Education and Information Technologies 4:4 (1999): 391408 # 1999 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Manufactured in The Netherlands

The microworld of Phoenix Quest: social and cognitive considerations

JONATHAN YOUNG Faculty of Education, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, K7L 3N6 E-mail: 6jhy@qlink.queensu.ca RENA UPITIS Faculty of Education, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, K7L 3N6 E-mail: upitisr@educ.queensu.ca The present paper explores social and cognitive considerations in the context of a computer-game microworld or learning culture environment. Forty-one boys and 57 girls, aged 8 to 12 years (Grades 4, 5, and 6) were observed playing a computer game called Phoenix Quest. This computer game, featuring an adolescent female protagonist, is an interactive, mystery-adventure with embedded language and mathematics activities. The issues discussed include (a) the development of a computer game learning culture or microworld, (b) interdependence in the process of learning social skills, (c) computer game-playing strategies, (d) gender differences in computer-game play, and (e) mathematics concepts explored in the Phoenix Quest environment. These ndings not only contribute to the understanding of how students create and shape a microworld around a computer game like Phoenix Quest, but also indicate some of the inherent teaching and learning limitations of educational software when the guidance of a teacher is absent. Keywords: Computer games; educational software; microworlds; learning culture; social interactions

Introduction In 1989, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Convention on Children's Rights. The following proposition was recognised in Article 31: Play is an educational process of fundamental importance and the birthright of every child. The Convention on Children's Rights contained a clear message to all nations that a child's right to play should be respected. In some parts of the world, however, play-spaces and playtime can be severely restricted by stress-inducing factors associated with high population densities, competition for limited resources (e.g., food, land, jobs, and education), political strife, and civil unrest. Such social and economic pressures can suppress the effervescence of creative play in children and adults alike. But even in more prosperous and stable cultures, play is threatened. Often as children make their way through the school system, the prominence of play decreases markedly after the early grades despite the importance of play and how it can provide a legitimate and valuable way of learning. Hawkins (1965) argued that a `messing about' period during science classes encouraged early and indispensable autonomy and diversity. As such, opportunities for children to play with artifacts and ideas deserve a prominent place in schools (Papert, 1993).

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Papert is not the only educator to make such a claim. Vygotsky (1978) wrote, `human learning presupposes a specic social nature and a process by which children grow into intellectual life of those around them.' Children can learn much about their own world and thinking through the interaction with other learners. Through imitation, for example, children have the potential of exceeding the limits of their own capabilities and accomplishing more in collective activity or under the guidance of adults. Social development is a fundamental educational goal and social interactions are essential components of cognitive growth (Bearison, 1982). The idea that social interactions and the co-ordination of an opposition of perspectives or viewpoints are essential to cognitive growth is shared be several theoretical perspectives that stem from the study of social cognition (Clements and Nastasi, 1988). This co-ordination refers to the process whereby children synthesise their actions with those of their partners. In other words, the mechanisms of cognitive growth involve the conict of ideas resulting from social interchange and the consequent efforts to resolve these conicts. These issues underscore the importance of investigating the phenomenon of social interaction within different educational contexts, such as the computer-game environment. One way of learning about specic concepts and ideas is through social interaction while playing computer games. The notion of `microworlds' introduced by Papert (1980) nearly two decades ago, is one that is revisited in the present paper. Although Papert used the term primarily in the context of the children's mathematical explorations with the LOGO computer language, it is an apt concept to extend to the present research. Like Papert's (1980) microworlds, the work described herein creates a `place' where certain kinds of thinking `can hatch and grow with particular ease . . . an incubator . . . [where] learners can progress [through a topic using] prerequisites rooted in personal knowledge [with] creative explorations of the ideas' (p. 125). Papert's microworlds or learning cultures included `objects to think with' in our case, features embedded in the computer game called Phoenix Quest as well as a social environment that allowed learners to construct their own understanding, where learning occurred in natural and unobtrusive ways. Many others have also noted the value of learning through social interaction, especially in the area of mathematics (Upitis et al. 1997). Cobb (1994) argued that if the constructivist maxim (i.e., students construct their ways of knowing) exists in both instructional situations where students construct their own knowledge, and instructional situations where knowledge is transmitted to students, then `the critical issue is then not whether students are constructing, but the nature or quality of those socially and culturally situated constructions.' He further posited that `. . . the learning of mathematics and science must be viewed at least in part as a process of enculturation into the practices of intellectual communities.' Moreover, it has been argued that the development of interpersonal skills is at least as important as academic learning because a student's effectiveness in life will depend as much upon skills in relating to other people as it does on academic skills (Ryba and Anderson, 1990). It must be acknowledged, however, that not all children are attracted to computer learning environments or microworlds. There is considerable evidence which suggests that race, gender, and class play a role in determining who will use computers in schools (Sutton, 1991). Boys, for example, usually get more time on computers than girls do

