Logical Opposition

Logical opposition refers to the different

relations that exist between propositions having the same subject and predicate but differing in quantity and quality. Knowing the value of a given proposition, we can immediately infer the value of its opposing proposition A, E, I, O have opposing relationships based on their quality and quantity.

Square of opposition

A f f I r m a ti v e

u n

v e r

s a

l E

n e g a t i v e
i c u l a r

I p a r t

Four kinds of oppositions

1. Contradictory this pertains to relationship between A and O; E and I.

2. Contrary terms it pertains to the relationship between A and E.

3. Subcontrary refers to the relationship between I and O proposition.

4. Subaltern opposition opposition that exist between two propositions that differ only in quantity. (A and I) (E and O)

c o n t

S u b a lt e r n s

contradictory

S u b a l t e r n s
r y O

IS u b c o n t

r a

1. Contradictory this pertains to relationship between A and O; E and I.

Opposition between two that differ both in quality and quantity.

Only one proposition can be true. (If one is true, the other is false.)

 If A is true, O is false
All murders are criminals (A) (true) Some murders are not criminals (O) (false)

If O is true, A is false
Some birds do not fly (O)(true) All birds are flying animals (A) (false)

 If E is true, I is false
If no student are listening (E) (true) Then, some students are listening (I) (false)

If I is true, E is false
If some students are deans listers (I) (true) Then, no students are deans listers (E) (false)

2. Contrary terms it pertains to the relationship between A and E. (They differ only in quality)
the two cannot be both true but can be both false.
if one is true, the other is false If one is false, the other is doubtful (either true or false) If A is true E is false
All books are useful (true) No books are useful (false)

 If E is true, A is false
No dogs are cats (True) All dogs are cats (False)

If A is false, E is doubtful (may either true or false)

All women are men (false) No women are men (true)

All women are pregnant(false) No women are pregnant(false)

 If E is false, A is doubtful (may either true or false)

No voters are citizen (false) All voters are citizen (true) No citizens are activist (false) All citizens are activist (false)

3. Subcontrary refers to the relationship between I and O proposition. (they differ only in quality)
If one is false, the other is true If one is true, the other is doubtful If I is false, O is true
some animals are plants (false) Some animals are not plants (true)

If O is false, I is true
Not all cellphones are electronic device (false) Some cellphones are electronic device. (true)

 If I is true, O is doubtful(may either true or false)

If some flowers are plants (true) Then, some flowers are not plants (false) If some lawyers are liars (true) Then some lawyers are not liars (true)

 If O is true, I is doubtful
If some students are not varsity players (true) Then, some students are varsity players (true)

If some animals are not plants (true) Then, some animals are plants (false)

4. Subaltern opposition opposition that exist between two propositions that differ only in quantity. (A and I) (E and O) Rules:
if A or E proposition is true, I or O proposition is true. if A or E proposition is false, I or O proposition is doubtful. If I or O proposition is true, A or E proposition is doubtful. If I or O proposition is false, A or E proposition is false.

 If A or E proposition is true, I or O

proposition is true.

A that is true: if A is true I is true (A and I) All cats are animals. (true) Some cats are animals. (true)

E that is true: if Eis true O is true

(E and O) All priests are not nuns (true) Some priests are not nuns (true)

 if A or E proposition is false, I or O

proposition is doubtful.
A that is false: if A is false I may be true or false. (A and I)
If, everyone in the class is actively participating (false) Then, few in this class are actively participating (true)

( A and I)
If, all creatures are immortals (false) Then, some creatures are immortal (false)

E that is false: if E is false O may be true or false (E and O)

If, No women are pregnant (false) Then, some women are not pregnant (true)
If, no orange are fruits (false) Then, some orange are not fruit (false)

 If I or O proposition is true, A or E

proposition is doubtful.
I that is true: if I is true, A may be true or false.
If, some doctors are professionals (true) Then, all doctors are professionals (true) If, some students are smart (true) Then, all students are smart (false)

 O that is true: if O is true, E may be true

or false.
If, some criminals are not law abiding

citizens (true) Then, no criminals are law abiding citizens (true)

