Running head: THE AMERICAN INDIANS SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE

The United States of Assimilation: The American Indians Struggle for Self-determination in U.S. Higher Education Matthew Cartwright Loyola University Chicago

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On October 5, 1877, Chief Joseph, the leader of the American Indian tribe the Nez Perce, famously said, From where the Sun now stands, I will fight no more forever. This simple statement summed up centuries of conflict between Euro-Americans, including the United States government, and American Indians. Chief Joseph gave the soldiers he confronted in 1877 what they and many people before them had been seeking from the American Indians unconditional surrender. It is rather well known that battles, wars, and genocide permeate history as the instruments Euro-Americans used to conquest American Indians. There is, however, little acknowledgement of Euro-Americans simultaneous use of education as a domination mechanism. From the colonial period to the era of self-determination in the 1960s and 1970s, higher education was systematically used to further dominate American Indians. Wright (1991) noted how Euro-Americans persistently sought to remold Native Americans in the image of the white man to civilize and assimilate the savage (p. 12). Using higher education as a tool and weapon to defeat American Indians, keeping them from determining their own educational journey, as well as ridding them of their culture, heritage, and history as opposed to empowering them for their own intellectual betterment, is a severe injustice. What is more, this use of higher education against American Indians spanned centuries, reinforcing its significance as a historical justice issue. Finally, it is worth noting that I have had a continuous interest in American Indians and their long, rich traditions and history since I was a child. Therefore, my passion for American Indians makes their difficult journey to self-determination in higher education, as well as their current educational wellbeing, of considerable interest to me. To support my assertion that the use of higher education as a mechanism to dominate American Indians was a justice issue, I will discuss four themes: (a) higher education was used

THE AMERICAN INDIANS SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE to assimilate American Indians and eradicate their culture, (b) the elimination of culturally-

relevant instruction led to cultural conflict and resistance to higher education, (c) the introduction of a vocationally focused curriculum was utilized to impede academic and social advancement, and (d) the historically oppressive measures against American Indians continue to have lasting effects on their ability to educationally succeed today. To support the four themes, I will reference four historical research articles: (a) Where We Have Been: A History of Native American Higher Education (McClellan, Tippeconni Fox, & Lowe, 2005), (b) American Indian and Alaska Native Higher Education: Toward a Century of Academic Achievement and Cultural Integrity (Wright, 1991), (c) American Indians in Higher Education: A History of Cultural Conflict (Wright & Tierney, 1991), and (d) From Creation to Cultural Resistance and Expansion: Research on American Indian Higher Education (Gonzlez, 2008). Higher Education to Assimilate The injustice of using American Indian higher education as a tool of assimilation has been a part of the American continent since the colonial period. Of the nine original colonial colleges, three incorporated the education of American Indians into their missions with the intention of creating schoolmasters and clergymen who would return to their tribes as missionaries and further the assimilation objectives of the colonists (McClellan et al., 2005; Wright & Tierney, 1991). However, it is clear that from the beginning the colleges did not actually prioritize the education of American Indians in their efforts. Carney stressed that the colleges did not readily adhere to their missions, with only four of forty-seven admitted American Indian students graduating between the founding of the colleges and the American Revolution (as cited in McClellan et. al., 2005). Carney also noted that the colonial colleges

