for personnel to be in an area protected by a CO2 system. Also, the release of carbon dioxide into an enclosure causes a blinding storm of small crystals and builds up CO2 concentration so rapidly that escape becomes nearly impossible. All the employees entering such areas must obtain clearance on the stationary extinguishing system and make it inoperative by mechanical and/or electrical means. A test release of a bank of CO2 concentrations from atmospheric normal to above 45 percent in less than 10 seconds. It also increased CO2 concentrations in turbine pits to 15 percent, and hazardous concentrations in both locations remained for approximately 1 hour. Entering enclosures after CO2 discharge Concentrations for the proportions mentioned above are not likely to be encountered when portable CO2 equipment is being used to fight fires in an open area; however, they will be obtained when CO2 is used to smother a fire in an enclosure such as generator housing on oil storage or oil purifier room. It is desired to maintain a minimum concentration of at least 25 percent for a period of time to extinguish fires in enclosures of this kind. Therefore, the following precautionary measures for personnel safety are required. In entering a generator housing after CO2 has been discharged, proper clearance of the generator should be obtained and enough time should elapse so that the CO2 application has served its intended purpose in extinguishing the fire. This period should be determined by a CO2 concentration test. Two employees equipped with self-contained breathing apparatus will open generator housing door and vents to permit the CO2 and smoke to escape by natural draft and to determine if all fire has been extinguished. Fans can also be used to clear the unit of smoke and CO2. After this has been accomplished and atmospheric tests for carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide concentrations are found to be below safe limits, other personnel may enter the housing. In the case of the oil storage and oil purifier rooms, proper airing out of the area should also be obtained before personnel are allowed to enter. CO2 is stored in a liquid state under very high pressure; and when discharged, the rapid expansion produces a refrigerating effect to the extent that one may obtain a burn, or frostbite from coming in contact with a metal part through which the gas has passed. The CO2 nozzles in generator housings should not direct the gas directly against the windings as the chilling effect may damage the insulation. The effective discharge period of the CO2 extinguishers varies from 1 to 2 minutes, depending upon the size and design of the units.

60/uts

4.11.4 Carbon Tetrachloride, Chlorobromomethane and Inverting-type Extinguisher The use of carbon tetrachloride and chlorobromomethane extinguishers is not allowed in any form at Reclamation installations because of their toxic and corrosive effects and possible damage to some electrical insulation. Invertingtype fire extinguishers, such as self generating soda acid, self generating foam, or gas-cartridge, water-type, portable fire extinguishers which operate by inverting the unit to initiate an uncontrolled pressure generating chemical reaction to expel the agent, are prohibited at Reclamation facilities because their shells are subject to metal fatigue and creep at the seams of construction which can cause failure of the units and may injure the operator. Dry-chemical Extinguishers Dry-chemical extinguishers expel a finely powdered dry chemical which, on striking flame, releases many times its volume in nontoxic fire extinguishing gases similar to CO2. The powder consists principally of bicarbonate of soda which has been chemically processed to make it free-flowing. The extinguishers contain a cartridge of CO2 or nitrogen (depending on size) to expel the dry chemical. These extinguishers can be used for electrical fires, both in rotating machinery and other equipment, since the powder is non-conducting and, in some types, nonabrasive. However, the powder remaining after the fire is extinguished is difficult to clean from motor or generator windings. These extinguishers are effective on fires of flammable liquids in vats and pools, spilled fires on floors, or in any situation where the compound stream can be swept across the burning surface. Wheeled Units Dry-chemical-compound wheeled units are available in capacities of 45 to 159 kg (100 to 350 lb) with operating pressure furnished by nitrogen gas. Extinguishing characteristics are similar to those of portable extinguishers. An effective discharge of dry chemical is obtained for a period of approximately 1 minute 45 seconds in smaller size, and about 3 minutes 30 seconds in the 159-kg (350-lb) size. Effective range of the compound stream is from 10.7 to 13.7 m (35 to 45 ft). Safety Requirements When there is a possibility of a personnel getting exposed to a dry-chemical discharge, suitable safeguards shall be provided to ensure prompt evacuation of such locations, and also to provide means for prompt rescue of any trapped personnel.

61/uts

Layout Designing

Summary
Dry towers or closed recirculation system uses the same cooling water repeatedly in a continuous cycle. Evaporative systems such as wet cooling towers, cooling ponds, or spray ponds recirculate the water. A cooling tower is equipment used to reduce the temperature of a water stream by extracting heat from water and emitting it to the atmosphere. The basic components of a cooling tower include the frame and casing, fill, cold-water basin, drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans. Cooling towers fall into two main sub-divisions: natural draft and mechanical draft. A cooling tower blows air across the mesh to have direct contact with the falling water so that some of the water evaporates. The evaporation cools the stream of water. The performance of cooling towers is evaluated to assess present levels of approach and range against their design values, identify areas of energy wastage and to suggest improvements. Oxidation is a chemical reaction between the molecules of a substance and the oxygen molecules in the surrounding atmosphere. The combustion process, or burning, is in fact the rapid oxidation of millions of fuel molecules in the vapour form. Once there is sufficient oxygen and the fuel vapour molecules properly mix, an ignition source is typically needed for oxidation to be initiated. There are three components required for combustion to occur: Fuel, Oxygen, Heat. The characteristics of fires and the effectiveness of extinguishing agents differ with the fuels involved. All extinguishers of a portable type act as a first-aid appliance for extinguishing fires in their incipient stage, and they cannot be expected to be effective after a fire has spread to involve a large amount of combustible material. The form in which water is used is determined by the type of fire to be extinguished. Flammable- liquid fires can be extinguished with water only in the form of a fine spray or fog. CO2 is stored in a liquid state under very high pressure; and when discharged, the rapid expansion produces a refrigerating effect to the extent that one may obtain a burn, or frostbite from coming in contact with a metal part through which the gas has passed.

References
Bausbacher, E., Hunt, R., 1993. Process plant layout and piping design, PTR Prentice Hall. Aquaprox, 2009. Treatment of Cooling Water, Springer. Cote, A. E., 2004. Fundamentals of Fire Protection, Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Recommended Reading
Frayne, C., 2010. Cooling Water Treatment Principles and Practices: Charts and Notes for Field Use, Chemical Publishing Company, Incorporated. Nolan, D. P., 1998. Fire Fighting Pumping Systems at Industrial Facilities, William Andrew. Smith, P. 2007. The Fundamentals of Piping Design: Drafting and Design Methods for Process Applications, Gulf Pub.

62/uts

Self Assessment
1. ______________ is the most efficient tool of dissipating unwanted heat. a. Water b. Fire c. Oxygen d. CO2 2. Which statement is false? a. Water is simply drawn from estuary, lake, or river to the process equipment/heat exchanger and discharged back to river. b. Towers or closed recirculation system uses the same cooling water repeatedly in a continuous cycle. c. Evaporative systems such as wet cooling towers, cooling ponds, or spray ponds recirculate the water. d. Cooling towers are provided to reuse the same water for cooling again and again rather than discharging it to the environment. 3. ______________ is a device that cools water that gets heated in process cooling. a. Dry tower b. Elevation c. Cooling tower d. Evaporative system 4. Cooling ponds is a type of ____________. a. dry tower b. elevation c. design d. evaporative system 5. The basic components of a _____________ include the frame and casing, fill, cold-water basin and drift eliminators. a. cooling tower b. elevation c. dry tower d. evaporative system 6. ____________ consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads, forming a thin film in contact with the air. a. Splash fill b. Film fill c. Frame d. Casing 7. ______________ is located at or near the bottom of the tower. a. Frame b. Casing c. Fill d. Cold-water basin

63/uts

Layout Designing

8. ______________is a chemical reaction between the molecules of a substance and the oxygen molecules in the surrounding atmosphere. a. Oxidation b. Fire fighting system c. Combustion d. Fire generation 9. There are _______ components required for combustion to occur a. two b. three c. four d. five 10. Plastic and rubber comes under ____________ type of fire a. Class A b. Class B c. Class C d. Class D

64/uts

Chapter V Piping for Steam Distribution

Aim
The aim of this chapter is to: highlight the importance of Steam explain the Steam distribution system elucidate the importance of piping in steam distribution system

Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to: enlist the methods of calculating pipeline size introduce the piping material categorise pipeline size

Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: understand the piping layout comprehend the resistance of valves and fittings to flow of fluids infer economic velocity for deciding line size

65/uts

Layout Designing

5.1 Introduction
Steam is widely used in most of the process industries and in all power generation plants, as process heating media. The reasons for using steam are as follows. Steam is efficient and economic to generate. Steam can easily and cost effectively be distributed to the point of use. Steam is easy to control. Energy is easily transferred to the process. The modern steam plant is easy to manage. Steam is flexible.

It is necessary to consider steam, condensate and the effects on the construction material while designing the piping system for steam distribution.

5.2 Steam Distribution System

The steam distribution system is the essential link between the steam generator and the steam user. There are various methods to carry steam from a central source to the point of use. The central source might be a boiler house or the discharge from a co-generation plant. The boilers may burn primary fuel. Waste heat boilers use exhaust gases that originate from high temperature processes, engines or even incinerators. Whatever the source is, an efficient steam distribution system is essential, for supplying adequate and quality steam, to the steam using equipment. Installation and maintenance of the steam system are important issues, and must be considered at the design stage. Refer to the figure given below, to understand the basic steam circuit or steam and condensate loop.
Steam Steam
Condensate Process vessel Space heating system

Steam
Condensate Condensate

Steam

Make-up water Feed pump Feed tank Condensate

Fig. 5.1 A Typical steam distribution circuit (Source: www.spiraxsarco.com) As steam condenses in a process, flow is induced in the supply pipe. Condensate has a very small volume compared to the steam, and this causes a pressure drop, which causes the steam to flow through the pipes. The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through pipework to the point where its heat energy is required. Initially, there will be one or more main pipes, or steam mains, which carry steam from the boiler in the general direction of the steam using plant. Smaller branch pipes can then carry the steam to the individual pieces of equipment.

66/uts

When the boiler main isolating valve (sometimes referred to as the crown valve) is opened, steam immediately passes from the boiler into and along the steam mains to the points at lower pressure. The pipework is initially cooler than the steam, so heat is transferred from the steam to the pipe. The air surrounding the pipes is also cooler than the steam, so the pipework will begin to transfer heat to the air. Steam on contact with the cooler pipes will begin to condense immediately. On start-up of the system, the condensing rate will be at its maximum, as this is the time where there is maximum temperature difference between the steam and the pipework. This condensing rate is commonly called the starting load. Once the pipework has warmed up, the temperature difference between the steam and pipework is minimal, but some condensation will occur as the pipework still continues to transfer heat to the surrounding air. This condensing rate is commonly called the running load. The resulting condensation (condensate) falls to the bottom of the pipe and is carried along by the steam flow and assisted by gravity, due to the gradient in the steam main that should be arranged to fall in the direction of steam flow. The condensate will then have to be drained from various strategic points in the steam main. When the valve on the steam pipe serving an item of steam using plant is opened, steam flowing from the distribution system enters the plant and again comes in contact with cooler surfaces. The steam then transfers its energy in warming up an equipment and product (starting load), and, when up to temperature, continues to transfer heat to the process (running load). There is now a continuous supply of steam from the boiler to satisfy the connected load and to maintain this supply more steam must be generated. In order to do this, more water (and fuel to heat this water) is supplied to the boiler to make up for the water which has previously been evaporated into steam. The condensate formed in both, the steam distribution pipework and in the process equipment is a convenient supply of useable hot boiler feedwater. Although it is important to remove this condensate from the steam space, it is a valuable commodity and should not be allowed to run to waste. Returning all condensate to the boiler feedtank closes the steam energy loop, and should be practiced wherever practical.

5.3 Pipes
As discussed above, Pipes are one of the most important components of a steam distribution system. 5.3.1 Piping Material Pipes for steam systems are commonly manufactured from carbon steel to ANSI B 16.9 Al06. The same material may be used for condensate lines, although copper tubing is preferred in some industries. For high temperature superheated steam mains, additional alloying elements, such as chromium and molybdenum, are included to improve tensile strength and creep resistance at high temperatures. Typically, pipes are supplied in 6meter lengths. 5.3.2 Pipeline Sizing The objective of the steam distribution system is to supply steam at the correct pressure to the point of use. Pipeline sizing is an important factor. Pipeline sizing can be divided into two categorise, viz., oversized pipe work and undersized pipe work.