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during school hours (Koch and Upitis, 1996). As a traditionally male-dominated medium, computer games have attention of more boys than girls (Lawry et al., 1995; McDonnell, 1994; Turkle, 1995). There are some students who do use computers, but do so reluctantly or sporadically, and there are still other students who manage to avoid computers almost entirely (Turkle, 1995; Upitis, 1998). The notion that there are wide-ranging ways for students to use computers in schools was explored in a recent study by Selwyn (1998) where he identied three reasons why students avoid computer use: (a) a perceived inability to use information technology (IT); (b) a perceived inappropriateness of IT for academic work; and (c) a disdain of computers and computer users. Those children who were described by Upitis (1998) as luddites would fall into the latter category, while children who were reluctant or sporadic users tended to avoid computers when they felt unable to use a particular tool or found the classroom tools inappropriate for one reason or another. In many cases, computer avoidance is directly linked to issues of class, race, and gender. The present study tackles the issue of gender, in part, by using a computer game that appeals, in different ways, to both boys and girls. Like others, we hold the view that issues dealing with gender and technology, and the interaction between them, are central to any discussion of contemporary curriculum (Bendixen-Noe and Hall, 1996; Rosser, 1995; Zaher, 1996). The present study investigated a group of pre-adolescent students' learning and social interactions while they were engaged in the playing of the multi-media computer game, Phoenix Quest (PQ)1 . Phoenix Quest, a program created by the Electronic Games for Education in Mathematics and Science (E-GEMS)2 Group at the University of British Columbia, is an example of a challenging and thought-provoking computer game that has the potential to engage both male and female users. From its inception in 1993, the EGEMS work has been developed by a group of researchers from Computer Science and Education, along with game designers, teachers, parents, community members, and students. The primary goal of the E-GEMS Group was to increase interest and achievement in mathematics and science. The PQ program presents a female protagonist, Julie, who is actively involved in a mystery-adventure. While playing the game, users encounter a multitude of reading, writing, mathematical, and problem-solving activities. Phoenix Quest also emphasises story line, interaction with the story's characters, and creative activities instead of fast action and violence, based on the implications of a series of studies conducted at Science World BC where it was found that complex plot and character development were important to girls and also had appeal for boys (Inkpen et al., 1994; Lawry et al., 1995). Written by the award-winning children's author, Julie Lawson, PQ has a story set in mythical islands near Hong Kong and contains four main characters (Julie, Darien, Saffron, and the Keeper) who are willing and able to communicate with game players, using postcard correspondence. The story of PQ has 65 chapters, which are presented in a non-linear format, and also includes mathematical puzzles, navigation schemes, conversation nets controlling postcard correspondence, and reward systems. Table 1 summarises the game features found in PQ.

