ATOMIC PHYSICS

Early models of atom and Bohrs model Quantum model of hydrogen atom Wave functions for hydrogen Physical interpretation of the quantum numbers The X-ray spectrum of atoms X-rays and the numbering of the elements Lasers and laser light

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QUESTIONS to be ANSWERED today 1. Mention the postulates of Bohrs model of H-atom.[2] 2. Based on the Bohrs model for H-atom, obtain the expression for (a) the total energy of the H-atom (b) radii of the electron orbits. [5] Sketch the energy level diagram of H-atom schematically, indicating the energy value for each level and the transition lines for the Lyman series, Balmer series and Paschen series. [4] Write the expressions for total energy of (a) the Hatom (b) other one-electron atoms. From this, obtain the expressions for the reciprocal wavelengths Hspectral lines in terms of quantum numbers. [4]
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3.

4.

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BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Bohrs postulates 1. The electron moves in circular orbits around the proton under the influence of the electric force of attraction as shown in the figure
r F

e me v

+e r

2. Only certain electron obrits are stable (stationary states). When in one of the stationary state, the atom does not radiate energy. Hence the total energy of the atom remains constant in a stationary state.
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BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

r F

When the atom makes a transition from higher energy state (Ei) to lower energy state (Ef ) [ie, the electron makes a transition from a

e me v

+e r

stable orbit of larger radius to that of smaller radius], radiation is emitted. The frequency (f) of this radiation (photon) is given by Ei Ef = h f . The frequency f of the photon emitted is independent of the frequency of electrons orbital motion.

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BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

In his semiclassical model of the H-atom Bohr postulated thatThe angular momentum of the electron in any stable orbit is quantizedmev r = n h n = 1, 2, 3, . . . me = mass of the electron v = speed of the electron in the orbit r = radius of the electrons orbit
+e

r F

e me v

h=

h 2

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BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Electric potential energy 2 k e of the H-atom is U= e

r F

e me v

+e r

ke= Coulomb constant The total energy of the H-atom is Newtons 2ND law
2

me v k ee E=K +U= 2 r k ee2 me v 2 =F = 2 r r me v 2 k ee2 K = = 2 2r

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BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

The total energy of the H-atom is

k ee k ee E=K +U= r 2r k ee E = 2r
2

9ao 4ao

e ao +e
2 2 n h 2 v = = 2 2 m er

From Newtons 2ND law equation and orbit quantization equation

n2 h 2 rn = 2 mek e e
Bohr radius
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k ee2 mer

n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Thus the electron orbit radii are quantized

ao =

h = 52.9 pm 2 mek e e
7

rn= n2 ao

BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Energy quantization Substitute rn= n2 ao in the total energy equation

En

k ee2 k ee2 = = 2r 2 ao

1 n2

13.606 eV En = , 2 n
E1= 13.606 eV
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n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
E1 En = 2 n

BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

k ee 1 Ei E f 1 f = = 2 2 h 2 a oh n f ni 2 k ee 1 1 f 1 Use c = f = = 2 2 c 2 aoh c n f ni 2 1 1 1 k e e = RH R = 2 n2 H n 2 a oh c i f
2
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Ionization energy = minimum energy required to ionize the atom in its ground state = 13.6 eV for H-atom From the equation Ei Ef = h f Frequency of the photon emitted during transition of the atom from state i to state f is

RH = 1.097 x 107 /m9

BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Extension of Bohrs theory to other one-electron atoms - Nuclear charge = + Z e ao 2 radius rn = n Energy

En

k ee2 = 2 ao

Z2 n2

( )Z

n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Limitations of Bohrs theory: When spectroscopic techniques improved, it was found that many of the lines in the H-spectrum were not single lines but closely spaced groups of lines. The lines appear split when the H-vapour was kept in magnetic field.
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BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Bohrs correspondence principle: Quantum physics agrees with classical physics when the difference between quantized levels becomes vanishingly small. SJ-Example-42.1 Spectral lines from the star -Puppis: Some mysterious lines observed in 1896 in the emission spectrum of the star -Puppis fit the empirical equation Show that these lines

1 1 1 can be explained by the = RH 2 2 Bohrs theory as nf ni originating from He+. 2 2

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BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM SJ-Example-42.2 Electronic transition in hydrogen: (A) The electron in a H-atom makes a transition from the n=2 energy level to the ground level (n=1). Find the wavelength and the frequency of the emitted photon. (B) In interstellar space highly excited hydrogen atoms called Rydberg atoms have been observed. Find the wavelength to which radioastronomers must tune to detect signals from electrons dropping from n=273 level to n=272. (C) What is the radius of the electron orbit for a Rydberg atom for which n=273 ? (D) How fast is the electron moving in a Rydberg atom for which n=273 ? (E) What is the wavelength of the radiation from the Rydberg atom in part (B) if treated classically ?