If , some artists are not singers (true)
Then, no artists are singers (false)

 If I or O proposition is false, A or E

proposition is false.
I that is false: if I is false, A is false.
If, some carrots are fruits (false)
Then, each carrot is a fruit (false)

O that is false: if O is false, E is false. If, some pigs are not animals (false) Then, all pigs are not animals (false)

Reasoning/ Inference

What is reasoning/inference?
It is our capacity to understand complex reality. It is a mental operation wherein the mind infers a new truth drawn out from previous judgments. Therefore, reasoning is making conclusion from a given sets of propositions.

Two methods of Reasoning

Deductive reasoning- reasoning from a universal or general idea to a particular or specific/individual conclusion.
Example: all murders are criminals, but Jonas is murderer, therefore Jonas is a criminal. No politicians are corrupt, but Mr. Stuart is a politician, therefore Mr. Stuart is not corrupt.

 Deductive reasoning is like an inverted triangle.

 Inductive reasoning - inductive reasoning is a type of reasoning wherein it draws its conclusion from particular or specific concepts to general or universal idea. Example:
Kyle is a good dancer. Hannah is a good dancer. Robin is a good dancer. But, Kyle, Hannah, Robin are CVSU students. Therefore, CVSU students are good dancers.

Jane is smart. But, Jane is a tourism student. Therefore, tourism students are smart.

Inductive reasoning maybe likened to an upright triangle.

Deductive VS Inductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning if the premises are true it absolutely guarantees the truth of its conclusion. (gives 100% certainty)

Inductive reasoning the truths of its premises makes it likely and probable that its conclusion is also true. (at least 51% certainty)

How to make inference?

Inference is a spoken or written expression of reasoning.

Parts of inference:
Premises: part of inference from which conclusion is drawn or the new knowledge is derived. Premises is also know as antecedent.

 Conclusion: is the final statement derived from premises. It is also called consequent. Sequence: the necessary connection between the premises (antecedent) and the conclusion (consequent).
Man is a rational being; but Socrates is a man; hence, Socrates is a rational being

Antecedent

(premises)

Inference

sequence

consequent

(conclusion)

 Invalid inference:
Roses are red, violets are blue; therefore I am Filipino. Some men(gender) are leaders; but, Jessie is a leader; therefore Jessie is a man.

Note: there must always be a logical/necessary connection to make a valid or sound inference.

Valid Inference:
All men are mortal, but you are a man, therefore you are mortal.

Philosophers are seekers of wisdom, but Socrates is a philosopher, so, Socrates is seeker of wisdom. All students are learners; but CVSUans are students; hence, CVSUans are learners.

Two types of Inference

1. Immediate inference:
The conclusion passes from one proposition Without medium New proposition but not new truth Example:
No bees are flies; so, no flies are bees. All men are mortal beings; thus, some mortal beings are men. (it change the arrangement the subject and predicate in order create new proposition, but the meaning or essence is still the same.)

2. Mediate inference:
The conclusion passes from two proposition Through a medium New proposition and new truth Example:
All men are free; but I am a man; thus, I am free. All voters are citizen, but Aldrin is a voter; therefore, Aldrin is a citizen.
(mediate inference uses two propositions from which conclusion will be drawn out. Mediate inference creates new propositions as well as new knowledge.)

Foundations of Thought (Reasoning)

There are three basic Laws of Thought, also known as Principles in logic. 1st Law of identity:
It in an imperative that says that whatever is, is.
A is A Boys are boys Table are table

 2nd Law of Contradiction:

It says that the co-existence of mutually exclusive realities in one entity simultaneously is logically impossible. it is impossible for the same thing both to be and not to be.

Nothing is both A and not-A Hanna can never be present and absent in my class at the same time.

 3rd the Law of Excluded Middle:

States the there is no third alternative in the presence of mutually exclusive realities or contradictory. (there is no middle ground) Everything must neither be or not be. Nothing is neither A nor not-A. Either you are mortal or immortal. Jake is either alive or dead.