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Table 1. Phoenix Quest Computer Game Features Feature The Phoenix Archipelago Map Mathematics Content Details

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The setting for Phoenix Quest is the Phoenix Archipelago consisting of real-world Cheung Chau, just a short ferry-ride from Hong Kong, and seven mythical islands. Upon these islands are hidden the 18 math games and puzzles. Once found, all games are accessed via the Phoenix Archipelago Map. The Journal holds the story of Phoenix Quest. It consists of 65 chapters and over 100 illustrations. The Journal is acquired out of sequence. The illustrations are earned by nding synonym power words. Solving riddles sent by Saffron with other power words may be rewarded with math puzzles or other pieces of the Phoenix Quest story. A postcard from Julie (the main character) asking for urgent help initiates Phoenix Quest. As the story progresses, Saffron sends power word riddles by postcard. Eventually all four characters are available via this magical avian-email. Julie and Darien, as teenagers are particularly loquacious and despite the danger they are in, are willing and able to converse on most topics that interest children and young adolescents. CLOZE passages follow about one-third of the Journal chapters. These partial summaries encourage children to read the Journal carefully. A variety of skills are exercised using CLOZE puzzles: sentence meaning and grammar, vocabulary, and spelling. Successful completion of CLOZE puzzle may earn the player other pieces of the Phoenix Quest story. Children experience Phoenix Quest as a rich and playful environment. As they successfully complete Journal chapters, CLOZE puzzles, and math games, they make progress in their personal quest and that of Julie and Darien with the story, by gaining additional chapters, math games, and collectable Strife cards. As a reward for success with the mathematics and language activities, the player earns Strife cards. These cards, which are stored in the player's Strife album, increase in importance and motivation for players as the overall game of Phoenix Quest progresses. In order to play Strife against the forces of darkness, the player selects a Strife deck containing three types of cards: character, action, and gear. Strife is a strategy card game played upon a coordinatelike grid. The game is won by minimizing stamina or maximizing karma. The large number of Strife cards and varied selection of decks by the player and opponent render it an open-ended challenge activity that encourages advanced planning and sharing of strategies.

The Journal

The Postcards

The CLOZE Passages

The Reward Structure

Strife Album and Deck

Strife

THE MICROWORLD OF PHOENIX QUEST Cave Maze 90 degrees rotations Connected path Working backwards 90 degrees rotations Connected path Working backwards 0 to 360 degrees

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The player rotates 1 or 2 path tiles on a 6 by 6 grid to complete a connecting path through the cave labyrinth. The player rotates 3 path tiles on a 16 by 16 grid to complete a connecting path through a spider maze. The game player chooses the angle and timing to lob honey blobs at attacking bees. As the game progresses, fewer visual angle cues are provided. The player chooses the angle, distance and timing to cast a shing line. As the game progresses, fewer visual angle and distance cues are provided. The player crosses a river upon stepping stones using coordinates to indicate translation movement. Errors and slowness result in sacrice to a hungry alligator. The player nds the path across a hexagonal tiling. Numbers on the path correspond to a sequence or common property. The patterns become more difcult as the levels increase. The player visits each shrine and returns to the rst. The length of the path must be less than a stated value. The number of shrines and connecting paths increase as the levels increase. The player digs trenches to connect all the rice paddies to a water source. The total length of the trenches must be less than a stated value. The number of paddies and connecting trenches increases as the levels increase. The player programs robots to push together puzzle pieces to form a mask. Beads strung on a string represent the instructions or program for the robot. Symbols include robot, direction and number. The player programs two robots to push together simultaneously puzzle pieces to form a key. Beads strung on a string represent the instructions or program for the robot. Symbols include direction, pause, and number. The player puts tiles in order to reveal a saying from the Phoenix Quest story. Two types or puzzles are encountered: sliding (vertical and horizontal) and revolving (rows and columns). The player chooses an inner and outer gear to draw a specied spirographic pattern. Two relationships involving gear teeth and gear revolutions are offered for analysis. The player matches a target fraction by combining other fractional components, which are hidden within a landscape. The fraction challenges become more difcult as the levels increase. (continued)

Spider Maze

Bees

Fishing Game

Polar coordinates 0 to 360 degrees Relative distance Positive and negative numbers Rectangular coordinates Translations Number sets and sequences Primes Squares Fibonnaci sequences Common remainders Travelling salesman problem Closed path Addition Minimizing Minimum spanning tree problem Graph Tree diagram Addition Programming Translation movement directions Planning ahead Parallel programming Translation movement directions Planning ahead Planning ahead Geometric relationships Translations Spirograph geometry Geometric patterns Equivalent ratios Factors Equivalent fractions Addition fractions Like and unlike denominators

