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The Relation of Greek Philosophy to Modern Thought Author(s): Alfred W. Benn Reviewed work(s): Source: Mind, Vol. 7, No. 26 (Apr., 1882), pp. 231-254 Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the Mind Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2246450 . Accessed: 14/09/2012 15:41
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I. -THE

RELATION OF GlPEEK PHILOSOPHY MODERN THOUGHT. II.

TO

been represented has sometimes of the Leviathan THE autlhor the BaconianMethodintopoliticsand preas one who carried to psychology application pared the way forits more thorough the threegreatleaders by Locke. But thisview,whichregards as successive century in the seventeenth of English philosophy which ofhistory is a misapprehension series, links in a connected of accountthe conleavingouit could onlyhave arisenthroug,h and through speculation, of Continental development temporary between distinction on themodern habitoflooking theinveterate antithesis as a fundamental and transcendentalism empiricism of every epoch into two opposing dividingthe philosophers just mentioned is that,if the threewriters schools. The truth theyagree solelyfromexperience, -knowledge agreein deriving on thisone pointdoes else; and thattheirunanimity in nothing what each not amountto much,will be evidentif we consider by the notionin question. With Bacon,experience understood of takingthe form whether of mereauthority, was the negation ofhollowphrases, prepossession, of individual naturalprejudice, or of establishedsystems. The questionhow we come by that is left unknowledgewhich all agree to be the mostcertain, answerswould have of the current touchedin his logic; either suited his systemequally well; nor is there any reason for believingthathe would have sided withMill ratherthanwith axioms. With Kant respectingthe originof mathematical meantthe analysisof notionsand judg,ments Locke,experience anidthe into the simple data of sense and self-consciousness; ofthe presentday are beyondall doubt his disexperientialists so far as it is ciples; but the parentageof his philosophy, a denial of innate ideas, must be sought,not in the simiply but in the old work, norin any othermodern NovutmOrganum, who ofthe Schoolmen or in the comments of Aristotle, Orgsanon againstthe Platonismof their in protesting Aristotle followed of Descartes againstthe Platonism just as Locke protested time, both in and Malebranche. The experienceof Hobbes differs of these. With him,senisible -from either origin and application judgare not a.courtof appeal againsttraditional impressions nor yet are theythe ultimateelementsinto which all ments, which ideas may be analysed; they are the channelsthrough are conveyedinto the mind,and these pulsatingmovements forcesor the actionof nmechanical again,represent movements,

to Afodern Philosophy 232 The Relationof Greek Thought. authority. And he holds this doctrine, the will ofa paramount partlyas a partlyas a logical consequenceof his materialism, which, in his safeguard against the theological pretensions of to social order. The authority are a constantthreat opinion, is menacedonithe one hand by Papal the politicalsovereign subjectsputtingforby rebellious and on the other infallibility, inspiration. To the Pope, Hlobbes ward a claimto supernatural to says: "You are violatingthe law of natureby professing derive fromGod what is really given onlyby the consentof men,and can onlybe given by themto theirtemporalhead". To the Puritan he religion the rightto imposea particular is a superstitious dream,and says: " Your inwardillumination the king's to use it as a pretextfor breaking you have no right to do withthe supernatural; peace. Religionhas reallynothing to thenatural obedience wayofinculcating it is onlya particular of social union." coinditions -Bacon in the deductive wholly from Again, Hobbes differs systemn ofhis method. His logicis the old syllogistic character on the model of mathematicalanalysis. Like all reorganised and a of his time,he was a geometrician the great thinkers proreasoningfromgeneralto particular mechanicalphysicist, fromcauses to effects.' His famous positionsand descending is a rationalconstruction, not a hisof a social contract theory he shows no torical narrative. But thougha mathematician; all the more traces of Platonic influenCe. He is therefore governedby Atomistand Stoic modes of thought. He treats and associated, as Galileo andDescarteshad humannature, single himselfin too,he finds treatedmotionand space. Like them, of man as a to Aristotle. The description constantantagonism rejected,and the political union social animal is disdainfully of manyopposing wills maintained resolvedintoan equilibrium by violent pressurefroinwithout. In ethics,no less than in forcesreplaced by mechanicalimphysics,we findattractive pacts. While th% analysisof Hobbes goes much deeper thanAristhe graspof his reconstructive synthesisis wider and totle's, the good in at least an equal proportion. Recognising stronger rule of conduct, he givesa new inof the whole as the supreme 'and disposesof the theory to the particular virtues, terpretation twoextremes no less effectuwhichmade thema mepnbetween in had disposedof the same theory ally thanhis contemporaries of matter. And constitution its applicationto the elementary by the just as theywereaided in theirrevoltagainst Aristotle
1 This is well brought on thePhiloseries ofarticles outin a remarkable in the Vierte1jahrsschrift byT6nnies published ofHobbesrecently sophy Jiir Phitosopliie. wissenschaftliche