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BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

SJ-Problem-42.7 A hydrogen atom is in the first excited state (n = 2). Using the Bohr theory of the atom, calculate (a) the radius of the orbit (b) the linear momentum of the electron (c) the angular momentum of the electron (d) the kinetic energy of the electron (e) the potential energy of the system and (f) the total energy of the system.
(Ans: r=0.212nm, 9.95 x 10-25 N-s, L=2.11x10-34 kgm2/s, K=3.4eV, U=-6.8eV, E=K+U=-3.4eV)

SJ-Problem-42.9 A photon is emitted as a hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from the n = 6 state to the n = 2 state. Calculate (a) the energy (b) the wavelength (c) the frequency of the emitted photon.
Ans: 410nm, 3.03eV, 7.32x1014 Hz
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BOHRS MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

SJ-Problem-42.13 (a) Construct an energy-level diagram for the He+ ion (Z = 2). What is the ionization energy for He+ ? Ans:

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THE QUANTUM MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

The potential energy function for the H-atom is ke = 8.99 x 109 N.m2/C2 k ee2

U(r) =

r = radial distance of electron from proton [H-nucleus] The time-independent Schrodinger equation in 3-dimensional space is Since U has spherical symmetry, it is easier to solve z the Schrodinger equation in spherical polar r P r coordinates (r, , ): 2 2 2 r = x + y + zr where is the angle between z-axis and r
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y
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THE QUANTUM MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

is r the angle between the x-axis and the projection of r onto the xy-plane. It is possible to separate the variables r, , as follows: (r, , ) = R(r) f() g() By solving the three separate ordinary differential equations for R(r), f(), g(), with conditions that the normalized and its first derivative are continuous and finite everywhere, one gets three different quantum numbers for each allowed state of the H-atom. The quantum numbers are integers and z r P correspond to the three independent r degrees of freedom.

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THE QUANTUM MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM The radial function R(r) of is associated with the principal quantum number n. From this theory the energies of the allowed states for the H-atom are

En

k ee2 1 = 2a n2 o

13.606 eV = , 2 n

n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

which is in agreement with Bohr theory. The polar function f() is associated with the orbital quantum number l. The azimuthal function g() is associated with the orbital magnetic quantum number ml. The application of boundary conditions on the three parts of leads to important relationships among the three quantum numbers: n can range from 1 to . l can range from 0 to n1 ; [n allowed values]. ml can range from l to +l ; [(2l+1) allowed values].
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All states having the same principal quantum no are said to form a shell. All states having the same values of n and l are said to form a subshell n= n= n= n= n= n= .. .. 1 2 3 4 5 6 .. .. K L M N O P .. .. shell shell shell shell shell shell .. .. l= l= l= l= l= l= .. .. 0 1 2 3 4 5 .. .. s subshell p subshell d subshell f subshell g subshell h subshell .. .. .. ..

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THE QUANTUM MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

SJ-Example-42.3 The n = 2 level of hydrogen: For a H-atom, determine the number of allowed states corresponding to the principal quantum number n = 2, and calculate the energies of these states.

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SJ-Problem-42.16 A general expression for the energy levels 2 2 2 k e q1 q2 of one-electron atoms and ions is En = 2 h 2n2 where ke is the the Coulomb constant, q1 and q2 are the charges of the electron and the nucleus, m1m2 and is the reduced mass, given by = m1 + m2 The wavelength for n = 3 to n = 2 Transition of the hydrogen atom is 656.3 nm (visible red light). What are the wavelengths for this same transition in (a) positronium(which consists of an electron and a positron) and (b) singly ionized helium ?

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All the factors in the given equation are constant for this problem except for the reduced mass and the nuclear charge. Therefore, the wavelength corresponding to the energy difference for the transition can be found simply from the ratio of mass and charge variables.