Stepping Stone Game

Hexagon Puzzle

Shrine Puzzle

Paddy Puzzle

Mask Puzzle

Key Puzzle

Message Tiles Puzzle

Gears Puzzle

Poison Puzzle

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Table 1. (continued) Feature Two Door Logic Puzzle Three Door Logic Puzzle Mathematics Content Logical reasoning Truth and falsity Logical reasoning Truth and falsity Guess and test strategy Details

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The player must determine which of two door leads to passage given a truth values statement regarding the logical statements on signage above each door. The player determines which one of three doors leads to a passage, given a truth values statement regarding the logical statements on signage above each door. A logic tester assists the player in analyzing the truth values statement. The player determines the false coin by weighing groups of coins against each other. A table of weighing results helps the player analyze.

Coins Puzzle

Deduction Logical progression Tabular representations

Note. Adapted from E-GEMS. (1999). Phoenix Quest. < http://taz.cs.ubc.ca/egems/pq/toc.html > (1999, May 25).

The presence of the PQ computer game in the school environment discussed in the present study became a medium for the students' expression. Phoenix Quest became an important focus for some students' cultural and social life, inuencing their affective responses, cognitive development, and social behaviour. In a school setting such as this, students are required to make peer-related social-behavioural adjustments (Walker et al. 1992). Peer-related adjustment (Table 2) involves the satisfactory negotiation of complex peer group dynamics and peer relations that occur primarily in free-play settings. This adjustment contributes to the satisfactory achievement of two major outcomes of the schooling process academic achievement and social development. Peers control the
Table 2. Model of interpersonal social-behavioural competence within school settings Peer-related adjustment Adaptive Behavioural correlates Co-operates with peers Supports peers Defends self in arguments Remains calm Leads peers Compliments peers Afliates with peers Peer acceptance Positive peer reactions Friendships Maladaptive Disrupts group Acts snobbish Aggresses indirectly Starts ghts Short temper Brags Gets in trouble with teacher Seeks help constantly Social rejection Loneliness Weak social involvement

Outcomes

Note. Adapted from `A Construct Score Approach of Social Competence: Rationale, Technological Considerations, and Anticipated Outcomes,' by H. M. Walker, L. Irvin, J. Noell, and G. Singer, 1992, Behavior Modication, 16, pp. 448474.

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specic social skills and competencies required within free-play settings. McFall (1982) articulated a distinction between social competence and social skills. In this conceptualisation, social competence is a general evaluative term that refers to the quality or adequacy of a person's overall performance in a particular task within a given social context or situation. These judgments may be based on opinions of signicant social agents, such as teachers, parents, and peers. Social skills, in contrast, are the specic abilities, strategies, and tactics that are required to perform any given social task competently. These skills may be innate or may be acquired through training and practice. Computer games, like PQ, can be engaging and powerful tools for challenging student thinking and learning in a school environment. Playing computer games is an important social and cultural activity for many school-aged children (Tapscott, 1997; Turkle, 1995). This research adds to the discussion about how information technology media can inuence students and education in general. This inquiry also provides insights into how carefully designed computer games can contribute to the creation of rich and effective learning cultures or microworlds. Method The present study was designed to elicit opinion and reaction to the Phoenix Quest (PQ) game and involved the participation of 41 boys and 57 girls, aged 8 to 12 years, from four junior school classes (Grades 4, 5, and 6). Our study was conducted over a ve-month period in a middle income suburban school, located in a mid-sized Ontario city. Two computers were provided for each of the four classrooms for four weeks at a time. These computers were provided in addition to other computers available in the school. Only one of the four classrooms had a computer in the classroom at the time the study was conducted. For the most part, the computers provided a new addition to the classroom structure and culture. Although most of the children used computers at home, all of the pupils made regular use of computers at school in the computer lab. The teachers were asked to ensure that each child had an opportunity to play PQ for at least 30 minutes a week. All of the teachers devised a schedule individually to accomplish this, but did so in different ways. Two of the teachers required the children to work individually, while one teacher had pupils work in pairs, and the fourth teacher allowed children to decide whether they wanted to work alone or with a partner. Three of the teachers specied which children were to play with whom, and at what time. The fourth teacher took her cues from the children, and consequently, the children who asked spent more time with PQ than their peers. Many of the children played PQ during their spare time as well, for example, after school or over the lunch hour. When the computers were not being used for PQ, the teachers and children were free to use other software available on the machines if they so desired (e.g., word processing and drawing programs). Indeed, having the opportunity to integrate computers into the `regular' curriculum was one of the reasons that the teachers were eager to take part in the study. In addition, the principal had described the game to the teachers, and teachers who had previewed PQ, felt that there was value in the game itself. As well, the research