to ModernThought. 233 Ptilosophy The Relationof Greek so also was he. The identificarevivalof otherGreeksystems, commonly attributed though tionofjusticewithpublicinterest, an idea sharedby him to Epicurusalone,was, like materialism, on modernthought impressed with Stoicism, and was probably oftheirunitedauthority. And whenwe findthe by the weight public happinessconsistin making of Malmesbury philosopher we cannot but think that this was a orderand tranquillity, fromthe Stoic and Epicurean conceptionsof generalisation individualhappiness; forboth embracethe same ideal of passionlessrepose. ofthe social forthe perOn the other hand,thissubstitution changein thevaluationof a corresponding involves sonal integer had been to later as such. What the passionspersonalfeelings thatthe individual soul becamieto Hobbes, Greekphilosophy, whosedesiresgrow infinite and insatiable, something, essentially if such it can be called,is whosehappiness, as theyare gratified, and of stablereposebut of perpetualmovement not a condition unrest. Here, again,the analogybetweenphysics and ethics the obtains. In boththerewas an originaloppositionbetweeni expansion. In boththe idea of a limitand the idea of infinite was bequeathedby ancient to modernthought. Those conflict bothstudieshave alwayshad a certaintendency who embraced has been more to take the same side in each; but thistendency thanin ancient systems. The sucmarkedin modern distinctly cessorsof Aristotle, while fallingback on an older cosmology, on man. methodin theirspeculations his limiting had retained the formlessand If he and Plato beforehim had imprisoned and eternal elementswithin a uniform turbulentterrestrial on the desires theyimposeda similarrestraint sphereof crystal, and emotions, themwithina barrierof reasonwhich, confining through. And if,becould neverbe broken whenonce erected, forethe Athenianschoolarose,therehad been a physicalphilocalled it,the indefinite, or,as its impugners sophyof the infinite or to it, a philosophyof the infinite therewas, corresponding not indeed by professional in ethics, represented, indefinite and men of the world. Their but by rhetoricians mioralists, or the man,but the popular orator ideal was not the contented of power-the abilityto despotwho revelsin the consciousness conhis desires, whatever maybe. And theextreme they satisfy is drawnby Plato's Callicleswhenhe sequenceof thisprinciple in nursing one's desiresup declaresthattruehappinessconsists indulged; while to the highest pointat whichtheycan be freely his ideal of characteris the superiorindividualwho sets at have been devised by a weak and naught whateverrestraints timidmajority to protect themselves againsthim. The Greek love of balanced antithesisand circumscribing

to ModernT7hought. Philosophy 234 The Relationof Greek in bothfields; and altlhoug,h over the infinite formtriumphed a won in physicswas lost again fora time throtugh the ground thiswas because true Hellenisinfound revivalof old theories, of and therethe philosophy spherein ethics, its onlycongenial there P'lato continuedto reigil supreme. With Christianity, again ofparts. The externaluniverse inversion came a certain and the flammantia becamlesubjectedto narrowlimitations, menia mundibeyondwhich Epicurus had dared to penetrate, as an inmby new terrors wereraisedup once moreand guiarded the tookrefuge witlhin to thought. But infinity passable barrier thaneven that self-control soul; and,whilein thislifea sterner delightin of illimitable was enjoined,perspectives of Stoicism lifewere disclosed. Finally,at the Renaissanceevery another and the accumulated overthrown, barrierwas sihmultaneously overa fieldwhich,if expatiated' civilisation ofwestern ,energies in imaginiation. unbounded was absolutely it was vast in reality, of that age,its dreamswere Great as were the achievements in the worksof still; and whatmostexeitesour wonder greater whole. The of an unfinished its heroes is but the fragment of the was, like his conception ideal oflifeset up by Aristotle in everyparticular;and the relativeposiworld,contradicted, reversed. tionsassignedby himto act and powerwere precisely the Platonismof It has been shownhow Shakespearereflected oftheir outburst the fierce he reflected'also his contemporaries: what they would dare,to possess and in describing ambition, corrival or wearwithout powerand rnasterdom solelysovereigni almostthe verywords he borrowed of honour, all the dignities by some encouraged expressthe feelinigs nisedby Euripidestof a generation of his time. The same spiritis exhibited teachers before their later in the diamas of Calderon and Corneille, channelby the stressof into a different were forced' tlioughts the Catholic reaction;while its last and highestmanifestation to reignin archangelthat' of Milton'sruined' is the sentiment Hobbes liell is betterthan to serve in heaven. Thus, w-hen desirefor reducesall thepassions to modesof'the fundamental ofthatwhichstands theory he does butgive the scientific power, ofhis accentsby the noblestpoetry in morethrilliing proclaimied age. no Whereno dangercould deter fromthe pursuitof power, balancingof pain withpleasureavailed' to quenchthe ardourof delightshave violent thatviolenit desire. With fullknowledge was accepted. condition die,thefateful triumph ends and in their withhis parallelism Not onlydid GiordanoBruno,in conscious varietyand declare that withoutmutation, theoryof matter, would be agreeable,nothinggood, nothing vicissitudenothing that enjoymentconsists solely in transitionand delightful,