For hydrogen For positronium Ans: Wavelength doubles. ie., 1.31 m, b) energy becomes 4 times. So , wavelength=656.3/4= 164nm

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THE QUANTUM MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

SJ-Problem-42.17
An electron of momentum p is at a distance r from a stationary proton. p2 The electron has a kinetic energy K =

2me

The atom has a potential energy and total energy E = K + U. If the electron is bound to the proton to form a Hatom, its average position is at the proton, but the uncertainty in its position is approximately equal to the radius r of its orbit. The electrons average vector momentum is zero, but its averaged squared momentum is equal to the squared uncertainty in its momentum, as given by the uncertainty principle.
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k ee2 U= r

THE QUANTUM MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

SJ-Problem-42.17 continued An electron of momentum p is at a distance r from a 2 p stationary proton.

K =

2me

Treating the atom as one-dimensional system, (a) estimate the uncertainty in the electrons momentum in terms of r. (b) Estimate the electrons kinetic, potential, and total energies in terms of r. (c) The actual value of r is the one that minimizes the total energy, resulting in a stable atom. Find that value of r and the resulting total energy. Compare your answer with the predictions of the Bohr theory.
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QUESTIONS to be Answered 1. Give a brief account of quantum model of H-atom. 2. The wave function for H-atom in ground state is [2]

1s (r) =

1 a3 o

r ao

3.

Obtain an expression for the radial probability density of H-atom in ground state. Sketch schematically the plot of this vs. radial distance. [4] The wave function for H-atom in 2s state is

1 r 2 s (r ) = 2 e ao 4 2 ao Write the expression for the radial probability density of H-atom in 2s state. Sketch schematically the plot of this vs. radial distance. [2] 1
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3 2

r ao

 Sketch schematically the plot of the radial probability density vs. radial distance for H-atom in 1s-state and 2s-state. [2] Give the physical interpretation of the following: (a) Orbital quantum number l (b) Orbital magnetic quantum number ml (c) Spin magnetic quantum number ms

[1] [4] [3]

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THE WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR HYDROGEN The potential energy for H-atom depends only on the radial distance r between nucleus and electron. some of the allowed states for the H-atom can be represented by wave functions that depend only on r (spherically symmetric function). The simplest wave function for H-atom is the 1s-state (ground state) wave function (n = 1, l = 0): r 1 ao

1s (r) =

a3 o

ao = Bohr radius.

1 s

1 = 3 a e o

2r ao

|1s|2 is the probability density for H-atom in 1s-state.

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THE WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR HYDROGEN The radial probability density P(r) is the probability per unit radial length of finding the electron in a spherical shell of radius r and thickness dr.

P(r) dr is the probability of finding the electron in this shell. P(r) dr = ||2 dv = ||2 4r2 dr P(r) = 4r2 ||2

Radial probability density for H-atom in its ground state:

4r 3 P 1s ( r ) = ao
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2r ao

28

Plot of the probability of finding the electron as a function of distance from the nucleus for H-atom in the 1s (ground) state. P1s(r) is maximum when r = ao (Bohr radius). rMOST PROBABLE = ao rAVERAGE = 3ao/2 Cross-section of the spherical electronic charge distribution of Hatom in 1s-state

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THE WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR HYDROGEN

SJ-Example-42.4

The ground state of H-atom:

Calculate the most probable value of r (= distance from nucleus) for an electron in the ground state of the Hatom. Also calculate the average value r for the

electron in the ground state.

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THE WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR HYDROGEN

SJ-Example-42.5 Probabilities for the electron in Hatom: Calculate the probability that the electron in

the ground state of H-atom will be found outside the Bohr radius.

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The next simplest wave function for the H-atom is the 2s-state wave function (n = 2, l = 0):
3 2

2 s (r ) =
rMOST PROBABLE = 5ao

1 r 2 e ao 4 2 ao 1

r ao

2s is spherically symmetric (depends only on r). E2 = E1/4 = 3.401 eV (1ST excited state).

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THE WAVE FUNCTIONS FOR HYDROGEN

SJ-Problem-42.21 For a spherically symmetric state of a H-atom the schrodinger equation in spherical coordinates is

h2 2m

2 2 k ee2 + = E 2 r r r r

Show that the 1s wave function for an electron in H-atom

1s (r) =

1 a3 o

r ao

satisfies the schrodinger equation.