67/uts

Layout Designing

Piping sizing

Oversized Pipework  Pipes, valves, fittings, etc. will be more expensive  Higher installation costs will be incurred, including support work, insulation, etc.  For steam pipes a greater volume of condensate will be formed due to the greater heat loss. This in turn means that either more steam trapping is required or wet steam is delivered to the point of use

Undersized Pipework  A lower pressure may only be available at the point of use. This may hinder equipment performance due to only lower pressure steam being available. There is a risk of steam starvation.  There is a greater risk of erosion, water hammer and noise due to the inherent increase ins team velocity.

Fig. 5.2 Categorisation of pipeline sizing (Source: www.spiraxsarco.com) The required pipeline size can be calculated, based on pressure drop and velocity described below. Pipeline sizing based on pressure drop Pressure drop through the distribution system is an important feature. In practice, whether for water pipes or steam pipes, a balance is drawn between pipe size and pressure loss. Pressure drop as a general rule, should not exceed 0.1 bar/50 m. The table given below can be used for determining the pipeline size.

68/uts

Pressure Velocity Barg m/s 15 25 40 15 25 40 15 25 40 15 25 40 15 25 40 15 25 40 15 25 40 15 25 40 15 25 40 15 25 40 15 25 40 15 25 40

15 15.80 9 14 23 10 17 28 12 20 32 18 29 47 23 38 61 28 47 75 34 56 90 39 65 104 44 74 118 49 82 131 60 100 160 80 134 214

20 20.93 15 25 40 18 30 48 21 35 56 31 51 82 40 67 107 50 83 132 59 98 157 68 114 182 77 129 206 86 144 230 105 175 280 141 235 375

0.4

0.7

10

14

Pipe size (nominal) 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 Actual inside pipe diameter Schedule 40 26.64 35.04 40.90 52.50 62.70 77.92 102.26 128.20 154.05 Pipeling Capacity kg/h 25 43 58 95 136 210 362 569 822 41 71 97 159 227 350 603 948 1369 66 113 154 254 363 561 965 1517 2191 29 51 69 114 163 251 433 681 983 49 85 115 190 271 419 722 1135 1638 78 136 185 304 434 671 1155 1815 2621 34 59 81 133 189 292 503 791 1142 57 99 134 221 315 487 839 1319 1904 91 158 215 354 505 779 1342 2110 3046 50 86 118 194 277 427 735 1156 1669 83 144 196 323 461 712 1226 1927 2782 133 230 314 517 737 1139 1961 3083 4451 65 113 154 254 362 559 962 1512 2183 109 188 256 423 603 931 1603 2520 3639 174 301 410 676 964 1490 2565 4032 5822 80 139 190 313 446 689 1186 1864 2691 134 232 316 521 743 1148 1976 3106 4485 215 371 506 833 1189 1836 3162 4970 7176 96 165 225 371 529 817 1408 2213 3195 159 276 375 619 882 1362 2347 3688 5325 255 441 601 990 1411 2180 3755 5901 8521 111 191 261 430 613 947 1631 2563 3700 184 319 435 716 1022 1578 2718 4271 6167 295 577 696 1146 1635 2525 4348 6834 9867 125 217 296 487 695 1073 1848 2904 4194 209 362 493 812 1158 1788 3080 4841 6989 334 579 788 1299 1853 2861 4928 7745 11183 140 242 330 544 775 1198 2063 3242 4681 233 404 550 906 1292 1996 3438 5403 7802 373 646 880 1450 2068 3194 5501 8645 12484 170 294 401 660 942 1455 2506 3938 5686 283 490 668 1101 1570 2425 4176 6563 9477 453 785 1069 1761 2512 3880 6682 10502 15164 228 394 537 886 1263 1951 3360 5281 7625 380 657 896 1476 2105 3251 5600 8801 12708 608 1052 1433 2362 3368 5202 8960 14082 20333

Table 5.1 Pipeline size (Source: www.spiraxsarco.com)

69/uts

Layout Designing

Pipe sizing can also be computed using the chart in the figure given below.

Fig. 5.3 Steam pipeline sizing chart pressure drop approach (Source: www.spiraxsarco.com) An example calculation is as follows: Given: Inlet pressure P1 = 7 bar g Steam flowrate = 286 kg/h Minimum allowable P2 = 6.6 bar g Length of pipeline = 165 m Calculate the maximum pressure drop per 100 m. Answer: Maximum pressure drop per 100m = = = 0.24 bar

Determining the pipeline size based on the pressure drop using the nomogram in fig. 5.3: Select the point on the saturated steam line at 7 bar g, and mark Point A. From point A, draw a horizontal line to the steam flow rate of 286 kg/h, and mark Point B. From point B, draw a vertical line towards the top of the nomogram (Point C). Draw a horizontal line from 0.24 bar/100 m on the pressure loss scale (Line DE). The point at which lines DE and BC cross will indicate the pipe size required. In this case, a 40 mm pipe is too small, and a 50 mm pipe would be used.

70/uts

Pipeline sizing based on velocity Velocity is an important factor in sizing pipes. As a general rule, a velocity of 25 to 40 m/s is used when saturated steam is the medium. 40 m/s should be considered an extreme limit, as above this, noise and erosion will take place particularly if the steam is wet. Even these velocities can be high in terms of their effect on pressure drop. In longer supply lines, it is often necessary to restrict velocities to 15 m/s to avoid high pressure drops. It is recommended that pipelines over 50 m long are always checked for pressure drop, no matter what the velocity. Superheated steam can be considered as a dry gas and therefore carries no moisture. Consequently there is no chance of pipe erosion due to suspended water droplets, and steam velocities can be as high as 50 to 70 m/s if the pressure drop permits this. Pipe sizing based upon the velocity approach for saturated and superheated steam can be done using the nomogram as shown in fig. 5.4. Table 5.1 can also be used for determining the pipeline size. An example calculation is as follows: Given: Inlet pressure Steam flow rate Maximum velocity = 7 bar g = 5000 kg/h = 25 m/s

Calculate the pipeline size based on velocity using the nomogram in fig. 5.4. Steps to be followed for the same are as mentioned below. Draw a horizontal line from the saturation temperature line at 7 bar g (Point A) on the pressure scale to the steam mass flowrate of 5 000 kg/h (Point B). From point B, draw a vertical line to the steam velocity of 25 m/s (Point C). From point C, draw a horizontal line across the pipe diameter scale (Point D). A pipe with a bore of 130 mm is required; the nearest commercially available size, 150 mm, would be selected.

71/uts

Layout Designing

Fig. 5.4 Steam pipeline sizing chart velocity approach (Source: www.spiraxsarco.com) 5.3.3 Piping Layout Installing pipes for carrying steam, involves certain considerations not necessarily applicable to other piping systems. Of course, the major difference is the heat steam generates. Although waters boiling point is 212 degrees Fahrenheit, steam is often superheated to much greater temperatures. Boiling water under greater than normal atmospheric pressures results in steam reaching 300, 400 or even 500 degrees Fahrenheit. Installing pipes to normally handle these temperatures and pressures involves special considerations. All underground steam systems shall be installed a minimum of 10 feet from plastic piping and chilled water systems. All plastic underground piping must be kept at a 10 foot distance. Install piping free of sags or bends and with ample space between piping to permit proper insulation applications. Install steam supply piping at a minimum, uniform grade of 1/4 inch in 10 feet downward in the direction of flow. Install condensate return piping sloped downward in the direction of steam supply. Provide condensate return pump at the building to discharge condensate back to the Campus collection system. Install drip legs at intervals not exceeding 200 feet, where pipe is pitched down in the direction of the steam flow. Size drip legs at the vertical risers at full size and extend beyond the rise. Size drip legs at other locations would be of same diameter as the main. Provide an 18-inch drip leg for steam mains smaller than 6 inches. In steam, mains would be 6 inches and larger. Drip legs should be of 2 pipe sizes: smaller than the main, but not lesser than 4 inches. Drip legs, dirt pockets, and strainer blow downs shall be equipped with gate valves, to allow removal of dirt and scale. Install steam traps, close to drip legs.

72/uts

5.4 Economic Velocity for Deciding Line Size

For given mass/volume flow rate of steam, increasing the pipe diameter (ID) would reduce the velocity and would mean less pressure drop. However, a higher pipe size would mean higher initial cost of piping. The effect of change in the pipe size could be seen as below: Pipe Size (ID) higher lower lower higher Velocity Pressure Drop more higher Less Heat-loss

Table 5.2 Effect of change in pipe size A compromise has to be reached between these opposing factors of initial cost, pressure drop and heat loss. Velocity of steam which offers optimum solution is referred to as economic velocity. For steam service, the recommended velocities are: Exhaust wet steam Dry saturated steam Superheated steam 15 25 m/s 25 35 m/s 35 45 m/s

At these velocities the pressure drop would be about 1 psi /100 ft or about 0.2 bar / 100 m. m = 0.002827 X d2 X Where, m EV SPV d

OR

d = 18.807

= mass flow rate = economic velocity m/s = specific volume m3/Kg = pipe dia (ID) in mm

For the purpose of deciding pipe sizes for steam service, the steam pipe lines could be broadly grouped into two categories, viz., steam mains and branch lines. Steam mains are large size line spanning considerable distance. They have to deliver steam of the required quantity to the various steam using devices. The pressure drop is therefore an important consideration. The design procedure therefore involves selecting steam velocity closest to if not within economic range which gives pressure drop within permissible limit. Branch lines are much shorter in length. The pressure drop therefore is not of substantial magnitude. The branch lines are therefore sized on the basis of velocity of 25 - 35 m/s.

5.5 Resistance of Valves and Fittings to Flow of Fluids

When a flow of a fluid in a pipe line is altered by some obstruction such as a valve or fitting, the velocity changes, turbulence is magnified, and a drop in pressure results. This pressure drop may be insignificant in long lines, where it is very small in comparison to the total drop, but when the line is short, the pressure drop through valves and fittings becomes a major item in the total pressure drop value.

73/uts

Layout Designing

It has been the tendency, and probably is the most practical way to present the friction values in terms of an equivalent length of the same size of pipe, i.e., the pressure drop caused by a 2-inch elbow is equivalent to approximately the pressure drop caused by five or six feet of 2-inch pipe under the same conditions of flow.

3000 2000
Global valve open Gate valve Closed Closed Closed Full Open

1000 500 300 200 100 50

Equivalent Length of Straight Pipe in Feet

Angle valve open

Normal Diameter of Pipe in Inches

10
Return Bend Short Radius 900 Bend

5 3 2

5 3 2 1

Long Radius 900 Bend

0.5 0.3 0.2 0.1

2 1.5 1.25 1 0.75

2.5

150 Bend

0.5 0.5

Fig. 5.5 Resistance of valves and fittings to flow of fluids

74/uts

Inside Diameter in Inches

Swing Check Valve

30 20

48 42 36 30 24 2220 18 16 14 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4.5 4 3.5 3

50 30 20

10

Summary
Steam is widely used in most of the process industry as process heating media and in all power generation plants. The steam distribution system is the essential link between the steam generator and the steam user. Pipes for steam systems are commonly manufactured from carbon steel to ANSI B 16.9 Al06. The objective of the steam distribution system is to supply steam at the correct pressure to the point of use. Pipeline sizing can be divided into two categorise, viz., oversized pipework and undersized pipework When a flow of a fluid in a pipe line is altered by some obstruction such as a valve or fitting, the velocity is changed, turbulence is magnified, and a drop in pressure results.

References
Gracey, M.T., 2006. High-pressure pumps, Gulf Professional Publishing. McCauley, J.F., 2000. Steam Distribution Systems Deskbook, The Fairmont Press, Inc. Johnson, P.D., 2002. Principles of Controlled Maintenance Management, CRC Press.