She Relationof Greek to Modern Philosophy Thought.235 movement, and that all pleasure lies midway between the painfullonging offresh appetiteand the sadnessof its satiation and extinction 1; but the sedaterwisdomof Bacon,in touching on the controversy between Callicles and Socrates,seems to inclinetowards the side of the former; and in all cases warns on men inot to maketoo muchof the inconvenieinces attendanit not magbut " so to proGure serenity as they destroy pleasure, nanimity".2 These,then, were the principalelements of the philosophical there was a certain survivalofAristotelianReniaissance. First, ism as a method of comprehensive and logical arrangement. Then therewas the new Platonism,bringing. along with it a revival of either Alexandrian or mediaeval pantheism,and therewas closelyassociatedwith geomnetrical studies; Thirdly, or the old GreekAtomism, as originally set forth by Democritus to theologry, as re-editedc by Epicurus, traditionally unfavourable confirmed potentalike fordecomposition anldreconstruction, by the new astronomy, and lendino its method to the reformation of matlhematics; next the later Greek ethical systems; and finally the formless idea of infinite powerwhichall Greeksystemiis had,asssuch,conspired to suppress, butwhich, nevertheless, bad playeda greatpartin theearlierstagesof Greekspeculation bothphysicaland moral. thelofty was reared; On thesefoundations of Spinozism edifice ouitof these materialsits compositestructure was built; and without a previous studyofthemit cannotbe understood. WhetherSpinoza ever read Plato is doubtful. One hardly sees whyhe shouldhave neglected a writer whoseworks were and at that time verypopular with thinkingu easily accessible, minds. But whether he was acquaintedwith the Dialogues at firsthand or not,Plato will help us to understand Spinoza,for it was through the doorof geometry thathe entered philosophy, and under the guidance of one who was saturatedwith the Platonic spirit; so far as Christianity influenced him, it was throug,h elementsderived froinPlato; and hlis metaphysIical methodwas one which, more than any other, would lhavebeen welcomed withdelight bytheauthor oftheJenoand theBepublic, to realisehis owndialectical as an attempt ideal. For Spinozism is, on the face of it, an application of geometrical reasoningto and especiallyto ethics. It is also an attemptto philosophy, prove transcendentally what geometricians only assume-the of space. Now, Plato looked on geomietrical necessity demonstration as the great typeof certainty, the scientific completion
1' 2

Jdvancerment ofLearning, Ellis & Spedding, III., 428.

Spaccio della Bestica Trionfante, sub in.