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assistants provided as much of an introduction to PQ to the teachers as they desired, before the study commenced. Three researchers visited each classroom for two days a week over a period of four weeks. The rst classroom was revisited for another four-week session to complete the last portion of the study. As they observed the participants playing the game, the researchers completed a detailed observation sheet (Appendix A) that was designed prior to the start of the study. A questionnaire (Appendix B) was also distributed to all the participants to determine individual likes, dislikes, habits, and favourite aspects of PQ. For the last part of the study, six students (three girls and three boys), selected purposefully by the teacher and researchers to include a range of academic abilities and computer interests, were invited to an interview (Appendix C) to discuss their personal reactions to the PQ game. Participants who were identied as individuals were assigned pseudonyms. Findings The ndings were derived from the aggregate data, which included eld notes, interviews, and surveys that allowed statistical inferences to be made. The survey data indicated that although all participants liked the puzzles featured in Phoenix Quest (PQ), the nature of the time spent on playing the game varied by gender; for example, 95% of boys surveyed played the game more than six times, while 10% of girls surveyed played the game twice. Also, 100% of boys surveyed played PQ for 21 to 40 minutes=session, whereas 10% of girls surveyed played less than 10 minutes=session, 20% played 11 to 20 minutes=session, and 70% played 21 to 40 minutes=session. This phenomenon may be in part explained by the observation that generally, more boys approached PQ with an interest in completing or `winning' the game. As such, more boys than girls concentrated on completing the activities in shortest time possible and developed strategies to share information with one another. Based on eld observations, we concluded that more boys than girls offered advice to the other students, discussed the game during their free time, and observed others playing the game. Some boys even formed groups to exchange information and game-playing strategies. Tips and shortcuts were exchanged in order to help each other advance through the game. Not all tips, however, were considered equal. For tips of average value, boys traded tips for tips. For the most coveted tips, on the other hand, boys traded `chips for tips' potato chips emerged as the preferred the currency of trade. As one girl participant observed, `[boys] share. . .they know you have to do this and they tell you how to get all the other stuff.' She also noted that the information is shared with, `Most of the boys. Hardly ever the girls, but mostly the boys.' As the participants continued to play the game, more examples of adaptive interpersonal social-behavioural competence were observed. Such behaviour contributed to a microworld that was enhanced by constructive social attributes including peer acceptance, positive peer reactions, and friendships. Some of these examples are highlighted in Table 3, using the classication model of social competence developed by Walker et al. (1992). Although there were differences in the participation among participants exposed to PQ, no

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Table 3. Examples of observed adaptive interpersonal social-behavioural competence Peer-related adjustment Adaptive Behavioural correlates Co-operates with peers Supports peers Defends self in arguments Remains calm Leads peers Compliments peers Afliates with peers Example Bob said, `I got two [power words] from Dale and one from Harry. We got them from quite a few people.' Elle mentioned, `Yesterday, Rob won the game and everyone was screaming, and then the principal came along. . .' Amy did not want to use the magnifying glass to search for `archipelago' but stated her preference to read the text to nd it. Amy asked, `Will you please help me? I would like to know if the six-sided shape is a hexagon.' Neal rushed back from gym class with Harry and ordered a researcher to move from the computer, `Quick, quick, quick get off!' Neal complimented Alan, `See! You got the hexagon. Cool, cool, cool, cool!' Neal visited John as he worked on journal, postcards, and then hexagon.