Recommended Reading
Krigger, J. & Dorsi, C., 2004. Residential Energy: Cost Savings and Comfort for Existing Buildings, 4th ed., Saturn Resource Management, Inc. McCaulry, J.F., 1995. The steam trap handbook, The Fairmont Press, Inc.

75/uts

Layout Designing

Self Assessment
1. Which is the essential link between the steam generator and the steam user? a. Piping b. Piping material c. Piping layout d. Steam distribution system 2. ___________ is widely used in most of the process industry as process heating media. a. Steam b. Piping c. Layout d. Valve 3. Condensing rate is commonly called _______________. a. steam distribution b. piping layout c. running load d. piping layout 4. ______________ are one of the most important components of a steam distribution system. a. Steam b. Pipes c. Layout d. Fittings 5. ______________ is an important factor in sizing pipes. a. Velocity b. Diameter c. Layout d. Design 6. ________________ based upon the velocity approach for saturated and superheated steam can be done using the nomogram. a. Piping layout b. Piping design c. Pipe sizing d. Steam Distribution

76/uts

7. Match the columns. 1. Pipeline sizing 2. Oversized Pipework 3. Undersized Pipework 4. Steam a. 1-A, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D b. 1-D, 2-C, 3-B, 4-A c. 1-B, 2-A, 3-D, 4-C d. 1-C, 2-D, 3-A, 4-B 8. Velocity of steam which offers optimum solution is referred to as ____________. a. running load b. economic velocity c. pipeline sizing based on velocity d. steam distribution system 9. When a flow of a fluid in a pipe line is altered by some obstruction such as a valve or fitting, the _________ is changed. a. running load b. velocity c. steam d. economic velocity 10. Pipeline sizing can be divided into __________categorise. a. one b. two c. three d. four A. Based on pressure drop B. Expensive pipes, valves and fittings C. Risk of steam starvation D. Easy to control

77/uts

Layout Designing

Chapter VI Turbines and Design Consideration for Tank Farm

Aim
The aim of this chapter is to: introduce gas turbines explain the gas turbine usage elucidate tank farm

Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to: explicate the Petroleum Act, 1934 introduce the tank foundation explain the types of gas turbines

Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: understand the specifications of storing of petroleum products enlist the components of gas turbines infer types of tank farms and roof structures

78/uts

6.1 Introduction to Gas Turbines

A turbine is any kind of spinning device that uses the action of a fluid to produce work. Typical fluids are: air, wind, water, steam, and helium. Windmills and hydroelectric dams have used turbine action for decades to turn the core of an electrical generator to produce power for both, industrial and residential consumption. Simpler turbines are much older, with the first known appearance dating to the time of ancient Greece. Actually, a gas turbine has a compressor to draw in and compress gas (most usually air); a combustor (or burner) to add fuel to heat the compressed air; and a turbine to extract power from the hot air flow. The gas turbine is an internal combustion (IC) engine employing a continuous combustion process. This differs from the intermittent combustion occurring in Diesel and automotive IC engines. For electrical power generation and marine applications, it is generally called a gas turbine, also a combustion turbine (CT), a turbo shaft engine, and sometimes a gas turbine engine. For aviation applications, it is usually called a jet engine, and various other names depending on the particular engine configuration or application, such as: jet turbine engine; turbojet; turbofan; fanjet; and turboprop or prop jet (if it is used to drive a propeller). The compressor- combustor-turbine part of the gas turbine is commonly termed the gas generator.

A
Compressor

Combustor Fuel Thrust power Exhaust

Shaft

Turbine

Nozzle

Inlet

B
Compressor

Combustor Fuel Exhaust Shaft Turbine Power turbine Shaft power

Inlet

Fig. 6.1 Schematic for a) an aircraft jet engine; and b) a land-based gas turbine

6.2 Gas Turbine Usage

In an aircraft gas turbine, the output of the turbine is used to turn the compressor (which may also have an associated fan or propeller). The hot air flow leaving the turbine is then accelerated into the atmosphere through an exhaust nozzle, to provide thrust or propulsion power.

79/uts

Layout Designing

Fan

Low pressure Compressor

passing bY engine air jet Fan the

turbine shaft pressure high outer tage turn Combustor Low pressure turbine 2-S to to turn inner shaft

pressure High compressor

Thrust

Air inlet Thrust

Twin spool shaft to turn the fan and the compressors

Fig. 6.2 A modern jet engine (Source: http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/turbine2.html) A typical jet engine is shown in fig. 6.2. Such engines can range from about 100 pounds of thrust (lbst.) to as high as 100,000 lbst, with weights ranging from about 30 lbs. to 20,000 lbs. The smallest jets are used for devices such as the cruise missile, the largest for future generations of commercial aircraft. The jet engine of fig. 6.2 is a turbofan engine, with a large diameter compressor-mounted fan. Thrust is generated both, by air passing through the fan (bypass air) and through the gas generator itself. With a large frontal area, the turbofan generates peak thrust at low (takeoff) speeds, making it most suitable for commercial aircraft. A turbojet does not have a fan and generates all of its thrust from air that passes through the gas generator. Turbojets have smaller frontal areas and generate peak thrusts at high speeds, making them most suitable for fighter aircraft. In non-aviation gas turbines, part of the turbine power is used to drive the compressor. The remainder, the useful power, is used as output shaft power to turn an energy conversion device such as an electrical generator or a ships propeller.

6.3 Advantages of Gas Turbines

Some of the principle advantages of gas turbine are discussed below. It is capable of producing large amounts of useful power for a relatively small size and weight. Since motion of all its major components involve pure rotation (i.e., no reciprocating motion as in a piston engine), its mechanical life is long and the corresponding maintenance cost is relatively low. Although the gas turbine must be started by some external means (a small external motor or other source, such as another gas turbine), it can be brought up to full-load (peak output) conditions in minutes as contrasted to a steam turbine plant whose start up time is measured in hours. A wide variety of fuels can be utilised. Natural gas is commonly used in land-based gas turbines while light distillate (kerosene-like) oils power aircraft gas turbines. Diesel oil or specially treated residual oils can also be used, as well as combustible gases derived from blast furnaces, refineries and the gasification of solid fuels such as coal, wood chips and bagasse. The usual working fluid is atmospheric air. As a basic power supply, the gas turbine requires no coolant (e.g. water).

80/uts

6.4 The Gas Turbine

Gas turbine engines are extremely simple. Gas turbine is explained in detail below. 6.4.1 The Process Gas turbine systems operate on the thermodynamic cycle known as the Brayton cycle. In a Brayton cycle, atmospheric air is compressed, heated, and then expanded, with the excess of power produced by the expander (also called the turbine) over that consumed by the compressor used for power generation. The power produced by an expansion turbine and consumed by a compressor is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas passing through the device. Consequently, it is advantageous to operate the expansion turbine at the highest practical temperature consistent with economic materials and internal blade cooling technology and to operate the compressor with inlet air flow at as low a temperature as possible. As technology permits higher turbine inlet temperature, the optimum pressure ratio also increases. Higher temperature and pressure ratios result in higher efficiency and specific power. Thus, the general trend in gas turbine advancement has been towards a combination of higher temperatures and pressures. While such advancements increase the manufacturing cost of the machine, the higher value, in terms of greater power output and higher efficiency, provides net economic benefits. The industrial gas turbine is a balance between performances and cost that result in the most economic machine for both, the user and manufacturer. 6.4.2 Components Gas turbine is mainly composed of three parts: Compressor The compressor components are connected to the turbine by a shaft in order to allow the turbine to turn the compressor. A single shaft gas turbine has only one shaft connecting the compressor and turbine components. A twin spool gas turbine has two concentric shafts, a longer one connecting a low pressure compressor to a low pressure turbine (the low spool) which rotates inside a shorter, larger diameter shaft. The shorter, larger diameter shaft connects the high pressure turbine with the higher pressure compressor (the high spool) which rotates at higher speeds than the low spool. A triple spool engine would have a third, intermediate pressure compressor-turbine spool. Gas turbine compressors are either centrifugal or axial, or can be a combination of both. Centrifugal compressors (with compressed air output around the outer perimeter of the machine) are robust, generally cost less and are limited to pressure ratios of 6 or 7 to 1. They are found in early gas turbines or in modern, smaller gas turbines. The more efficient, higher capacity axial flow compressors (with compressed air output directed along the center line of the machine) are used in most gas turbines. An axial compressor is made up of a relatively large number of stages, each stage, consisting of a row of rotating blades (airfoils) and a row of stationary blades (stators), arranged so that the air is compressed as it passes through each stage. Combustors A combustor consists of at least three basic parts: a casing, a flame tube and a fuel injection system. The casing must withstand the cycle pressures and may be a part of the structure of the gas turbine. It encloses a relatively thin-walled flame tube within which combustion takes place, and a fuel injection system.

81/uts

Layout Designing

Fig. 6.3 Combustion area (Source: http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/modern/turbine4.htm) Compared to other prime movers (such as Diesel and reciprocating automobile engines), gas turbines are considered to produce very low levels of combustion pollution. The gas turbine emissions of major concern are unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen (NOx ) and smoke. While the contribution of jet aircraft to atmospheric pollution is less than 1%, jet aircraft emissions injected directly into the upper troposphere have doubled between the latitudes of 40 to 60 degrees north, increasing ozone by about 20%. In the stratosphere, where supersonic aircraft fly, NOx will deplete ozone. Both effects are harmful, so further NOx reduction in gas turbine operation is a challenge for the 21st century. Turbines At the left of the engine is the turbine section. In this figure, there are two sets of turbines. The first set directly drives the compressor. The turbines, the shaft and the compressor all turn as a single unit.
Superheated toluene vapour Hydrodynamic radial bearings 12.5cm

High-pressure liquid toluene out

Liquid toluene in

Turbine wheel Gimballed hydrodynamic thrust bearing Turbine nozzle manifold Alternator rotor Alternator windings

Feed pump

Fig. 6.4 Turbine stage (Source: http://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/modern/turbine5.htm)

82/uts

At the far left is a final turbine stage, shown here with a single set of vanes. It drives the output shaft. This final turbine stage and the output shaft are a completely stand-alone, freewheeling unit. They spin freely without any connection to the rest of the engine. And the amazing part about a gas turbine engine is that there is enough energy in the hot gases blowing through the blades of that final output turbine to generate 1,500 horsepower and drive a 63-ton M-1 Tank. A gas turbine engine really is that simple. In the case of the turbine used in a tank or a power plant, there really is nothing to do with the exhaust gases but vent them through an exhaust pipe, as shown. Sometimes, the exhaust will run through some sort of heat exchanger either to extract the heat for some other purpose or to preheat air before it enters the combustion chamber.

6.5 Types of Gas Turbines

Aero derivative gas turbines for stationary power are adapted from their jet and turbo shaft aircraft engine counterparts. While these turbines are lightweight and thermally efficient, they are usually more expensive than products designed and built exclusively for stationary applications. The largest aero derivative generation turbines available are 40 to 50 MW in capacity. Many aero derivative gas turbines for stationary use operate with compression ratios in the range of 30:1, requiring a high-pressure external fuel gas compressor. With advanced system developments, larger aero derivative turbines (>40 MW) are approaching 45% simple-cycle efficiencies (LHV). Industrial or frame gas turbines are exclusively for stationary power generation and are available in the 1 to 250 MW capacity range. They are generally less expensive, more rugged, can operate longer between overhauls, and are more suited for continuous base-load operation with longer inspection and maintenance intervals than aeroderivative turbines. However, they are less efficient and much heavier. Industrial gas turbines generally have more modest compression ratios (up to 16:1) and often do not require an external fuel gas compressor. Larger industrial gas turbines (>100 MW) are approaching simple-cycle efficiencies of approximately 40% (LHV) and combined-cycle efficiencies of 60% (LHV). Design characteristics Gas turbines produce a high quality (high temperature) thermal output suitable for most combined heat and power applications. High-pressure steam can be generated or the exhaust can be used directly for process drying and heating. Gas turbines operate on natural gas, synthetic gas, landfill gas, and fuel oils. Plants typically operate on gaseous fuel with a stored liquid fuel for backup to obtain the less expensive interruptible rate for natural gas. Modern gas turbines have proven to be reliable power generators given proper maintenance. Time to overhaul is typically 25,000 to 50,000 hours. Gas turbines are available in sizes from 500 kW to 250 MW.