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Question to be answered
Give the physical interpretation of the following: (a) Orbital quantum number l [1] (b) Orbital magnetic quantum number ml [4] (c) Spin magnetic quantum number ms [3]

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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE QUANTUM NUMBERS

The orbital quantum number l According to quantum mechanics, an atom in a state whose principal quantum number n can take on the following discrete values of the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum:

L = l(l + 1) h

l = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1

SJ-Example-42.6 Calculating L for a p-state: Calculate the magnitude of the orbital angular momentum of an electron in a p-state of hydrogen. Ans: l=1 for p state, L=1.49 x 10-34 J.s
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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE QUANTUM NUMBERS The orbital magnetic quantum number ml

r The energy U of r a magnetic moment in a r the electron r with magnetic field B is U = - B. According to quantum mechanics, there are r discrete directions allowed for the magnetic r moment vector with respect to magnetic field vector B. r e r Since = 2m L e r one finds that the direction of L is quantized. This r means that r LZ (the projection of L along the z-axis [direction of B ]) can
have only discrete values. The orbital magnetic quantum number ml specifies the allowed values of the z-component of the orbital angular momentum. LZ = ml
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r The quantization of the possible orientationsr of L with respect to an external magnetic field B is called
space quantization. Following vector model describes the space quantization for l = 2.
LIES ON THE SURFACE OF A CONE AND PRECESSES ABOUT r THE DIRECTION OF B

r L

THE ALLOWED VALUES OF

LZ

is quantized 0

LZ cos = r = L

ml l(l + 1)
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The Zeeman effect: splitting of energy levels and hence spectral lines in magnetic field
NO MAG-FIELD MAG-FIELD PRESENT

n=2, l=1
ENERGY

hfo n=1, l=0 fo

SPECTRUM WITHOUT MAG-FIELD
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h(fof)

hfo

ml=+1 ml=0 ml=1 h(fo+f)

ml=0 (fof) fo (fo+f)

SPECTRUM WITH MAG-FIELD PRESENT

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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE QUANTUM NUMBERS

SJ-Example-42.7 Space quantization for H-atom: Consider the H-atom in the l = 3 state. Calculate the r magnitude of L, the allowed r values of LZ, and the corresponding angles that | L | makes with the z-axis. For an arbitrary value of l, how many values of ml are allowed.

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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE QUANTUM NUMBERS

The spin magnetic quantum number ms The quantum numbers n, l, ml are generated by applying boundary conditions to solutions of the schrodinger equation. The electron spin does not come from the schrodinger equation. The experimental evidence showed the necessity of the spin magnetic quantum number ms which describes the electron to have some intrinsic angular momentum. This originates from the relativistic properties of the electron. There can be only two directions for the spin r angular momentum vector S, spin-up and spin-down as shown in the figure:
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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE QUANTUM NUMBERS

Spin is an intrinsic property of a particle, and charge. The spin angular momentum for the electron is expressed in terms of quantum number (spin quantum number),

like mass magnitude S a single s=:

S= r S

s (s + 1) h =

3 h 2

is quantized in space as described in the figure: It can have two orientations relative to a z-axis, specified by the spin magnetic quantum number r ms = . The z-component of S is : SZ = ms = /2
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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE QUANTUM NUMBERS

The value ms = + is for spin-up case and ms = is for spin-down case. r The spin magnetic moment SPIN of the r electron is related to its spin angular momentum S

r e r SPIN = m S e

eh Z-component of the SPIN,Z = spin magnetic moment: 2 me

Bohr magneton

eh B = = 9.27 x 10 24 J / T 2 me

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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE QUANTUM NUMBERS

SJ-Example-42.8 Putting some spin on H-atom: For a H-atom, determine the quantum numbers associated with the possible states that correspond to the principal quantum number n = 2.

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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE QUANTUM NUMBERS

SJ-Problem-42.27 How many sets of quantum numbers are possible are possible for an electron for which (a) n=1, (b) n=2, (c) n=3, (d) n=4, and (e) n=5 ? Check your results to show that they agree with the general rule that the number of sets of quantum numbers for a shell is equal to 2n2.