noteworthy maladaptive peer-related adjustments such as disrupting fellow students as they played the game, or bragging about advancing through the game at the expense of a fellow student's self-esteem were observed during the course of this study. In two of the classes, boys progressed further, while in another class, girls acquired more chapters and puzzles than the boys did. The fourth class demonstrated little gender difference in game progression. Social interaction among the game players was not restricted by the physical boundaries of a classroom. The circulation of information about how well other classes were performing was a common phenomenon. Students were engaged in making peer comparisons, as Bob revealed, `I think most of us were a bit ahead of Mrs. Green's class. I had quite a few things they didn't have.' As the students progressed through the computer game, the complexity of their microworld also increased. Game aspects and tasks became differentiated in value and importance. The Bees puzzle, for instance, was considered a good puzzle because it was relatively very challenging. The solution to the Bees puzzle was so highly prized, that information pertaining to this puzzle was only traded with a select group of game players in this microworld. One boy said the following about the Bees puzzle: Bee [puzzle] was my favourite and it was hard. Coins [puzzle], I liked that. Yeah, that was hard. I didn't get how to do it. I got the Bee puzzle rst. I only gave it to two other people. Well, three. They helped me with something else. I told them not to tell other people. But they did, of course. Despite the fact that PQ was not designed for female users per se, the game was termed and regarded as a `girl's game' by various students and certainly by many of the males in the group. Several of the boys reacted to the program simply by sighing and saying, `This game is for girls!' Judging by the members of the class who consistently used PQ, this

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statement was grounded in practice as more girls than boys demonstrated an active interest in PQ. These classroom reactions were primarily a response to the adolescent, female protagonist, Julie. Typical of how boys approached the PQ game, Neal commented, `I don't write to Julie a lot. I just play the puzzles and read the story and look for power words.' Nonetheless, for many female students, the encounter with a protagonist with whom they could identify, at least in age and gender, was a novel computer-game experience that allowed them to feel comfortable about participating in the PQ adventure story. McDonnell (1994) suggested that girls tend to emphasise creating and maintaining strong friendships and interpersonal relationships in their everyday lives. Many of the female participants using PQ demonstrated this tendency by corresponding regularly with Julie and counselling her through her perils and challenges. Furthermore, PQ characteristically (a) is open-ended, (b) does not force the player to race against a ticking clock, and (c) offers the player the choice of playing for several minutes or several hours. As reported by Furger (1998), other researchers have identied these computer-game characteristics as being appealing to many girls. In general, more girls than boys used the postcard writing feature and appreciated following the adventures of a female protagonist. It was determined that, although most boys liked writing to Julie (main female character), signicantly more girls liked doing so: F (1, 96) 4:77; p < 0:05. And more girls than boys did not like (or choose) to write to Darien (main male character): F (1, 96) 8:33; p < 0:05. In contrast, signicantly more boys than girls liked writing to the Keeper (secondary male character): F (1, 96) 11:46; p < 0:05. Another gender difference was discovered when the participants were asked, `What did you think about the math in the game?' (Appendix B). Signicantly more girls than boys answered, `What math?' indicating a lack of awareness of the mathematics embedded within the game: F (1, 96) 9:79; p < 0:05. Unlike most of his peers, 10-year-old Neal was able to articulate some of the mathematical concepts he encountered while playing PQ: I learned angles in the shing one and the Bees puzzle. The sh would pop up at 270 and you had to cast your line in metres. We're probably going to do angles one day [at school]. We're doing 2 digits dividing now. In Hex [Hexagon puzzle] I did math too. I learned about Fibonacci sequences and I didn't even know prime numbers before. Many other students did not share Neal's experience with the mathematical aspects of the PQ. Without guidance from the researchers or teachers, or without the use of the paperand-pencil activities that were designed to accompany the puzzles, many students were unable to articulate the underlying mathematical concepts embedded within the puzzles. Discussion This study endeavoured to examine particular features associated with the phenomenon of pre-adolescent students creating of a dynamic learning culture around the computer game,