Thermal output

Fuel flexibility

Reliability and life Size range

83/uts

Layout Designing

Emission

Many gas turbines burning gaseous fuels (mainly natural gas) feature lean premixed burners (also called dry low-NOx combustors) that produce NOx emissions below 25 ppm, with laboratory data down to 9 ppm, and simultaneous low CO emissions in the 10 to 50 ppm range. Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) or catalytic combustion further reduces NOx emissions. Many gas turbines sited in locales with stringent emission regulations use SCR after-treatment to achieve single-digit (below 9 ppm) NOx emissions.

H K

Fig. 6.5 Simplest form of combustion turbine plant with reaction type gas (Source: www.pipingguide.net)

6.6 Applications of Gas Turbines

The high power to weight ratio and the jet propulsion of the gas turbine makes it suitable for aircraft over the piston engines. The low weight, lightness of the rotating parts and high power by high internal pressure and temperatures are important characteristics for aircraft engines. They are used in marine applications. They are used in electricity generation. Gas turbines are extensively used in the oil and gas industries which can afford to run them at relatively low efficiency. A major use is pumping oil and gas through pipelines over long distances through deserts, sea and other remote places. Pumping stations used to boost the pressures are run on gas turbines which use the pumped oil or gas and can run without supervision. Gas turbines are also used extensively on offshore oil drilling rigs. There, they generate electricity, supply shaft power for pumping duties and may heat the rig with their exhaust gas. Electrical load variations may be smoothened by gas turbines.

84/uts

6.7 Tank Farm

A tank farm is a facility where petroleum products are stored prior to being disbursed to end consumers or retail facilities. People may also use the term oil depot to refer to a tank farm. Some farms are owned by a single company which uses the farm to meet its needs, while others are administered by a group. It is also possible for facilities to have their own tank farms for the purpose of storing fuel on site, with airports being a classic example of a facility which needs to have a lot of fuel on hand. The facilities at a tank farm are usually very basic. Tanks can be above or below ground, with plumbing so that tanks can be connected to tankers and piping for the purpose of dispensing fuel and refilling the tanks. Many tank farms are located near refineries, ports, rail yards, and major trucking terminals, for convenience. These locations make it easy to move fuel in and out of the farm. A tank farm can also be located along a pipeline used to transport petroleum products. The farm may also have facilities to store delivery trucks, as seen when a company which sells natural gas or propane to the public makes deliveries to home tanks. Some security facilities are necessary at a tank farm, because the farm represents a significant fire risk. Someone could target the farm for sabotage or terrorism, causing a large fire and potentially endangering the fuel supply if the farm is large. People also want to avoid accidents at tank farms which could result in accidental release of fuel, explosions, fires, and other problems. Guards are usually posted on site and the site is locked and regularly inspected to confirm that all systems are operating as they should be. Companies which sell fuel to gas stations keep fuel on tank farms, sending out delivery trucks on a regular basis to fill up the storage tanks at the gas station. Tank farms can contain a mix of fuel, including gasoline with various octane ratings and diesel, along with fuels like propane and natural gas. Each tank is clearly labelled to indicate the contents and provide information about safety. Small tank farms are sometimes kept at bus yards and other transit facilities for the purpose of refuelling vehicles. This eliminates the need to buy fuel commercially, and allows maintenance crews to handle maintenance tasks in a convenient location.

6.8 Tank Foundation

Foundations made by others shall be checked for uniform slope and levels for our acceptance. Reference of North and East markings or 00 orientations marking on the foundation has to be furnished by the client. Sump pit on the foundation must be given prior to the commencement of the Bottom laying. 6.8.1 Base Plate Laying The annular plates will be laid first and then the sketch plates and full plates will be laid with sequences mentioned in the drawing; minimum lap for any two plates will be 30mm. temporary tack welding will be done during the time of laying. 6.8.2 Base Plate Welding The annular butt joints will be welded first. Subsequently every alternate short seam will be fitted and welded and at the same time nearest short seams will be freed from tack welds. The same procedure will be repeated for long seam welding. Temporary erection cleats and jigs/fixtures will be used for laying and avoiding distortion during the time of welding.

85/uts

Layout Designing

6.8.3 Shell Erection After grinding off the weld reinforcement on the top the of annular joints where the shell will rest and the vacuum box testing of this portion, erection of shell will commence subsequent to marking the circle to tank inner radius on the tank base. First shell course plates will be rested on the mark-ings by providing small cleats on both sides of the shell plates on the tank base. For maintaining the gap for the vertical joints, spacers will be inserted in between the two plate edges. After tack welding the vertical joints, plumbing and gauging will be done prior to the welding of vertical joints. Temporary strong backs will be provided during the time of welding in order to check peaking of joints. After completing the vertical welding from one side, the shell will be back chipped before weld is deposited from the other side. Second shell course erection will then be done, and the second shell plates will be rested on the first shell course with the help of spacers and wedges. Minimum two numbers of erection channels will be wedged per plate erected, with lower course of plate, for stability and safety. For the second course vertical joints, fitting and welding will be done as said for the first course. After completing the vertical welding, horizontal joint set up and plumbing will be done prior to welding the same. Sequence of welding for the horizontal joints will be same as vertical welding. For outside welding on the shell, welders trolley will be used and for inside, scaffolding will be provided for erection and welding purpose. In the same manner, subsequent shell courses will be erected and welded. To safeguard erected tank plates, guy wire supports will be provided from plates to the channels anchored in ground. After welding the last horizontal joint, the curb angle will be fitted and welded. Shell to bottom joint can be fitted before or after fitting the curb angle. After welding the curb angle, final plumb check will be done in accordance with the design code and also peaking and banding check for the shell joints will be done. Identification marks for welder and weld joints shall be marked on the tank by using paint or metallic marker simultaneously during fit up and welding. 6.8.4 Vacuum box test and Radiography After all welding work on the tank base and shell vertical/horizontal joints, shell to bottom and curb angle to shell joints are welded, the tank base butt/lap joints will be vacuum box tested. Radiography of vertical/horizontal welds will proceed as erection and welding work progresses. 6.8.5 Types of Tank Farm and Roof Structure Different tank farms used for storing petroleum products are explained below. Cryogenic Tanks Cryogenic Vessels are designed for storage and transport of liquid gases at sub-zero temperatures. Manufacturing of such cryogenic tanks requires special technical know how and sophisticated fabrication techniques. Cryogenic Vessel is essentially a double walled cylindrical tank. Annular space between inner and outer vessel is filled with an insulating material and evacuated to a high vacuum to achieve minimum evaporation losses Design of cryogenic equipment like vessels is compact, sturdy and easy to operate. Top end liquid filling reduces the pressure inside the tank and pressure increases in bottom filling. Pressurizing system enables operator to increase the pressure during liquid unloading to tanks or gas line vaporizers. By regulating the opening of both top and bottom filling valves, there is no significant change of pressure during liquid delivery. This results in constant liquid supply to vaporizer.

86/uts

Floating Roof Tanks Floating roof tanks are safest, easy to maintain, sturdy and yet economical. The unique design features minimise the risk of the floating roof getting stuck while in operation. The specially designed tank components and matching provisions in the roof drain system allow smooth movement of the rolling ladder even if the roof tilts or sags due to heavy rain water collection on the roof or due to shift in axis of the roof, also eliminating any undue strain on the drainage system.

a.

b.

c. Fig. 6.6 (a) Internal floating roof tank, (b) domed external floating roof tank, (c) external floating roof tank (Source: http://www.api.org)

6.9 Planning and Design of Tank Farm

When planning a tank farm attention must be paid to: A clear arrangement of the individual units (rows of tanks, filling/discharging bays, piping networks, pump groups); Logical division of the complete facility by individual protective structures and fire sections; Products which could react dangerously with each other or cannot be extinguished with the same fire extinguishing equipment must be stored separately in a suitable manner; Structural, hazard-oriented separation of tank farms from production facilities, e.g. by safety clearances, fire walls, water curtains, tank zone with non-flammable liquids; Escape and emergency routes (VKF Guideline 16-03d [9]) Good accessibility for maintenance, operation and event rectification; The accessibility of tank farms for flammable liquids must be safeguarded for mobile fire extinguishing equipment (vehicles) from at least two sides and every individual tank must be accessible by mobile fire extinguishing equipment from outside of the tank area (fig. 6.7 a) . Within a group of tanks, the layout of the tanks should be such that shadow zones (i.e. zones which the fire extinguishing equipment cannot reach or only with difficulties) do not occur in case of a fire. If this demand cannot be met due to the operational situation, fixed firefighting installations must be provided; firefighting from the top may also be taken into consideration (fig. 6.7b and fig. 6.8).

87/uts

Layout Designing

Fig. 6.7 (a) Tank farm accessibility from two sides (Source: www.bafu.admin.ch)

Fig. 6.7 (b) Tank farm accessibility from one side (Source: www.bafu.admin.ch) The distances between tank groups have to be defined according to fire-extinguishing aspects (accessibility, possibility of inserting water walls, etc.). It is advantageous to subdivide bigger tank groups into smaller fire sections (e.g. by fireproof walls or with tanks of non-flammable liquids in between).

88/uts

Fig. 6.8 Tank inside the tank field (shadow zone) (Not accessible by mobile fire extinguishing equipment or only with difficulties) (Source: www.bafu.admin.ch) 6.9.1 Perimeter, Drainage In case a storage tank leaks, liquid sprayed beyond the bed (spray parabola) must be collected and handled in a controlled manner. The strip to be drained must have a width of at least 0.5 times the height of the tank above the bed, measured from the tank wall. If tanks are thermally insulated or if they are equipped with protective cladding, this measure is not required. The surface of the tank farm perimeter which can be wetted by leaking liquid during operation or in case of accidents is to be of a structure impermeable to liquid, weather-resistant and principally resistant against the goods stored there. These areas are to be drained in a controlled manner.

6.10 Tank and Protective Clearance

Minimum tank spacing is defined as the effective clearance between tanks or between a tank and the wall. Anything reducing the effective dimension, e.g. thermal insulation must not reduce the minimum clearance. If a leak occurs in the wall of a tank, the spray parabola must be caught inside or outside of the tank bed. Thermal insulation or protective cladding meets this requirement. Protective clearance is measured from the outer edge of the protective structure of the tank farm to the adjoining building under the same ownership or to the building line of the neighbouring lot. The protective clearance can be reduced after consulting the authorities, if suitable measures, such as protective walls, deluge spray systems, or foam, are provided. For tank diameters larger than 10m, it must be verified for each product that the radiant heat on the building line of the neighbouring lot does not exceed 8kW/m2 in case of a fire.

6.11 Storage of Petroleum Products

Liquid petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel and kerosene, must be stored safely to prevent spills and leaks. Any one of these products can move quickly through the soil and into groundwater or runoff into dugouts and streams. A small leak of one drop per second can release about 200 gal (900 L) of gasoline in one year. But it takes only a few litres of gasoline to severely pollute a farmsteads drinking water. It is hard to detect low levels of fuel pollution in water because they are difficult to smell or taste. Water that seems pure may still be contaminated and can affect human health. Fire and explosions are another potential danger from petroleum products. Vapours from an underground leak that collect in basements, sump pits or other underground structures could explode.

89/uts

Layout Designing

Above ground tanks, underground storage tanks and piping must all be protected against corrosion to prevent leaks. New tanks and piping may leak if they are not installed properly. Secondary containment systems and good record keeping are effective ways of managing your fuel storage system to prevent losses that could cause environmental damage. Taking into consideration the above hazards, it is necessary to follow the norms and obligations prescribed by the government for storing petroleum products.