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failure to adequately educate American Indians could be attributed to the appeal of a mission of educating Native Americans in fundraising [rather] than actually advancing the education of Native American students (as cited in McClellan et. al., p. 9). Though colonial colleges put forth little effort, they did espouse an educational philosophy that would remain in effect for centuries: the Christianizing, the civilizing, and the assimilating of American Indians (Gonzlez, 2008; Wright, 1991; Wright & Tierney, 1991). In the end, the injustice of the colonial colleges assimilation attempts is best illustrated in how, although they had not perfected how to educate White pupils, they purposefully sought to use their resources to conquer the American Indians. A more righteous mission would have been to identify opportunities to develop a nation in conjunction with their American Indian neighbors. The colonial colleges adoption of American Indian assimilation through higher education was just the beginning of a multi-century story. With the advent of the United States of America and its government, the education of American Indians shifted from colonial and college control to that of the federal government (Wright, 1991). The federal government, however, continued the colonial colleges mission, with federal institutions in the 1870s most notably intending to remake their Native charges in the image of the white man (Wright, 1991, p. 2). The federal governments involvement began a new era of difficulty in American Indians receiving a just higher education. The majority of tribes resisted attempts to civilize them, but the federal government, with ulterior motives abounding, persuaded a number of nations to embrace higher learning (Wright & Tierney, 1991). During what McClellan et al. (2005) referred to as the Federal Era (post-American Revolution through approximately 1934), treaties between the United States government and American Indian nations became normal practice. Within the first 100 years of

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the United States, 97 treaties that addressed education were signed, including a few with specific higher education provisions (McClellan et al., 2005). In 1830 and 1862, treaties were signed with the Choctaw and Ottawa nations, respectively, to provide their people with triballycontrolled higher education (Wright & Tierney, 1991). These nations saw higher education as a means to effectively engage with Euro-Americans and to survive in a new, White-controlled world, while maintaining their cultural integrity (Gonzlez, 2008). Unfortunately, the United States governments desire to eradicate the red man and his culture led to more control over American Indian education, ultimately leading to the collapse of the established Choctaw system and the death of the Ottawas university before its actual creation (Wright & Tierney, 1991). At that time, the assimilation efforts of the United States government became more apparent. To further eliminate the American Indians culture, the U.S. government drove them away from their native lands and placed them on reservations far away from their original homes. The governments efforts to stifle American Indian educational advancement epitomize the grave injustices inflicted upon the first nations of the continent and the attempts to transform them. It was not until 1972 and the introduction of the Indian Education Act that the government began to repair the years of neglect imposed upon American Indians and their lack of opportunity for education at all levels, including postsecondary (Gonzlez, 2008). Alas, it took over 300 years to reach an era of self-determination that would finally permit American Indians to control how and for what purpose their people were to be educated. Cultural Conflict With millennia of culture, heritage, and history at their disposal, American Indians educationally prospered by creating a milieu devoted to elders passing knowledge down to younger tribe members. In addition to teaching necessary survival skills, emphasis was also

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placed on cultural survival to guarantee that the past was incorporated into the present and future (Gonzlez, 2008). As might be expected, as Euro-Americans entered the continent and established their right to control American Indians education and future, there was a notable cultural conflict between the two sides: Euro-Americans sought to impose their customs while American Indians fought to maintain their own rich cultural history. Many tribes resisted the persistent efforts of the colonies, and later the United States government, to eliminate their native culture and traditional way of life (Wright, 1991). Tribal leaders did not see value in the education being offered because the experiences would have minimized the importance of traditional skills and tribal life (McClellan et al., 2005). In spite of the resistance and a continued American Indian sentiment that their customs differed too greatly to allow their youth to experience a White education, a number of American Indians did attend institutions of higher education (Gonzlez, 2008; Wright, 1991; Wright & Tierney, 1991). However, these students encountered a clash of cultures that affected their ability to continue in these foreign environments. An even greater danger was that some of the students who attended White institutions died from contact with foreign diseases to which they had built no immunity (Gonzlez, 2008; Wright & Tierney, 1991). In addition to being removed from their homes, families, and tribal influences, American Indians were forbidden to speak their traditional languages, to dress in their native clothing, to wear customary hairstyles, and to practice their native religions (Gonzlez, 2008; Wright & Tierney, 1991). The cultural conflict experienced by American Indian women was exacerbated as their traditional roles in the family were annihilated because they were expected to learn European American techniques in childrearing, household maintenance, and food preparation (Gonzlez, 2008, p. 305). Further, the American Indian students were taught the same subjects