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PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE QUANTUM NUMBERS

SJ-Problem-42.31 The -meson has a charge of e, a spin quantum number of 1, and a mass 1507 times that of the electron. Imagine that the electrons in an atom were replaced by -mesons. List the possible sets of quantum numbers for -mesons in the 3dsubshell.
Ans: The 3d subshell has l=2, n=3; ml = -2,-1,0,1,2; s=1 and ms= -1,0,1

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Questions to be answered
Explain the continuous x-ray spectrum with a schematic plot of the spectrum. [2] Obtain an expression for the cutoff wavelength in the continuous xray spectrum. [4] Explain the characteristic x-ray spectrum with a schematic plot of the spectrum. [2] Explain the origin of characteristic x-ray spectrum with a sketch of xray energy level diagram. [3] Write Moseleys relation for the frequency of characteristic x-rays. sketch schematically the Moseleys plot of characteristic x-rays. [2] Obtain Moseleys relation for characteristic x-ray frequency from Bohr theory. [4]

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THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS To examine the motions of electrons that lie deep within multielectron atoms, one needs to consider the x-ray spectrum of atoms, shown in the figure below: The x-rays are emitted by atoms in a target when the atoms are bombarded with high energy electrons. The x-ray spectrum has two parts: continuous spectrum and characteristic spectrum. Sharply defined cutoff wavelength (MIN) is a prominent feature of the continuous x-ray spectrum.
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TARGET: MOLYBDENUM X-RAY TUBE VOLTAGE: V = 35 kV MIN = 35.5 pm

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THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS Consider an electron accelerated through a potential difference of V (x-ray tube voltage) , hitting a target atom. The electrons initial kinetic energy is K = e V. The electron loses its kinetic energy by an amount K = hf, which appears in the form of xray photon energy (Bremsstrahlung). K can have any value from 0 to K. Thus the emitted x-rays can have any value for the wavelength above MIN in the continuous x-ray spectrum. Thus

e V = hfMAX =
MIN = hc e V

hc MIN

MIN depends only on V

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THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS

The peaks in the x-ray spectrum is the characteristic of the target element in the x-ray tube and hence they form the characteristic xray spectrum.

When a high energy (K = e V, V = x-ray tube voltage) electron strikes a target atom and knocks out one of its electrons from the inner shells with energy Enf (| Enf | K, nf = integer), the vacancy in the inner shell is filled up by an electron from the outer shell (energy = Eni, ni = integer).

The characteristic x-ray photon emitted has the energy:

hc hf =
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= Eni Enf
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X-RAY ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM FOR MOLYBDENUM EK= 17.4 keV K= 71 pm

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THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS A K x-ray results due to the transition of the electron from Lshell to K-shell. A K x-ray results due to the transition of the electron from M-shell to K-shell. When the vacancy arises in the L-shell, an L-series (L, L, L) of x-rays results. Similarly, the origin of M-series of x-rays can be explained.

HRK-Sample Problem 48-1: Calculate the cutoff wavelength for the continuous spectrum of x-rays emitted when 35-keV electrons fall on a molybdenum target. Ans: 35.5pm
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THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS

HRK-Exercise 48.1: Show that the shortwavelength cutoff in the continuous x-ray spectrum is given by 1240 pm

MIN =

where V is the applied potential difference in kilovolts.

HRK-Exercise 48.5: Electrons bombard a molybdenum target, producing both continuous and characteristic x-rays. If the accelerating potential applied to the x-ray tube is 50.0 kV, what values of (a) MIN (b) K (c) K result ? The energies of the K-shell, L-shell and M-shell in the molybdenum atom are 20.0 keV, 2.6 keV, and 0.4 keV respectively.

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THE X-RAY SPECTRUM OF ATOMS HRK-Exercise 48.9: X-rays are produced in an x-ray tube by a target potential of 50.0 keV. If an electron makes three collisions in the target before coming to rest and loses one-half of its remaining kinetic energy on each of the first two collisions, determine the wavelengths of the resulting photons. Neglect the recoil of the heavy target atoms. HRK-Exercise 48.12: The binding energies of K-shell and L-shell electrons in copper are 8.979 keV and 0.951 keV, respectively. If a K x-ray from copper is incident on a sodium chloride crystal and gives a first-order Bragg reflection at 15.9 when reflected from the alternating planes of the sodium atoms, what is the spacing between these planes ?
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X-RAYS AND THE NUMBERING OF THE ELEMENTS Moseleys observation on the characteristic K x-rays shows a relation between the frequency (f) of the K x-rays and the atomic number (Z) of the target element in the x-ray tube:

f = C (Z 1)
C is a constant. Based on this observation, the elements are arranged according to their atomic numbers in the periodic table