6.12 The Petroleum Act, 1934 (Act No. 30 of 1934)

An Act to consolidate and amend the law) relating to the import, transport, storage, production, refining and blending of petroleum [16th September, 1934] Whereas it is expedient to consolidate and amend the law relating to import, transport, storage, production, refining and blending of petroleum . It is hereby enacted as follows: Preliminary definitions- In this Act unless there is anything repugnant in the subject or context, petroleum means any liquid hydro-carbon or mixture of hydro- -carbons and any inflammable mixture (liquid, viscous or solid) containing any liquid hydro-carbon; Petroleum Class A means petroleum having a flash-point below Twenty-three degrees centigrade;(bb) Petroleum Class B means petroleum having a flash point of twenty- Three degrees centigrade and above but below sixty-five degrees Centigrade;(bbb) Petroleum Class C means petroleum-having flash point of sixtyFive degrees [flash-point] of any petroleum means the lowest temperature at which it yields a vapour which will give a momentary flash when ignited, determined in accordance with the provisions of Chapter II and the rules made thereunder; to transport petroleum means to move petroleum from one place to another in India and includes moving from one place to another in India across a territory which is not part of India]; to import petroleum means to bring it into India by land, sea or air otherwise than during the course of transport; to store petroleum means to keep it in any one place, but does not include any detention happening during the ordinary course of transport; motor conveyance means any vehicle vessel or aircraft for the conveyance of human beings, animals or goods, by land, water or air, in which petroleum is used to generate the motive power; prescribed means prescribed by rules made under this Act.

6.13 Licence for Storage of Petroleum Products

Following are required under petroleum act: Letter indicating purpose of storage of petroleum product & nature of business Piping cum equipment layout plans to scale Distance between storage tank and storage tank to fencing. Dyked area and volume of each dyked area minimum Dyked HT. Class c=1.o M. Tank fitted with vent pipe to Atm. fitted with non corrodible wire goal. Protected area is surrounded by walls. Electrical insulation on cables and motor data sheet for pumps. Plot plan indicating premises to be licensed with boundary indicated red and indicating area within 100M from edge of storage tank / unloading station Fire protection system/hydrant Equipment specification Scrutiny fee

90/uts

Summary
A turbine is any kind of spinning device that uses the action of a fluid to produce work. In an aircraft gas turbine, the output of the turbine is used to turn the compressor. Gas turbine systems operate on the thermodynamic cycle known as the Brayton cycle. In a Brayton cycle, atmospheric air is compressed, heated, and then expanded, with the excess of power produced by the expander over that consumed by the compressor used for power generation. Gas turbine is mainly composed of three parts: Compressor, Turbines and Combustor. A tank farm is a facility where petroleum products are stored prior to being disbursed to end consumers or retail facilities. Cryogenic Vessels are designed for storage and transport of liquid gases at sub-zero temperatures. Floating roof tanks are safest, easy to maintain, sturdy and yet economical. The unique design features minimise the risk of the floating roof getting stuck while in operation. In case a storage tank leaks, liquid sprayed beyond the bed (spray parabola) must be collected and handled in a controlled manner. Minimum tank spacing is defined as the effective clearance between tanks or between a tank and the wall. Liquid petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel fuel and kerosene, must be stored safely to prevent spills and leaks.

References
Bausbacher, E., Hunt, R., 1993. Process plant layout and piping design, PTR Prentice Hall. Soares, C., 2007. Gas turbines: a handbook of air, land, and sea applications, Butterworth-Heinemann Syms, P., 2010. Land, Development and Design, 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons

Recommended Reading
Frayne, C., 2010. Cooling Water Treatment Principles and Practices: Charts and Notes for Field Use, Chemical Publishing Company, Incorporated Boyce, M. P., 2002. Gas turbine engineering handbook, 2nd ed., Gulf Professional Publishing McAllister, E. W., 2009. Pipeline rules of thumb handbook: quick and accurate solutions to your everyday pipeline problems, 7th ed., Gulf Professional Publishing.

91/uts

Layout Designing

Self Assessment
1. A _________ is any kind of spinning device that uses the action of a fluid to produce work. a. turbine b. compressor c. plant layout d. tank farm 2. Gas turbine engines are extremely a. hard b. simple c. user friendly d. compatible 3. Gas turbine systems operate on the thermodynamic cycle known as the _____________. a. gas turbine cycle b. cycle of rotation c. Brayton Cycle d. process cycle of turbine 4. Gas turbine is mainly composed of ________ parts. a. two b. three c. four d. five 5. A single shaft gas turbine has only one shaft connecting the _________ and turbine components. a. compressor b. gas turbine c. combustor d. tank farm 6. A ___________ consists of at least three basic parts: a casing, a flame tube and a fuel injection system. a. compressor b. combustor c. turbine d. baryton cycle 7. At the left of the engine is the _________ section. a. compressor b. combustor c. turbine d. baryton cycle

92/uts

8. Tank farm is also known as ____________. a. compressor b. turbine c. combustor d. oil depot 9. ______________ are designed for storage and transport of liquid gases at sub-zero temperatures. a. Cryogenic vessels b. Floating roof tanks c. Tank farm d. Oil depot 10. __________ can be reduced after consulting the authorities, if suitable measures, such as protective walls, deluge spray systems, or foam, are provided. a. Tank clearance b. Protective clearance c. Perimeter drainage d. Tank farm

93/uts

Layout Designing

Chapter VII Towers

Aim
The aim of this chapter is to: introduce towers and their role in processing facility highlight the general requirements for the tower plant layout design state the importance of tower maintenance

Objectives
The objectives of this chapter are to: explain the types of towers introduce the concept of tower elevation and support elucidate design consideration for towers

Learning outcome
At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to: explain distillation process understand the concept of nozzle elevation and orientation identify the tower instruments locate tower piping in piping designs as well as in plants

94/uts

7.1 Introduction
Towers are cylindrical steel vessels that are used for distilling raw materials in the production of such products as gasoline, diesel, and heating oil. They are also referred to as columns. Towers are one of the principal pieces of equipment of any processing facility. The plant layout designer must understand the internal structure of a tower and how it operates to produce a satisfactory design. This chapter highlights the general requirements for the tower plant layout design. It describes the internal workings of towers and provides the information required to orient nozzles, locate instruments, piping, and controls and provide platforms and ladders for the operator and maintenance access.

7.2 The Distillation Process

Crude oil is of little commercial use; however, when separated or broken down, oil becomes one of the most valuable commodities in the world. Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbon compounds with a wide range of boiling points from 100 0F (38 0C) to 1400 0F (7600 C). Separation or distillation is a process by which a liquid mixture is partially vaporised. The vapours are then condensed, separating the individual components of the mixture. As the temperature of crude oil is raised, the initial boiling point (IBP) is reached. As boiling continues, the temperature rises. The lightest material, butane, is produced first, at IBP, just below 100 0F (38 0C); the heavier materials are produced below 80 0F (427 0C). The residue includes everything above 80 0F (427 0C).
900F 3/20C 900F - 2200F (3/20C)-(1040C) 2200F-3150F (1040C)-(1570C) 3150F-4500F (1570C)-(2320C) 4500F-6500F (2320C)-(3430C) 6500F-8000F (3430C)-(4270C) 8000F+ (427 C)+
0

Butane and Lighter Gases Straight Run Gasoline Naptha Kerosene Light Gas Oil Heavy Gas Oil Straight Run Residue

Crude Oil

Fig. 7.1 Crude distillation of products across temperature range (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) The evolution of distillation towers is best explained in three basic steps explained below. 7.2.1 Batch Shell In the batch shell still process, the still is partially filled with a set feed called a batch. The feed is then heated to the temperature required to produce a specific product from the overhead vapours. This process is repeated each time for each product until the batch reaches the maximum temperature for the range of products specified. The feed remaining in the still is then pumped out, and the still is allowed to cool. It is then refilled, and the whole process is repeated Not only is this process time consuming but also the product is not always of high quality. The batch sheet still process was one of the earliest used for liquid mixture separation.

95/uts

Layout Designing

Condenser Still Feed Receiver Product Heat Bottoms

Fig. 7.2 Batch shell still distillation process (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) 7.2.2 Continuous Shell In the continuous shell still process, several shell stills are linked in series to form a battery. Fresh feed continuously enters the first still, which is kept at the lowest temperature for the lightest overhead product. The bottoms from the first still are fed to the second still, which is kept at the temperature for the next highest boiling overhead product and so on for the number of products needed. If the feed and the temperature of each still remain constant, the finished product is of satisfactory quality. The continuous shell still process which is an improvement over the batch shell still operation.
First still Feed Receiver

Condenser Second still Receiver2

Condenser

Heat

Product Bottoms

Heat

Product Bottoms

Fig. 7.3 Continuous shell still distillation process (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) 7.2.3 Fractional Distillation Similar to the continuous shell still, the fractional distillation process is made up of several stills linked together in series. The main difference is that all the liquid condensate is returned to the upstream still. As the feed is partially vaporised in the first still the vapours rise, travel through the overhead line, and come into contact with the liquid in the second still. Because the temperature of the liquid in the second still is lower than the incoming vapours from the first still, the vapours partially condense. At the same time, liquid from the second still enters near the top of the first still. As vapours rise in the first still, they meet the incoming liquid from the second still. This causes vaporisation of the incoming liquid from the second still and condensation of the rising vapours in the frost still. The same reaction takes place in all the downstream stills. This process improves on previous operations in terms of quantity, quality and a reduction in the energy needed to heat the raw materials.

96/uts

Condenser Vapour Vapour Vapour Vapour Vapour

Still-2

Still-3

Still-4

Still-1

Still-5

Receiver

Feed

1950F 900C

1800F 800C

1700F 750C

1600F 700C

1500F 600C

Heat Bottoms

Liquid

Liquid

Liquid

Liquid

Product 1550F (680C)

Fig. 7.4 Multiunit Fractional still distillation process (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) All the three process arrangements are satisfactory operations and play an important part in the development of the modern distillation tower. The final step in combining these operations into one single component is achieved by stacking the stills on top of each other and installing an internal device between each still to allow the liquid to flow down and the vapours to rise. This means that the single unit can function in a way similar to the multishell unit for less capital and operational cost. The figure below shows a single fractionator tower with the corresponding still numbers and temperature ranges of the multistill unit. The reflux return line controls the temperature of the fluids in the upper portion of the tower.
Fractionator tower
Still-5 Still-4 Still-3 Still-2 1500F 650C 1600F 700C 1700F 750C 1800F 800C 1950F 900C

Condenser Reflex return Line

Receiver

Still-1

Feed Furnace Bottoms

Pump

Product 1550F (680C)

Fig. 7.5 Fractionator tower (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Vapour and liquid flow One of the most common internal devices that allows the single tower to function similarly to the multistill unit is the tray shown in the below figure. Slots and holes in the trays allow the vapour to rise and the liquid to flow down.

97/uts

Layout Designing

Rising vapours in the tower pass through slotted bubble caps and come into contact with liquid flowing around the caps. Liquid flowing down from upper trays falls through the downcomers and over and around the bubble caps around the next downcomer. In this manner, the lighting boiling fractions in the down flowing liquid are vaporised by the heat from the rising vapour and heavier boiling fractions in the vapour are condensed and flow down the tower. This process of vaporising and condensing throughout the tower allows the feed to be separated into the required boiling-range fraction, which are drawn off from the side of the tower at the appropriate location.

Vapour

Vapour

Liquid Liquid Draw-off Chimney

Vacuum Tower Stripper

Bubble Cap

Tray

Fig. 7.6 Vapour liquid flow (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design)

7.3 Types of Towers

Towers are named for the service or type of unit they are associated with. For example, a stripper is used to strip lighter material from the bottoms of a main tower or a vacuum tower. It is generally used in a vacuum/crude init for distilling crude bottoms residue under vacuum pressure. The below figure shows a typical vacuum tower and stripper.