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Phoenix Quest (PQ). The students discovered the rules of PQ, used and elaborated on their language and mathematical knowledge, developed individual and collaborative skills to advance through the game, and reected upon what was learned about and through the game. Differences in individual styles and process in learning were observed. The collaborative styles observed in this study varied widely. Some students enjoyed playing the game individually, while others worked in groups, sharing and trading information to move through the game at a faster rate. The present study revealed that among computer games, PQ's unique approach of featuring and challenging a female protagonist was important to girls. This does not suggest that the presentation of a female protagonist will discourage boys from playing and enjoying the game. On the contrary, our ndings showed that PQ, a game that encourages co-operative play and group problem solving, also engaged boys. Although the present study did not focus on teacher-student interaction, the nding that more than 25% of participating students were not able to identify the mathematics embedded in PQ, supports the premise that supplementary instruction on part of a teacher is a requirement for making the mathematics more salient. According to Cobb et al. (1997), students' mathematical development can be proactively supported by teachers who guide and, as necessary, initiate shifts in the discourse such that what was previously done in action becomes an explicit topic of conversation. Similarly, Driver et al. (1994) described the learning of science among young people as entering into a different way of thinking about and explaining the natural world. As such, learning science involves both individual and social processes. Individuals engage in a process of personal construction, coming about through the interaction of the learners' cognitive structures with elements of an external physical reality, and meaning making that is stimulated by peer interaction. Learners of science also interact with symbol realities (the cultural tools of science). This involves becoming socialised into the practices of the scientic community. Without an introduction to this community of discourse, learners entering the scientic community lack an understanding of its concepts, symbols, and conventions. Further research to address the issue of how teachers can engage students in a community of discourse and to help them navigate through a maze of new ideas and symbols within the context of a computer learning environment is strongly recommended. In a computer-game learning environment, there are rich and complex learning and social processes. Games, such as PQ, allow players to be drawn into a microworld a place where certain kinds of thinking `can hatch and grow with particular ease . . . an incubator . . .' (Papert, 1980). Phoenix Quest fosters imaginary worlds that are complete with their own rules to govern behaviours and activities and provides open spaces for students to stretch their cognitive and social abilities. Our ndings provide evidence in contrast to the commonly held notion that computer learning environments and microworlds encourage anti-social behaviours and values. On the contrary, this learning environment can offer students an opportunity to acquire and practice the skills and values required for social interaction and positive interdependence. To this end, computer microworlds have the potential to support social development and social interactions, which according to Bearison (1982), are fundamental educational goals and essential components of cognitive growth.

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These ndings not only have academic value, but also have important practical contributions to make in our classrooms, software laboratories, and information technology industries. The educational and social signicance of this research has begun to attract the spotlight of the popular press. Owl Canadian Family, a magazine for the parents of Owl, Chickadee, and Chirp magazine readers, featured an article by Schachter (1998) in which several key ndings, implications, and recommended teaching strategies stemming from the E-GEMS research project were discussed. The ndings of this study contribute to the understanding of the dynamic nature of learning in computer environments. These ndings, however, do not support a perhaps growing popular notion that by allowing children to `play' with educational software and computer games without engaging them in a community of discourse, it will necessarily result in children learning or achieving intended learning outcomes. Further research in this area will enhance the ability of educators, writers, and software programmers to provide meaningful learning experiences and constructive activities for students who are engaged and motivated by the utility and attraction of computer and information technology. As the use of information technology (such as educational software, computer games, and the Internet) proliferates throughout the eld of education, new-media teachers, researchers, authors, and the like need to better understanding the social and cognitive implications of introducing a computer learning environment in order to support successful learning and teaching within the complex domain of computer-based microworlds.

Acknowledgements This research was supported in part by the Faculty of Education, Queen's University, and also by a Collaborative Research and Development grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC CRD0166856: HCI Research on Interactive Multi-Media for Learning Mathematics: Maria Klawe, Principal Investigator). Thanks to the classroom teachers, principal, and students of the Limestone District School Board who willingly took part in the research. Special thanks are due to E-GEMS researchers and technicians Andrew Chen, Jill De Jean, Corina Koch, and Greg Macleod.