THE AMERICAN INDIANS SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE as their White peers (Wright, 1991), thus continuing the purpose of using education as a means to eradicate their native culture by no longer teaching them the ways of their ancestors. What is more, to maintain the cultural elimination work that had been conducted, many educators forbade students from returning to their homes during class breaks because they feared they would revert back to their traditional ways once they were in the presence of their families (Gonzlez, 2008). Consequently, the culture struggle and inability to persist are evidenced in Dartmouths low graduation rate of American Indian students. Of 58 American Indians who attended Dartmouth from 1769 to 1893 only 11 completed degree programs (Wright & Tierney, 1991). From the beginning, rather than providing American Indians an education with which they could effectively succeed, White educators eliminated the traditions, culture, and heritage that could have complemented coursework and created a more beneficial and empowering learning environment. While the 1928 Meriam Report condemned the assimilating policies of the United States government and recommended culturally-relevant content be used to teach American Indians (Gonzlez, 2008), today many American Indians are still understandably resistant to Western education and its historically chilly environment (Wright, 1991). Vocational Training The United States governments insatiable desire to dominate American Indians did not end with strategies to assimilate and annihilate traditional culture. To further the governments unjust efforts to subjugate the tribes and to limit their potential social mobility, restrictive curriculum was introduced that prioritized vocational training over higher learning for most American Indians (Gonzlez, 2008; McClellan et al., 2005; Wright, 1991; Wright & Tierney, 1991). The government introduced the idea of vocational training over academic study early,

THE AMERICAN INDIANS SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE with Wright (1991) noting that during George Washingtons tenure policy was discussed that would limit American Indians to vocation-oriented education. Though its lineage dates back to the eighteenth century, emphasis on vocational training was not readily adopted by the federal government until 1870 when it appropriated funds to operate industrial schools (Wright, 1991). McClellan et al. (2005) noted that the Federal Era was notable for the United States governments lack of activity in the area of Native American higher education (p. 10). Unfortunately, the vision of vocational training would remain the focus of postsecondary education for American Indians up until the 1960s when the era of self-determination began (McClellan et. al., 2005).

Focusing on vocational training abandoned any governmental effort to provide American Indians with higher academic study, in turn limiting their obtaining of the necessary education to become leaders and self-advocates in a White-controlled world. Further, restricting American Indians access to higher academic learning enabled the government to easily continue its unjust objective of eradicating traditional tribal life. Wright (1991) summarizes the facilities created to educate American Indians by stating that the range of occupational futures envisioned for Indian students in these institutions was limited to farmer, mechanic and housewife (p. 3). It is painfully regrettable that for too long the only future the United States government envisioned for American Indians was one of subordination and acceptance of White culture. Lasting Effects The history of American Indian higher education has been riddled with oppressive measures to conquer a noble and proud people. From assimilation, to cultural conflict and to restrictive curricula, the US government has placed various educational obstacles on American

THE AMERICAN INDIANS SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE Indians that have impeded their potential for social progress and their willingness to embrace higher education, which consequently have had lasting effects to the present. Though many of the educational policies and procedures implemented to assimilate and dominate began to dissipate in the 1930s, with their full renouncement not taking effect until 1975 with the Indian Self-determination and Education Assistance Act (Wright & Tierney,