Fig. 7.7 Vacuum tower and stripper (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design)

98/uts

From the outside, tower configuration is similar in appearance, varying only in dimension. Some towers have swaged top and bottom section. The principal difference among towers is the type and layout of the internal components that controls the vapour liquid contact. This chapter describes the internal and external plant layout requirements for the two most common types of tower: the tray and packed arrangements. The below figure describes a typical trayed tower.
Overhead Maintenance Access Reflux Tray Maintenance Access Feed

Draw-off Chimney

Reboiler Draw-off Maintenance Access Bottoms

Reboiler return Level Instruments

Fig. 7.8 Trayed tower (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) In a packed tower, instead of having trays, the units are packed with beds of metal rings. On entering the tower, the liquid passes through a distributor that route the liquid evenly down through the packed beds of metal rings. Rising vapours passing through the beds come into contact with the descending liquid, a manner similar to the tray tower operation, the liquid is partially vaporise by the heat and the vapours are condensed by the cooler liquid. The below figure describes a typical gas-liquid packed tower and its principal components and their related items are located on either side of a central pipe rack, serviced by auxiliary roads for maintenance access. In plants in which the related equipment is housed, the tower is often located adjacent to the building or structure containing the equipment. Fig. 7.10 shows a process flow diagram of a tower and its related equipment, a typical plan arrangement of the same equipment, and the equipment is elevation.

99/uts

Layout Designing

Gas Outlet Liquid Inlet Liquid Distributor Packing Packing Support Body Flange

Gas inlet Level Instruments

Maintenance access

Liquid Outlet

Fig. 7.9 Packed tower (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design)

7.4 Design Consideration for Towers

Towers are not a standard operation. They are usually located within a process unit adjacent to related equipment and in a suitable position for operator close to such related items as pumps re boilers drums and condensers and should be in position to facilitate an orderly and economic interconnection between itself and that equipment. Within the conventional inline process unit, towers and their related items are located on either side of a central pipe rack serviced by auxiliary roads for maintenance access in plants in which the related equipment is housed, the towers is often located adjacent to the building or structure containing the equipment. The below figure is a process flow diagram of a tower and its related equipment, a typical plan arrangement of the same equipment in elevation.
N Overhead Condenser Overhead Condenser Trim Cooler Reflux Drum Product Bottom Pumps Pipe rack Maintenance access way Tower Reboilers Plan Above Reflux Pumps Reflux Drum Tower Feed Reboilers Trim Cooler

Maintenance road

Bottom Pumps

Reflux Pumps

a. Process Flow Diagram

b. Plan Arrangement

100/uts

Tower Overhead Condenser Trim Cooler Reflux Pumps

Reboilers Bottom Pumps c. Elevation Reflux Pumps

Fig. 7.10 Tower area (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design)

7.5 Tower Elevation and Support

Tower elevation is the distance from the grade to the bottom tangent line of the vessel. Support is the means by which the vessel is retained at the required elevation. The below figure shows an example of elevation and support.
Required Elevation

Tower Tangent Line Support (skirt) Point of Support Grade

EL. 110-0 (103,000)

Fig. 7.11 Consideration for tower elevation and support (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Although the tower elevation must satisfy minimum NPSH requirements, it can be set by a combination of the following constraints whichever produces the minimum tangent line elevation. NPSH Operator access Maintenance access Minimum clearance Vertical reboiler Common access
101/uts

Layout Designing

a. NPSH

Tower

b. Operator Access Tower Operator Access Net Positive Suction head Pump

Pump

c. Maintenance Access Maintenance Access

Tower

Tower

d. Minimum Clearance

Minimum

e. Common Access

Tower

f. Vertical Reboiler Tower

Platform Standard Skirt Flared Skirt Reboiler

Bonnet Removal Area

Fig. 7.12 Tower elevation requirement (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) A skirt is the most frequently used and most satisfactory means of support for vertical vessels. It is attached by continuous welding to the bottom head of the vessel and is furnished with a base ring, which is secured to a concrete foundation or structural frame by means of anchor bolts. In most cases, the skirt is straight but on tall, small- diameter towers, the skirt could be flared. Access openings are required in vessel skirts for inspection and when possible should be oriented toward the main access way. The following figure shows a typical skirt arrangement.

102/uts

Bottom outlet opening

Vent hole

12x18/.300x450 Minimum Bottom outlet Skirt access opening EL. +2;-6/.750 Bolt holes

Stiffening ring

Base ring

Fig. 7.13 Tower skirt (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) The first step in tower layout is setting the bottom tangent line elevation. This step assists civil engineering in foundation design, vessel engineering in support design, systems engineering in line sizing and rotating equipment engineering in pump selection to set the elevation of a tower, the plant layout designer requires the following information. Tower dimensions Type of heads Support details NPSH requirements Bottom outlet size Reboiler details Foundation details Minimum clearances

103/uts

Layout Designing

of diameter For 2:1 Heads Tangent Line 12 6 9 12 .305 .150 .230 .305

4-0 1200 EL. 110-3

Long Rarius Elbow Point of Support 101-0 100,300

7-0

2135

EL. 100-0 100,000

Operator Access

Fig. 7.14 Tower elevation sketch (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design

7.6 Nozzle Elevation and Orientation

Nozzles must be elevated to meet the internal requirements of the tower and oriented for maintenance and operational needs. Their position must also facilitate economic and orderly interconnection of piping between the tower and related equipment. A maintenance access is usually located at the bottom; top and intermediate sections of the tower and is used to gain entry to the tower during shutdowns for internal inspection and component removal. Maintenance accesses must not be located at the down comer sections of the tower. Care must be taken at the sections of the tower that contain internal piping to avoid blocking the maintenance access entrance. The following figure shows typical elevation and orientation requirements for maintenance access.
Maintenance access segment (Typical)

1/.025

MIN

Maintenance access to be level with top of packing support

Downcomer Areas

Nozzle diameter Trayed Tower + 5/.125 min a. Maintenance Access Elevations

Packed Tower

Single Downcomer Double Downcomer Tray Tray b. Maintenance Access Orientations

Fig. 7.15 Elevation and Orientation requirements for maintenance access (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design)
104/uts

Feed connections to trayed towers usually must be located in a specific area on the tray by internal piping. This can restrict nozzle orientation options. The restrictions are minimised by optional routing of the internal piping to facilitate the most economic exterior arrangement Internal feed piping to packed towers is piped directly to the distribution and can be oriented at any angle. The above figure illustrates several options for internal feed piping.
Downcomer .006 Alternative Orientation Fixed orientation Downcomer Nozzle diameter +5/.125 minimum Downcomer

Double nozzle orientation two options Downcomer

Alternative Orientation Fixed orientation 45 LRE

0

Single nozzle orientation two options Downcomer

Downcomer

Maximum

900LRE
Maximum

LRE=Long Radius Elbow Multiple Choice Orientation a. Reflux: Alternative Arrangement

Single nozzle orientation multiple options b. Feeds: Alternative Arrangement

Fig. 7.16 Options for internal feed piping (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) To be specific, reboiler connections are usually located at the bottom section of the tower. For the horizontally mounted tower, there mosiphon reboiler the off nozzle is located just below the bottom tray to the vertically mounted recirculating the boiler. The draw off nozzle is located at the bottom head. For both systems, the return nozzles are located just above the liquid level. The figure below shows both the arrangements.

105/uts

Layout Designing

Downcomer Draw-off

Return 100 100 Maximum

Return High liquid level

Alternative Draw-off location

Downcomer Draw-off

Tower

Reboiler a. Horizontal Reboiler Downcomer Return

Alternative return locations

Return 100 100 (Maximum) Draw-off at any orientation

High liquid level Reboiler Draw-off Tower

Alternative return locations

Alternative Draw-off location b. Vertical Reboiler Fig. 7.17 Reboiler connections (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) The vapour outlet is usually a vertical nozzle located on the top head of the tower. It is usually a single nozzle but in certain cases (For example, towers with very large diameters) more than one nozzle is specified on large- diameter vapour lines, the vessel connection could be welded instead of flanged. In addition the vent and relief valve could be located on the top head instead of attached to the overhead piping. Following figure shows a typical top head arrangement.

106/uts

Alternative Vessel Vent Location Vapour Outlet Vessel Vent Alternative Vapour Outlet Location 1.Nozzle Diameter Minimum 0.42X Internal Diameter Relief Valve Knuckle Radius Tangent Point Alternative Relief Valve Location Large Diameter Lines Do Not Require Flanged Nozzles

Fig. 7.18 Top head arrangement (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) The liquid outlet is located on the bottom head of the tower. If a skirt supports the tower the nozzle is routed outside the skirt. As with the vapour outlet, when more than one nozzle may be specified the elevation of the nozzle is dictated by the constraints. The orientation can be at any angle but generally it is dictated by pump suction piping flexibility. The following figure shows a typical bottom head arrangement.

Vessel Drain Bottom Outlet Check Clearance

Vortex Breaker Tangent Line See head dimension

4/.100 minimum Long Radius Elbow Check Clearance

3/.075 + Insulation or Fire Proofing

Fig. 7.19 Bottom head arrangement (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design)

107/uts

Layout Designing

Temperature and pressure instrument connections are located throughout the tower. The temperature probe must be located in a liquid space and the pressure connection in a vapour space. The following figure shows the preferred location for both the connections. Downcomer Pressure Minimum Temperature Temperature Orientation

Vapour Space

2/.050 Liquid Space

Pressure Orientations

Fig. 7.20 Temperature and pressure locations (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Level instruments are located in the liquid section of the tower, usually at the bottom. The elevation of the nozzles is dictated by the amount of liquid being controlled or measured and by standard controller and gauge glass length. This information is furnished on the instrument vessel sketch. When nozzles especially those with internal piping are positioned the plant layout designer must show adequate clearance at tray support steel are measured from the internal diameter of the vessel to the face of the flange. To set top and bottom head nozzle elevations. The type of head must be specified. The information is highlighted in the process vessel data. The two most commonly used are flanged and dished and 2:1 elliptical heads.

7.7 Platform Arrangements

Platforms are required on towers for access to valves instruments, blinds, and maintenance accesses platforms are usually circular and supported by brackets attached to the side of the tower. Generally, access to platforms is by ladder. The following figure shows a typical platform arrangement.

108/uts

Piping

Prepared location access not required past standpipe and instruments Level instrument

Side exit preferred

Ladder to upper levels

Ladder cage Ladder from grade Platform support bracket Platform EL. 109-0 102,740

Maintenance access

Fig. 7.21 Typical platform arrangement (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Platform elevations for towers are set by the items that require operation and maintenance and by a maximum ladder run of 30 ft (9150mm). Following figure shows platform and ladder elevation requirement.

109/uts

Layout Designing

Top head platform vent access Maintenance and blind access 10/0250 minimum Temperature and pressure point access by ladder or platform 8-0 2.440 900-1500

Ladder Run 30-0 maximum

No access required Maintenance and valve access 18" to 6'-9' .450 to 2050 Alternative valve access with or without extension stem 12/.300 minimum

2150

Maintenance access Platform (Typical)

8-0 2.440

maximum

Ladder (Typical)

Intermediate platform to suit maximum ladder run Level gauge access by ladder or platform

Control instrument and maintenance access Grade Drain valve access from grade

Fig. 7.22 Tower platform and ladder elevation requirements (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Platform widths are dictated by operator access. For intermediate platforms with no controls required and platforms with controls located to the side or the edge of the platform, the width must be a minimum of 3 ft (915mm). At congested platforms with controls located over the platform, the width must be a minimum of 3 ft (915mm) plus the width of the controls or projections. The following figure shows the two arrangements.

110/uts

Platform width

1.R

10" .250

3-0' minimum .915 Valve

Platform Bracket Toe plate Vessel clip Closure plate

Intermediate platform Handrail 3-0 minimum .915

Platform width

Congested platform Fig. 7.23 Platform width requirement (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) At maintenance access platform, adequate space must be provided to swing the maintenance access cover flange open for storage against the face of the tower. Top head-mounted maintenance access must be from three sides. The following figure displays typical maintenance access arrangements.

111/uts

Layout Designing

One maintenance access diameter minimum Davit

Top head maintenance access

Davit Maintenance access Fig. 7.24 Maintenance access arrangements (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Top head platforms are required for access to vents, instruments, and relief valves and are supported from the head by trunnions. The following figure shows typical top head platform arrangements. Vapor line To clear nozzle 2-0/.610 minimum Vent Trunnions 2-0 minimum .610 Trunnions b. Multinozzle Top Head Platform Vent Vapor line Relief Valve Tangent Line

Minimum 15" 15" Minimum .380 a. Minimum Top Head Platform

Fig. 7.25 Typical top head platform arrangement (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Access between towers, if layout permits, is provided by common plat forming. The platform elevations can be within a maximum difference of 9 in (230 mm) but must be connected by mechanical joint.