MOSELEY PLOT OF THE K X-RAYS

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X-RAYS AND THE NUMBERING OF THE ELEMENTS Bohr theory and the Moseley plot: Bohrs formula for the frequency of radiation corresponding to a transition in a one-electron atom between any two atomic levels i and f differing in energy by E is

m Z 2e 4 1 1 E 2 2 f = = 2 3 h 8 oh n f ni
In a many-electron atom, for a K transition, the effective nuclear charge felt by an L-electron can be thought of as equal to +(Zb)e instead of +Ze, where b is the screening constant due to the screening effect by the only K-electron.
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X-RAYS AND THE NUMBERING OF THE ELEMENTS Bohr theory and the Moseley plot:

Frequency of the K x-ray is

m (Z b ) e 1 1 f = 2 2 3 2 8 oh 1 2 1
2 4

MOSELEY PLOT OF THE K X-RAYS

and
or

3 m e4 2 f = 2 3 32 h (Z b ) o
sin ce b 1

f = C (Z 1)

HRK-Sample problem 48-2: Calculate the value of the constant C in the Moseleys relation for x-ray frequency and compare it with the measured slope of the straight line in Moseley plot.
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X-RAYS AND THE NUMBERING OF THE ELEMENTS HRK-Sample Problem 48-3: A cobalt target is bombarded with electrons, and the wavelengths of its characteristic x-ray spectrum are measured. A second, fainter characteristic spectrum is also found, due to an impurity in the target. The wavelengths of the K lines are 178.9 pm (cobalt) and 143.5 pm (impurity). What is the impurity ?

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QUESTIONS 1. Explain the following terms with reference to lasers: (a) spontaneous emission (b) stimulated emission (c) metastable state (d) population inversion (e) pumping (f) active medium (g) resonant cavity. Explain the principle of a laser. Give a brief account of a He-Ne laser.

[2] [2] [2] [2] [1] [2] [1] [5] [4]

2. 3.

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LASERS AND LASER LIGHT Characteristics of laser light: Laser light is highly monochromatic, highly coherent, highly directional and can be sharply focused.

Interaction of radiation with matter

Absorption: Absorption of a photon of frequency f takes place when the energy difference E2 E1 of the allowed energy states of the atomic system equals the energy hf of the photon. Then the photon disappears and the atomic system moves to upper energy state E2

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LASERS AND LASER LIGHT Spontaneous Emission: The average life time of the atomic system in the excited state is of the order of 108 s. After the life time of the atomic system in the excited state, it comes back to the state of lower energy on its own accord by emitting a photon of energy hf = E2 E1 In an ordinary light source the radiation of light from different atoms is not coherent. The radiations are emitted in different directions in random manner. Such type of emission of radiation is called spontaneous emission.

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LASERS AND LASER LIGHT Stimulated Emission: When a photon (stimulating photon) of suitable frequency interacts with an excited atomic system, it comes down to ground state before its life time. Such an emission of radiation is called stimulated emission. In stimulated emission, both the stimulating photon and the stimulated photon are of same frequency, same phase and are in same state of polarization, they are emitted in the same direction. In other words, these two photons are coherent. Thus amplified radiation is got by stimulated emission

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LASERS AND LASER LIGHT Population inversion: Boltzmann statistics gives the population of atoms in various energy states at temperature T.

E 2 E1 n(E 2 ) = exp n(E1 ) k T

k = Boltzmann constant. n(E1) = density of atoms with energy E1 , n(E2) = density of atoms with energy E2 . n(E2) < n(E1) if E2 > E1 (Figure a).
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LASERS AND LASER LIGHT Metastable state: A metastable state is an excited energy state of an atomic system
from which spontaneous transitions to lower states is forbidden (not allowed by quantum mechanical selection rules). The average life time of the atomic system in the metastable state is of the order of 103 s which is much longer than that in an ordinary excited state. Stimulated transitions from the metastable state are allowed. An excited atomic system goes to metastable state (usually a lower energy state) due to transfer of its extra energy by collision with another atomic system. Thus it is possible to have population inversion of atomic systems in a metastable state relative to a lower energy state.
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Principle of a Laser: The main parts of a laser are lasing medium, resonant cavity and pumping system. In a laser the medium chosen to amplify light is called lasing medium (active medium). This medium has atomic systems (active centers), with special system of energy levels suitable for laser action (see figure). This medium may be a gas, or a liquid, or a crystal or a semiconductor. The atomic systems in this may have energy levels including a ground state (E1), an excited state (E3) and a metastable state (E2).