Notes
1. E-GEMS. (1999). Phoenix Quest. < http://taz.cs.ubc.ca/egems/pq/toc.html > (1999, May 25). 2. E-GEMS. (1999). Electronic Games for Education in Math and Science. < http://taz.cs.ubc.ca/egems/ home.html > (1999, May 25).

References
Bearison, D. J. (1982) New directions in studies of social interaction and cognitive growth. In Social-Cognitive Development in Context, F. C. Seraca (ed), Guilford, New York, pp. 199221.

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Appendix A Observation Sheet (Data Sample)

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Appendix B Survey Questionnaire Please circle one answer unless otherwise indicated. 1. How many times did you play the game? a) 1 time b) 2 times c) 3 to 5 times d) 6 or more times 2. Usually when I played, I played for . . . a) 10 minutes or less b) 11 to 20 minutes c) 21 to 40 minutes d) more than 40 minutes 3. Did you like Phoenix Quest? a) yes b) no 4. How well did you follow the story? a) easy to follow b) hard to follow 5. Did you like the order of the chapters? a) yes b) no 6. Did you like Julie? a) yes b) no c) didn't pay much attention to Julie d) Who's Julie? 7. Did you like Darien? a) yes b) no c) I didn't pay much attention to Darien d) Who's Darien? 8. Did you like Saffron? a) yes

406 b) no c) I didn't pay much attention to Saffron d) Who's Saffron? 9. Did you like the Keeper? a) yes b) no c) I didn't pay much attention to the Keeper d) Who's the Keeper? 10. Do you like having a girl for the main character? a) yes b) no c) It didn't matter 11. How many times did you write to Julie? a) 0 times b) 1 to 4 times c) 5 to 8 times d) more than 8 times 12. Did you like writing to Julie? a) yes b) no c) I didn't write to Julie 13. How many times did you write to Darien? a) 0 times b) 1 to 4 times c) 5 to 8 times d) more than 8 times 14. Did you like writing to Darien? a) yes b) no c) I didn't write to Darien 15. How many times did you write to Saffron? a) 0 times b) 1 to 4 times c) 5 to 8 times d) more than 8 times

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16. Did you like writing to Saffron? a) yes b) no c) I didn't write to Saffron 17. How many times did you write to the Keeper? a) 0 times b) 1 to 4 times c) 5 to 8 times d) more than 8 times 18. Did you like writing to the Keeper? a) yes b) no c) I didn't write to the Keeper 19. What did you think about the math in the game? a) what math? b) loved it! c) hated it! d) no opinion 20. Did you like the puzzles? a) yes b) no 21. Which puzzle was your favourite? (Pick ONE) a) bees puzzle b) cave maze puzzle c) coins puzzle d) shing puzzle e) gears puzzle f) hexagon puzzle g) Keeper's Strife h) Keeper's Strife Challenge i) key puzzle j) logic puzzle k) logic II puzzle l) mask puzzle m) paddy puzzle n) poison puzzle o) shrine puzzle p) spider maze puzzle q) stepping stone puzzle

408 Appendix C Interview Questions Section A 1. Our research shows that. . .

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 the boys got an average of 7 puzzles, and the girls got an average of 4 puzzles  some girls chose not to play Phoenix Quest even though it was their turn to be on the computer  on average, the boys got 27 chapters and the girls got 15  1 out of 3 boys said they didn't like Julie  no boys said they liked having a girl for the main character  everybody likes the puzzles  all of the boys said they liked reading in Phoenix Quest  4 out of 5 girls liked the reading in Phoenix Quest  more boys than girls said they liked Darien  most girls like the cave puzzle best Why do you think that is? Section B 2. Did you ever come over to the computers when it wasn't your turn, just to see what was happening? 3. Did you notice if other people came over to the computers when it wasn't their turn? 4. Who do you think came over more often, boys or girls? Section C 5. Are there groups of people in your class who share information about Phoenix Quest? Who? 6. How do they share information? 7. When you play the puzzles, do you play through all the levels before moving to the next puzzle? 8. In which puzzle have you reached the highest level? Why? 9. How far have you gotten in the Phoenix Quest game? 10. Do you have anything else that you want to tell me about Phoenix Quest?