112/uts

1/.025

Fig. 7.26 Common platform (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Brackets for side-mounted platforms are evenly spaced around the tower and, when possible, straddle both the main axes. Oddly angled brackets can be used for small platform extensions as long as the bracket clip does not interfere with the adjacent support.
X0

Inside Radius + 14/.350

14 .350

Y0

4/ .100

Bracket

Vessel internal diameter Up to 4-0 1.220 4-0 to 8-0 1.220 2.440 8-0 to 17'-0" 2.440 5.180 17'-0" to 25'-0" 5.180 7.620

X 300 22 0 150 11 0

Y 600 450 900 22 0

Fig. 7.27 Bracket spacing (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design)

113/uts

Layout Designing

When a common ladder serves two or more platforms, the ladder rungs must be level with the platforms they serve. The platform elevations must be in even increments to suit the standard 12in (300mm) ladder rung spacing. The figure below shows this requirement ladder at tower transition sections and at flared skirts may be sloped, it required, to a maximum angle of 150 from the vertical. Offset in ladders should be avoided.

Platform EL. 149-6 115,090 Platform EL. 139-0 111,890 Even Increments

Platform EL. 130-0 109,140

Platform EL/ 119-0 105,790 Ladder Platform EL. 110-6 103,200

Grade EL. 100-0 100,000

Fig. 7.28 Ladder rung spacing (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) On very wide platforms or those that support heavy piping loads, knee bracing is required in addition to the usual platform steel. The potential obstruction immediately under the knee brace must be kept in mind during platform design.

7.8 Tower Piping

Tower piping is located in conjunction with tray, nozzle, and platform orientation. When possible, the piping is grouped for ease of support and positioned to accommodate interconnection with related equipment and the pipe rack. The following figure shows the preferred areas of division of piping, platforming and ladders.

114/uts

Pipe rack

Vertical piping area

Ladder area

Ladder area

Platform operating and maintenance area

Fig. 7.29 Tower areas of division (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Adequate space must be provided between piping and the back of piping and the tower shell to facilitate the installation of pipe supports attached to the tower. The following figure displays some typical supports for tower piping.

115/uts

Layout Designing

4/.100 minimum + insulation

Radial located piping

0 2- 0 .60

mi

ni

m mu

1 utility piping

4/.100

2-0 .600

8/ .200
minimum BOP 4/.100 minimum + insulation

BOP=Back of Pipe Common BOP located piping

Overhead vapour line

Trunnion Minimum Support Vessel clip

Guide

Fig. 7.30 Tower piping supports (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Tower piping should be arranged with sufficient flexibility to accommodate tower growth and to allow interconnection to equipment during the regular operating conditions. Fig. 7.31 and fig. 7.32 show typical overhead vapour line and pump suction arrangements.
116/uts

Pipe Rack

Overhead condenser N

Support

Overhead line Tower

Horizontal leg for flexibility

Plan Subtract growth (B) from growth (A). difference is used to calculate horizontal leg (C). Support
1800

Min Calculated + Growth (A)

Guide Horizontal Leg (C)

120/36.570

3100

Line Temperature 1800 Line Growth (B)

Ai rC oo

4000

20 6.100

ler

Fig. 7.31 Overhead arrangement (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design)

117/uts

Layout Designing

Pipe Rack

Pumps

Supports Tower Platform above

Plan view

Tower Pumps

Fig. 7.32 Pump suction arrangement (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Relief valve systems that are open to the atmosphere are located at the top of the tower; closed systems are located a minimum distance above the relief header.

118/uts

Alternative Location Safety Distance

Atmospheric relief valve Preferred Location Overhead Line

Closed System Relief valve preferred location (Closest available platform above relief valve header)

Tower

Minimum

Relief valve header

Pipe rack

Fig. 7.33 Relief valve system (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design)

7.9 Tower Instruments

Level, pressure, and temperature instruments control the operation of the tower and must be placed in a position that enhances operation and maintenance without obstructing operator access. Instrument requirements for towers are usually highlighted on an instrument vessel sketch furnished by the instrument engineer. The following figure shows a typical instrument vessel.

119/uts

Layout Designing

P1 101

P1 2 T1 TE 101 TL=Tangent Line THD= Threaded RF = Raised Face

P1 102

P2

5 6

TE 102

THD LG 101

300# RF LC 101

P1 103 TE 103

P3

27 L1 3'-11" 1200 3"

T3 3-0 .915 T1

L2 7" .180 3/.073 THD THD

Fig. 7.34 Instrument vessel sketch (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Level controllers, switches and gauges are either located individually or grouped on a common bridle or standpipe. The controller must be operable from grade or a platform; gauges and switches may be operable from a ladder of no platform is available.

120/uts

4'-11"

Level Controller (Right hand)

Cover swing area OR 2

3-0 To 6-9 Platform Plan a. Single-Mounted Level Controller Drain Level switch Vent Glass 1 Level Gauge Drain Plan Elevation b. Single-Mounted Level Gauge and Switch

Switch Drain

Fig. 7.35 Arrangement of level instruments (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) Like level gauge, temperature and pressure instruments can be operable from a ladder if a platform is not available at the required elevation. They can be read locally or in the main control room. Locally, mounted indicators are available in a variety of styles, with straight or swivel heads that can be positioned for clear dial visibility.

7.10 Maintenance
Tower maintenance is usually limited to removal of exterior items (For instance, relief or control valves) and interior components (For instance, trays or packing rings). Handling of these items is achieved by fixed devices (For instance, davits or trolley beams) or by mobile equipment (For instance, cranes). When davits or beams are used, they are located and designed to lower the heaviest removable item to a designated drop area at grade. When mobile equipment is used, a clear space must be provided at the back of the tower that is accessible from the plant auxiliary road.
121/uts

.900 To 2050

Layout Designing

Alternative davit location s upported from platform

3-0/.300 4 to 8

Davit support from vessel Davit Drop area Plan Trolley beam Elevation

B
8-0 minimum 2.455 Trolley beam Supports

Trolley beam

Drop area Plan Elevation

Fig. 7.36 A Typical tower davit arrangement, B. Typical tower trolley beam arrangement (Source: http://www.scribd.com)

122/uts

Maximum extent of hook travel Trolley beam

Trolley beam

Be aware of bracing requirements

Removable handrail section Item may be pulled clear of lower obstructions of possible

Hook

Drop zone

Drop zone

Off Center

Fig. 7.37 Planned drop zone (Source: http://www.scribd.com/doc/6799435/Process-Plant-Layout-Piping-Design) In certain cases, stiffening rings are specified as additional strengthening for the tower shell, especially for towers in vacuum service. Care must be taken in positioning the rings to allow adequate clearance at nozzles, platform, ladders, and clips. Because of size, towers can be shop fabricated in tow or more sections for shipment in one piece or in sections for field welding. As with stiffening rings, allowances for clearances must be made between weld seams and attached fittings. Utility stations are required at tower platforms that have maintenance access. Steam and air risers are the two services required and must be positioned during the tower layout stage in order to furnish adequate clips for support. Such towers operate under extremely cold conditions and sometimes require increased standout dimensions for nozzles, platforms and ladders to clear extra-thick insulation and to prevent frost on supporting steelwork. Polyurethane insulators are usually furnished between trunnions and support brackets. The plant layout designers must be familiar with company and client tower standards before proceeding with tower layout and should coordinate the effort with such supporting groups as vessel, system, process, and instrument engineering.

123/uts

Layout Designing

Summary
Towers are cylindrical steel vessels that are used for distilling raw materials in the production of such products as gasoline, diesel, and heating oil. They are also referred to as columns. Separation or distillation is a process by which a liquid mixture is partially vaporised. In the batch shell still process, the still is partially filled with a set feed called a batch. The feed is then heated to the temperature required to produce a specific product from the overhead vapours. In the continuous shell still process, several shell stills are linked in series to form a battery. Tower elevation is the distance from the grade to the bottom tangent line of the vessel. The two most common types of tower are, the tray and packed arrangements. Platforms that are required on towers for access to valves instruments, blinds, and maintenance accesses platforms are usually circular and supported by brackets attached to the side of the tower. Level, pressure, and temperature instruments control the operation of the tower and must be placed in a position that enhances operation and maintenance without obstructing operator access.

References
Bausbacher, E., Hunt, R., 1993. Process plant layout and piping design, PTR Prentice Hall. Becht, C., 2004. Process piping: the complete guide to ASME B31.3, 2nd ed., ASME Press. Nayyar, M.L., 2000. Piping Handbook, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill.

Recommended Reading
Smith, P., 2007. The Fundamentals of Piping Design: Drafting and Design Methods for Process Applications, Gulf Pub. Silowash, B., 2009. Piping Systems Manual, McGraw Hill Professional. Smith, P. 2007. The Fundamentals of Piping Design: Drafting and Design Methods for Process Applications, Gulf Pub.

124/uts

Self Assessment
1. Towers are also known as________________. a. columns b. compressors c. combustors d. turbines 2. ____________ is a process by which a liquid mixture is partially vaporized. a. Gas turbine cycle b. Distillation c. Brayton cycle d. Traced piping 3. In the_____________, the still is partially filled with a set feed called a batch. a. fractional shell b. continuous shell c. batch shell still process d. distillation process 4. In _________________, several shell stills are linked in series to form a battery. a. batch shell still process b. distillation process c. fractional shell d. continuous shell process 5. Similar to the continuous shell still the _________________ is made up of several stills linked together in series. a. fractional shell process b. continuous shell process c. batch shell still process d. distillation process 6. _____________ is the distance from the grade to the bottom tangent line of the vessel. a. Tower support b. Tower elevation c. Tower design d. Tower types 7. The first step in __________ is setting the bottom tangent line elevation. a. tower support b. tower elevation c. tower layout d. tower design

125/uts

Layout Designing

8. Which statement is false? a. Nozzles must be elevated to meet the internal requirements of the tower and oriented for maintenance and operational needs. b. The draw off nozzle is located at the bottom head. c. Feed connections to trayed towers usually must be located in a specific area on the tray by internal piping. d. Maintenance accesses must be located at the down comer sections of the tower. 9. The liquid outlet is located on the _________ head of the tower. a. bottom b. top c. left side d. right side 10. _________________ are required on towers for access to valves instruments, blinds, and maintenance accesses platforms are usually circular and supported by brackets attached to the side of the tower. a. Level instruments b. Platforms c. Turbines d. Compressors

126/uts

Case Study I
Castrol Perfecto XPG 32 Problem A GE MS6001FA (Frame 6FA) gas turbine installed in a 120MW Combined Cycle Gas Turbine Power Station was suffering from poor reliability and availability due to failure or malfunction of the Moog servo control valves. Sticking servo-valves were causing frequent trips resulting in unplanned downtime and consequential trading penalties and loss of production. Operational Experience Initial fill of the gas turbine lubrication system took place in 1998, using a conventional grade of anti-wear. Gas turbine lubricant which was correctly specified in accordance with GE specification. Servo-valve malfunction and failure was a long existing problem in the service of the unit. It was becoming an increasingly popular during the latter part of 2000. Oil analysis confirmed evidence of increasing degradation of the lubricant. Although the Rotating Pressure Vessel Oxidation test (RPVOT) indicated a value of 440 minutes, just above 50% of the new oil value for the grade in use, suggesting the oil was still in serviceable condition, other test results indicated an advancing state of degradation. Increasing levels of total insoluble, increasing total acid number and declining antioxidant content together indicated that the oil condition was such that varnish forming propensity had reached a level where it was likely to be problematic in service. By mid-2001, servo-valve failure was a common occurrence causing an unacceptable incidence of unplanned outages and resulting in a serious negative impact on reliability and availability of the plant. Solution - Castrol Perfecto XPG 32 During a planned outage in November 2001, BPs Castrol Plus site service operation was engaged to carry out a full oil change, including tank clean out and complete system flush. Castrol Perfecto XPG 32 which, at the time, was a newly launched grade was selected to refill the system. This high performance gas turbine lubricant is based on leading edge base oil and additive technology, taking excellence in lubrication and plant protection to a new level. Formulated using special highly refined base oil coupled with the latest in antioxidant technology; Castrol XPG 32 offers a high degree of oxidation resistance even under arduous service conditions of high operating temperatures and intermittent running or peaking duty, providing superior reliability in operation and long service life. Now well proven in a wide range of applications with over 500,000 hours of field operational experience, Castrol Perfecto XPG 32 has demonstrated superior performance and extreme resistance to the formation of insoluble degradation products, which result in sludge build-up in tanks and pipe work and varnish on bearings and hydraulic control valve components. By minimising the formation of such deposits, Castrol Perfecto XPG 32 offers a valuable contribution to improvement in reliability and availability and to optimisation of the plant. Post Oil Change Operational Experience Impact on servo-valve malfunction and failures: The immediate effect of the change to Castrol Perfecto XPG 32 was the elimination of servo-valve malfunction and failures due to deposits and varnish from lubricating oil. This represents a dramatic step change in performance from earlier experience which has now been sustained for over 7 years of subsequent operation without an oil change. Dramatic reduction in total insolubles: At the same time, a dramatic reduction was observed in the levels of total insolubles in the oil as a result of the extremely low sludge forming propensity of Castrol Perfecto XPG 32. Furthermore, this low level of total insolubles has been sustained to the present time. The value is currently running at 0.9mg of deposit per 100g of oil which is considered to be a very low level, even after more than 7 years in the system.