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In ruby laser the lasing medium is a ruby rod. Ruby is Al2O3 doped with Cr2O3. Cr3+ ions are the active centres, which have approximately similar energy level structure shown above. The resonant cavity is a pair of parallel mirrors to reflect the radiation back into the lasing medium. Pumping is a process of exciting more number of atoms in the ground state to higher energy states, which is required for attaining the population inversion. The atoms in the state E3 may come down to state E1 by spontaneous emission or they may come down to metastable state (E2) by collision. The atoms in the state E2 come down to state E1 by stimulated emission.
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In Ruby laser the pumping is done by xenon flash lamp.

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These radiations may be reflected due to mirror action of the end faces (see figure). When population inversion takes place at E2, a stray photon of right energy stimulates chain reaction, accumulates more photons, all coherent. The reflecting ends turn the coherent beam back into active region so that the regenerative process continues and part of the light beam comes out from the partial mirror as a laser pulse. The out put is an intense beam of coherent light. The ruby laser gives red light

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He-Ne Laser has a glass discharge tube filled with He (80%) and Ne (20%) at low pressure. He-gas is the pumping medium and Negas is the lasing medium. The simplified energy level diagram (see figure) shows 4 levels: Eo, E1, E2 and E3. Electrons and ions in the electrical gas discharge occasionally collide with Heatoms, raising them to level E3 (a metastable state).

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During collisions between He- and Neatoms, the excitation energy of He-atom is transferred to Ne-atom (level E2). Thus, population inversion occurs between levels E2 and E1. This population inversion is maintained because (1) the metastability of level E3 ensures a ready supply of Ne-atoms in level E2 and (2) level E1 decays rapidly to Eo. Stimulated emission from level E2 to level E1 predominates, and red laser light is generated. The mirror M1 is fully reflective and the mirror M2 is partially reflective to allow the laser beam to come out. The Brewsters windows W & W are at polarizing angles to the mirrors, to make the laser light linearly polarized.
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HRK-Sample Problem 48-7: A three level laser of the type shown in figure below, emits laser light at a wavelength 550 nm, near the centre of the visible band. If the optical mechanism is shut off, what will be the ratio of the population of the upper level E2 to that of the lower level E1 at 300 K ? At what temperature for the condition of (a) would the ratio of populations be half ?

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HRK-Sample Problem 48-8: A pulsed ruby laser has a ruby rod (Al2O3 doped with Cr2O3) as an active medium, which is 6 cm long and 1 cm in diameter. There is one aluminium ion (active centre, with energy levels of the type shown in the figure) for every 3500 chromium ions. The ruby laser light has a wavelength of 694.4 nm. Suppose that all the chromium ions are in metastable state (E2) and none are in ground state (E1). How much energy is there in a single laser pulse if all these ions come down to ground state in a single stimulated emission chain reaction episode ? Density of Al2O3 is 3700 kg/m3. Molar mass of Al2O3 is 0.102 kg/mol.
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HRK-Exercise 48.28: A ruby laser emits light at a wavelength of 694.4 nm. If a laser pulse is emitted for 12.0 ps and the energy release per pulse is 150 mJ, (a) what is the length of the pulse, and (b) how many photons are there in each pulse ?

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LASERS AND LASER LIGHT HRK-Exercise 48.29: It is entirely possible that techniques for modulating the frequency or amplitude of a laser beam will be developed so that such a beam can serve as a carrier for television signals, much as microwave beams do now. Assume also that laser systems will be available whose wavelengths can be precisely tuned to anywhere in the visible range (400 nm to 700 nm). If a television channel occupies a bandwidth of 10 MHz, how many channels could be accommodated with this laser technology ?

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HRK-Exercise 48.30: A He-Ne laser emits light at a wavelength of 632.8 nm and has an output power of 2.3 mW. How many photons are emitted each minute by this laser when operating ? HRK-Exercise
An atom has two energy levels with a transition wavelength of 582 nm. At 300 K, 4.0 x 1020 atoms are in the lower state. (a) How many occupy the upper state under conditions of thermal equilibrium ? (b) Suppose, instead, that 7.0 x 1020 atoms are pumped into upper state, with 4.0 x 1020 atoms in the lower state. How much energy could be released in a single laser pulse ?

48.33:

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