10.

4: Power Series and Taylors Theorem

A power series is like an innite polynomial. It has the form

an (x c)n = a0 + a1 (x c) + a2 (x c)2 + ... + an (x c)n + ...

n=0

here c is any real number and a series of this form is called a power series centered at c. Note that c = 0 is ok and then the power series will look like a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + .... Note that a power series is just like any other series except that it depends on x.

Radius of Convergence of a power series

Let f (x) =
n=0

an (x c)n

be the function dened by this power series. Note that f (x) is only dened if the power series converges so we will consider the domain of the function f to be the set of x values for which the series converges. There are three possible cases:
1 2 3

The power series converges at x = c (note f (c) = a0 ) The power series converges for all x, i.e. (, ) There is a number R called the Radius of convergence such that the series converges for all c R < x < c + R and the series diverges outside this interval.

Find the Radius of Convergence of

n=0

xn : n!

First note that this is a power series centered at c = 0, and the 1 coecients an = n ! . We will use the ratio test to nd the radius of convergence. We look at the terms of the series lim an+1 xn+1 xn+1 /(n + 1)! = lim n an xn xn /n! x = lim n n + 1 = 0.

Since the ratio test implies that this converges and nal answer i.e. 0 does not depend on x we see that this series will converge for all x meaning that the Radius of Convergence is innite.

Find the Radius of Convergence of

n=0

(1)n (x 2)n : 3n

First note that this is n a power series centered at c = 2 and that the 1) coecients an = ( 3n . We use the ratio test and have lim (1)n+1 (x 2)n+1 /3n+1 an+1 xn+1 = lim n n an x (1)n (x 2)n /3n (1)(x 2) = lim n 3 x2 = lim . n 3

Using the ratio test we know that this will converge if |x 2|/3 < 1 or if |x 2| < 3. This gives the Radius of Convergence is R = 3 and the interval is (1, 5) since the center is c = 2.

Taylor and Maclaurin series

If you start with a function f (x) and want to nd the power series representation for it, there is a nice formula, called the Taylor Series. (If c = 0 it is called the Maclaurin Series). If f (x) is represented by a power series centered at c, then

f (x) =
n=0

f (n) (c) (x c)n n!

This can be written out the long way as f (x) = f (c) + f (c)(x c) + f (c) f (c) (x c)2 + (x c)3 + ... 2 3!

Finding a Maclaurin Series

Find the power series for f (x) = ex centered at x = 0. This is a nice and easy one since all the derivatives of ex are also ex . In general you start by writing the derivatives out at x = c and nding a pattern. f (x) = e x f (x) = e f (x) = e ... So in general f (n) (0) = 1 so ex = 1 + x + x2 x3 + + ... = 2! 3!
n=0 x x

f (0) = 1 f (0) = 1 f (0) = 1

xn . n!

We saw from earlier that this series converges for all values of x, because the radius of convergence was innite.

Finding a Taylor Series

Find the power series for f (x) = ln x centered at x = 1. f (x) = ln x f (1) = ln 1 = 0 1 f (x) = f (1) = 1/1 = 1 x f (x) = x2 f (1) = 1 f (3) (x) = 2x3 f (3) (1) = 2 f (4) (1) = 6 f (4) (1) = 4 3 2 f (4) (x) = 2(3)x4 ...

f (5) (x) = 2(3)(4)x5

Continued
In general we see that f (n)(1)=(1) n! so the Taylor Series ln x = f (1) + f (1)(x 1) + f (1) f (1) (x 1)2 + (x 1)3 + ... 2 3! 1 1 1 = 0 + (x 1) (x 1)2 + (x 1)3 (x 1)4 + .. 2 3 4
n

We can write this out as

ln x =
n=1

(1)n+1 (x 1)n . n

Using known power series to help nd new ones...

Find the Maclaurin series for ex , and ex . We know that

e =
n=0

xn x2 x3 =1+x+ + + ... n! 2 3!

so we can plug in x for x to get the series for ex which gives ex = 1 + (x) + (x)2 (x)3 + + ... 2 3!

so the negative sign will cancel on even terms leaving e

x

x2 x3 x4 + + ... = =1x+ 2 3! 4!

n=0

(1)n n x . n!

Using known power series to help nd new ones...

Find the Maclaurin series for ex , and ex . We know that

ex =
n=0

x2 x3 xn =1+x+ + + ... n! 2 3!
2

so we can plug in x2 for x to get the series for ex which gives e x = 1 + ( x2 ) +

2

(x2 )2 (x2 )3 + + ... 2 3!

so the square will return only even terms giving x4 x6 x8 e =1+x + + + + ... = 2 3! 4!
x 2 n=0

1 2n x . n!

Basic List of Power Series

(I will give you this or something like it on the test) ex = 1 + x +
x2 2

x3 3!

+ ... +

xn n!

+ ..., + ...

< x < 0<x2 0<x<2 1 < x < 1 + ... 1 < x < 1

ln x = (x 1)
1 x

(x1)2 2

+ ... +

(1)n (x1)n n

= 1 (x 1) + (x 1)2 + ... + (1)n (x 1)n + ... = 1 x + x2 x3 + ...(1)n xn ...

k(k1)x2 2!

1 x+1

(1 + x)k = 1 + kx +

k(k1)(k2)x3 3!

Using the basic list:

Find the power series for f (x) = 1 + x centered at c = 0. We can use the binomial series (1 + x)k with k = 1/2 : (1 + x)k = 1 + kx + k (k 1)x2 k (k 1)(k 2)x3 + + ... 2! 3!

and so for k = 1/2 we have x x2 x3 (1+x)1/2 = 1+ +(1/2)(1/21) +(1/2)(1/21)(1/22) +... 2 2! 3! Which gives 1+x=1+ x x2 3x3 + ... 2 8 48

Using the basic list:

x Find the power series for x2 +1 We can use the basic list to tell us 1 the power series for 1+ x and multiply each term by 2x :

1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + ...(1)n xn + ... x+1 So 2x = 2x 1 x + x2 x3 + ...(1)n xn + ... x+1 2x = 2x 2x2 + 2x3 2x4 + ...(1)n 2xn+1 + ... x+1 2x = x+1

or

(1)n 2xn+1
n=0