127/uts

Layout Designing

No need for other control measures: Servo-valves are still exchanged on a routine programme every three years as a precaution but, on examination, are found to be consistently free of any evidence of varnishing. No other measures are in place or have been found necessary on this system to combat the problem of varnishing. No supplementary cleaning systems are in use in the form of ultra-fine filtration or electrostatic precipitation and no intervention has been made in respect of the lubricant in any way by partial oil change, additive treatment or any other action. Questions 1. Which is the problem involved in this case study? Answers  GE MS6001FA (Frame 6FA) gas turbine installed in a 120MW Combined Cycle Gas Turbine Power Station A was suffering from poor reliability and availability due to failure or malfunction of the Moog servo control valves. Sticking servo-valves were causing frequent trips resulting in unplanned downtime and consequential trading penalties and loss of production. 2. State the solution on the problem given in the above case. Answers  uring a planned outage in November 2001, BPs Castrol Plus site service operation was engaged to carry D out a full oil change including tank clean out and complete system flush. Castrol Perfecto XPG 32 which, at the time, was a newly launched grade was selected to refill the system. This high performance gas turbine lubricant is based on leading edge base oil and additive technology, taking excellence in lubrication and plant protection to a new level. 3. What was the post oil change operational experience in terms of Servo-valve malfunctioning and failure and dramatic reduction in total insoluble? Answers  he immediate effect of the change to Castrol Perfecto XPG 32 was the elimination of servo-valve malfunction T and failures due to deposits and varnish from lubricating oil. This represents a dramatic step change in performance from earlier experience which has now been sustained for over 7 years of subsequent operation without an oil change. At the same time, a dramatic reduction was observed in the levels of total insolubles in the oil as a result of the extremely low sludge forming propensity of Castrol Perfecto XPG 32. Furthermore, this low level of total insolubles has been sustained to the present time. The value is currently running at 0.9mg of deposit per 100g of oil which is considered to be a very low level, even after more than 7 years in the system.

128/uts

Case Study II
Avoiding Ground Water Pollution at Tank Farm Coast Oil Co., San Jose, USA The Risk Coast Oil Co. Which is one of the USAs largest distributors of gasoline, diesel fuel and lubricants, sought the most effective means of fulfilling its responsibility to ensure it met the Regional Water Quality Control Boards standards for the prevention of ground water pollution at its San Jose tank farm. Here, the company has twelve closely grouped small diameter tanks. The challenge was to retro-fit this facility with and effective leak detection system to monitor the soil beneath the tanks without interrupting commercial operations. The Solution Tyco Thermal Controls provided the solution with its cable-based TraceTek leak detection system using TT5000 sensing cable which contains a hydrocarbon scavenging material. Installed within PVC conduit in the soil beneath fuel tanks it offers a system capable of quickly detecting fuel leaks. Any spillage is drawn into the conduit by capillary action and contact is absorbed by the cable jacket which swells and as contact is made with the electrodes in the cable core leak detection is achieved. TraceTek systems are offered with continuous monitoring equipment for very quick detecting, precise locating and triggering alerts. Specific Application At this tank farm, rather than continuous monitoring, Coast Oil operators were opted to make for periodic measurements with a battery-powered TraceTek test instrument at junction boxes on vertical risers. The Companys rationale was simply to detect minor floor plate leaks while still small seepage and consequently taking a few extra days to interrogate the system will have little or no impact on the cost or volume of soil remediation. Whilst the closeness of the tanks posed working space limitations for the installers, they overcame them using a small, manoeuvrable horizontal drilling machine, operating an air-ram boring tools rather than a rotating drill bit. Questions 1. Which is the risk involved in this case study? 2. What is the solution provided for the problem in the above case study? 3. What are the application specifications?

129/uts

Layout Designing

Case Study III

Gas Turbine Systems Todays leading suppliers of power generation and energy delivery products require cutting edge technology and superior performance to meet the worlds most demanding energy requirements. Gas turbine systems are primarily used in auxiliary electric power generation to manage peak loading conditions. Customers can reduce their dependency on costly primary sources since these generators can be located anywhere and started and stopped as power needs fluctuate. As a global manufacturer, this company produces a wide range of alternative fuel turbine generators for power utility agencies, industrial companies needing self power generation and companies requiring emergency power generation. Sizes range from very small units to larger combined cycle generators capable of generating up to 300 MW. Testing is a key aspect of gas turbine manufacturing to ensure reliability and efficiency. This company relies on high-performance test instrumentation in its R&D facilities to improve the efficiency of new designs as well as reduce undesirable gas emissions. Production or startup testing is also done onsite at the time of installation to verify proper setup and ensure reliability. The most common measurements taken are temperature (inlet/outlet gas), gas pressures, loads, and torque. The Challenge: Precision Performance and Faster Setup The company uses a data acquisition system to record, measure and analyse the physical characteristics of gas turbines. This testing allows the engineers to improve their products and remain competitive in the global energy market. The gas turbine manufacturer needed to upgrade its data acquisition system to a more portable, scalable system that maintains high accuracy (better than 1C). A common hardware platform that can scale from 100 channels for onsite testing to thousands of channels for R&D testing was essential. Portability was also needed for onsite testing. The company wanted to reduce the setup time and cost of the system by simplifying calibration, maintenance and transducer connectivity. The current test methodology required that the same equipment used for new system development be used in the field at installation. The Solution: Compact LXI System The gas turbine manufacturer worked with VTI Instruments to identify an LXI system as a possible replacement. To test performance, the manufacturer purchased six EX1048A thermocouple instruments to run in parallel with the existing test system as well as other competitive data acquisition systems. During the trial period, the EX1048A provided the highest accuracy (0.5 C) of any of the data acquisition systems and delivered the improved environmental and portability requirements that were needed. Setup time was reduced from 2.5 days to only 6 hours. The mini-TC connector used for the EX1048A allowed thermocouples to be directly connected to the instrument without using external reference junctions, patch panels, or terminal blocks. This simplified connectivity while reducing wiring errors. For these reasons, VTIs LXI hardware was selected. In addition to the EX1048A, VTI provided the EX1000A for voltage measurements (outputs from pressure and load transducers). Since the manufacturer also wanted simplified connectivity for voltage measurements, VTI leveraged the capabilities of both the EX1048A and the EX1000A to create a single box called the EX1000A-TC. This instrument can take both thermocouple and voltage measurements while utilizing the easy-to-use mini-TC plug. Compact Design, Ethernet-Based Technology Apart from its proven performance, the gas turbine manufacturer selected this LXI system because of its compact design and ease of use. Startup testing involves shipping a large amount of test equipment to the customer site for new turbine installation testing and verification. The high-density LXI components weigh just 500 lbs significantly less than the 4,000 lb weight of the previous system. This enables the company to save over $11,000 in shipping costs when instrumentation is transported for startup testing.

130/uts

The manufacturer also wanted cutting edge Ethernet-based technology. The EX1048A and EX1000A-TC devices are LXI Class A, which enables the synchronisation of multiple, distributed devices over a single Ethernet cable through the IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol. The LXI platform allows centralised monitoring of the system by factory personnel at remote locations worldwide. The manufacturer uses IEEE 1588 for large system synchronisation to provide more information in the event of an out-of-tolerance condition or failure. This saves both, time and money, since problems can be resolved quickly. Questions 1. What does todays leading suppliers of power generation and energy delivery products require? 2. In which area is the gas turbine system primarily used? 3. Which are the challenges that the company faced? 4. State the solution for the problem mentioned in the above case study.

131/uts

Layout Designing

Bibliography
References Aquaprox, 2009. Treatment of Cooling Water, Springer. Bausbacher, E., Hunt, R., 1993. Process plant layout and piping design, PTR Prentice Hall. Becht, C., 2004. Process piping: the complete guide to ASME B31.3, 2nd ed., ASME Press. Boyce, M. P., 2002. Gas turbine engineering handbook, 2nd ed., Gulf Professional Publishing. Cote, A. E., 2004. Fundamentals of Fire Protection, Jones & Bartlett Learning. Elliot, B., 2006. Compressed air operations manual: an illustrated guide to selection, installation, applications, and maintenance, McGraw-Hill Professional. Gracey, M.T., 2006. High-pressure pumps, Gulf Professional Publishing. Johnson, P.D., 2002. Principles of Controlled Maintenance Management, CRC Press. McCauley, J.F., 2000. Steam Distribution Systems Deskbook, The Fairmont Press, Inc. Nayyar, M.L., 2000. Piping Handbook, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill. Parisher, R. A., Rhea, R. A., 2001. Pipe Drafting and Design, 2nd ed., Gulf Professional Publishing. Soares, C., 2007. Gas turbines: a handbook of air, land, and sea applications, Butterworth-Heinemann. Syms, P., 2010. Land, Development and Design, 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons.

Recommended Reading Boyce, M. P., 2002. Gas turbine engineering handbook, 2nd ed., Gulf Professional Publishing. Dickenson, T. C., 1999. Valves, piping, and pipelines handbook, 3rd ed., Elsevier. Frayne, C., 2010. Cooling Water Treatment Principles and Practices: Charts and Notes for Field Use, Chemical Publishing Company, Incorporated. Frayne, C., 2010. Cooling Water Treatment Principles and Practices: Charts and Notes for Field Use, Chemical Publishing Company, Incorporated. Krigger, J. & Dorsi, C., 2004. Residential Energy: Cost Savings and Comfort for Existing Buildings, 4th ed., Saturn Resource Management, Inc. McAllister, E. W., 2009. Pipeline rules of thumb handbook: quick and accurate solutions to your everyday pipeline problems, 7th ed., Gulf Professional Publishing. McCaulry, J.F., 1995. The steam trap handbook, The Fairmont Press, Inc. Nolan, D. P., 1998. Fire Fighting Pumping Systems at Industrial Facilities, William Andrew. Pennock, J. O., 2001. Piping engineering leadership for process plant projects, Gulf Professional Publishing. Silowash, B., 2009. Piping Systems Manual, McGraw Hill Professional. Smith, P., 2007. The Fundamentals of Piping Design: Drafting and Design Methods for Process Applications, Gulf Pub. Talbott, E. M., 1993. Compressed air systems: a guidebook on energy and cost savings, 2nd ed., The Fairmont Press, Inc.

132/uts

Self Assessment Answers

Chapter I 1. a 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. a Chapter II 1. a 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. b Chapter III 1. a 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. b Chapter IV 1. a 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. d 8. a 9. b 10. a

133/uts

Layout Designing

Chapter V
1. d 2. a 3. c 4. b 5. a 6. c 7. a 8. b 9. b 10. c Chapter VI 1. a 2. b 3. c 4. b 5. a 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. b Chapter VII 1. a 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. c 8. d 9. a 10. b

134/uts