1991), many American Indian students still encounter similar challenges faced by their ancestors. Those attending public, four-year universities and colleges are a highly invisible minority, representing only a fragment of student enrollment (Wright, 1991, p. 5) and typically have a difficult time persisting to graduation. Due to their limited representation in student body and in staff and faculty, American Indian students often do not have peers or role models to which to look, which creates a barrier from effectively participating and succeeding (Gonzlez, 2008; Wright, 1991). Wright (1991) observed that in an effort to fully integrate socially and academically, an American Indian may be expected to reduce her or his attachment to traditional culture (p. 9). Public institutions also often lack cultural facilities and culturallyrelevant coursework for American Indian students, furthering their feeling of isolation and alienation. Moreover, coming from communities which respect values, religious traditions, languages, and other aspects of traditional culture (Wright, 1991, p. 8), American Indian students often find themselves at odds with the mainstream culture of a predominantly White institution, which is apparent in the fact that American Indian college attrition rates are between 75 percent and 95 percent (Larimore & McClellan, as cited in Gonzlez, 2008). The current systems inability to help American Indians persist and prosper in traditional, four-year institutions necessitates the inclusion of culturally-centric programming and curricula and dedicated American Indian faculty serving as role models.

THE AMERICAN INDIANS SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE Though many tribe members viewed education suspiciously, which is understandable

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given how education was historically used to oppress American Indians, the need to develop an educated and trained people was recognized by tribal leaders, subsequently leading to the creation and to the support of tribal colleges and universities (TCUs) (Gonzlez, 2008). The introduction of tribally-controlled colleges created an environment dedicated to preserving native culture and language, while preparing students to contribute to their tribe and the modern world. Belgrade stated that TCUs promote the culture of the tribe they serve, work to strengthen the economies of their Indian communities, and strengthen the social fabric of the tribal community both internally and in conjunction with outside communities though empowering individual Indian people (as cited in McClellan et al., 2005, p. 12). Additionally, to foster the cultural benefits of TCUs and allow students to remain close to family and tribe members, most colleges are located on or near reservations. Sadly, TCUs access to proper financing is limited, thereby adversely affecting their ability to pay staff and faculty, to secure improved technology, and to provide cutting-edge facilities, which ultimately makes fulfilling their missions a constant struggle (Gonzlez, 2008). Although TCUs serve the purpose of empowering American Indians and bridging their world with that of the White mainstream, attending these institutions is still a dream for many students. As a population, American Indian students are among the most underrepresented groups in academe (McClellan et. al. 2005, p. 7) and belong to a community with the highest poverty levels and unemployment in the nation (Wright, 1991). Because federal financial support has not grown with the increase in demand, many private organizations have attempted to close the gap by providing scholarships for American Indian students. Nonetheless, the needs of many students still go unmet. It is frustrating that a population in the greatest need of

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financial aid is unable to adequately attain it. The inaccessibility of proper financing is a modern day injustice that perpetuates the historical narrative of oppressing and subjugating American Indians. Conclusion American Indians have travelled a long and arduous road toward self-determination in higher education. Though the tribes of the United States continue to face extreme adversity, the overt attempts at forced assimilation and cultural eradication are an idea of the past. Further, vocational training is now an available option in conjunction with higher academic study and culturally relevant education, delivering an opportunity for self-advancement. While poverty remains a significant impediment to American Indian academic progress, the issue has gotten greater visibility by the American Indian Higher Education Consortium and by private organizations. However, there remains immense opportunity to petition the government to remember the first nations of our country and the contribution they could make if given the chance. To better themselves, their families, their tribes, and our society, American Indian students deserve equal, attainable access to higher education that supports their culture, their advancement, and their goals.

THE AMERICAN INDIANS SELF-DETERMINATION STRUGGLE References Chief Joseph. (2012). In Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/306330/Chief-Joseph

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Gonzalez, R. (2008). From creation to cultural resistance and expansion: Research on American Indian higher education. Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research, 23, 299327. McClellan, G., Tippeconnic Fox, M. J., & Lowe, S. (2005). Where we have been: A history of Native American higher education. New Directions for Student Services, 109, 7-15. Wright, B. (1991). American Indian and Alaska Native higher education: Toward a new century of academic achievement and cultural integrity. Indian Nations at Risk Task Force Commissioned Papers, 1-16. Wright, B., & Tierney, W. (1991). American Indians in higher education: A history of cultural conflict. Change, 23 (2), 11-18.