236 TheReltation of Greek Philosophy to ModernThought. of what Socrateshad begunby his interrogative method, the one means of carrying irrefragable conviction intoeverydepartment of knowledge, and more particularly intothe study ofourhighest good. On the otherhand he saw that geometricians assume what itselfrequiresto be demonstrated; and he confidently expectedthatthedeficiency wouldbe suppliedbyhis ownprojected methodof transcenidental dialectics. Such at least seemsto be the drift of the following passage: When I speak of the division ofthe initellectual, yolu will also understand me to speak of that knowledgewhich reason herselfattains by the power of dialectic, using the hypotheses not as first principles, but only as hypotheses-thatis to say as steps and pointsof departure into a-region whichis above hypotheses, in orderthat she may soarbeyond themto thefirst principle of thewhole; and clinging to this and thento that which depends on this,by successive stepsshe descendsagain without the aid of any sensible object, beginning and endingin ideas . The problem, then,which Spinoza set himselfwas, first, to accountfor thefundamental assumptions ofall science, and more of geometry, particularly by deducingthem froma single selfevidentprinciple;and thento use thatprinciple for the solution of whatever problems seemedto standmostin needofits application. And,as usuallyhappensin suchadventurous enterprises, the supposedanswerofpurereasonwas obtainedby combining or expanding conceptions borrowed withoutcriticism frompreexisting systems ofphilosophy. Descartes had alreadyaccomplished a great simplification of the speculative problem by summing up all existence under the two heads of extension and thought.It remained to accountfor these,and to reduce thenito a singleidea. As we have seen, theywerederivedfrom Greekphilosophy, and the bond which was to unitethemmustbe soughtforin the same direction. It will be remembered thatthe systems of Plato andAristotle were boundedat eitherextremity by a determinate and by an indeterminate principle. With the one, existencerangedbetween the Idea of Good at the upperend ofthe scale and emptyspace at the lower; with the other,between absolute Thoughtand FirstMatter. It was by combining the two definite terms, space and thouight, that Descartes had constructed his system; and aftersubtracting these the two indefinite termsremained. In one respectthey were even more opposed to each otherthan werethe terms withwhichtheyhad beenrespectively associated. The Idea of Good represented and constancy, as unity, identity, againstplurality, and change; whileAristotle's difference, Matter
CC

1 Republic VI.

511,in Jowett's Trans.III. 398.

to ModernThought.237 Philosophy The Relationof Greek and indeterwas by its verydefinition fluctuating, multiform, analogies minate. Nevertheless, therewere equally important traceablebetweenthem. No veryclear accountcould be given by negatives. If described of either, and bothwerecustomarily all of complete theGood transcended existence, Matterfellshort existence. If the one was a universalcapacityfor assuming the otherwas the sourcewhence all Forms proceeded. Forms, ofan individual werethought Whenthedistinctive characteristics away,the questionmightwell be mootedintowhich principle use ofthe word Powercontriit would return. The ambiguous for it was not less to their identification, buted still further thanto the productive faculty. Now, applicableto the receptive the idea of Power sudwe have just seen into whatimportance denlysprangat the Renaissance: with Bruno it was the only of nature; with Hobbes it was the onlyobject abiding reality of humandesire. philolargeplace in Aristotle's termoccuipying a very Another to sophywas well adaptedto mediatebetweenand eventually unite the two speculativeextremes. This was Substance; in the substratum in metaphysics logic the subjectof predication, of qualities,the ovicoiaor Being of the Ten Categories. Now, FirstMattermight fairly claim the positionof a universalsubsensiblequality withevery sinceitwas invested ject orsubstance, of all Forms,with in turn;and even,as the commonelement everythinkablequalityas well. Aristotlehimselfhad finally ofFormand Matteras forthe individualcompound pronounced the truesubstance. Yet he also speaksas if the essentialdefinition of a thingconstituted the thingitself; in whichcase Forrm alone could be the true subject; and a similarclaim mightbe on behalfofthe PlotinianOne. put forward whicha historicalsynthesis Such werethe a priori elements Absolute. had preparedto satisfy the want of a metaphysical Let us now see what resultwould follow wlhenthe newlyto a metaphysical idea ofspace was subjected analysis. recovered Extensionis bothone and infinite. No particulararea can be and explains thewholewhichbothcontains conceived apartfrom to whatever it. Again, extensionis absolutelyhomogeneous; we maytravelin imagination distance will stillbe thesame there of similar meant parts. But space,withtheCartesians, repetition ofparts; havingbeen madethe morethana simple juxtaposition it *as invested with mechanicalas well as essence of matter, withgeometrical properties. The bodies intowhichit resolved their itselfwere conceivedas moving,and as communicating to one anotherthrouglh an unbrokenchain of causamovement and tion in which each constituted a single link, determining determined herealso,each partwas explained bytherest; so that,

to ModernThougAt. Philosophy 238 The Relationof Greek its essence,while to an infinite whole,repro(lucingT by reference existence. We can the condition of circumscribed exemptfrom then,that when' the necessityof accountingfor understand, would be the naturalsolution once becamefelt, itself extension whole to somegreater relation to conceiveit as holdingthe samne held to their sum total; in other which its own subdivisions and an image words it shouldbe at once a part,an emnianation, as whichin turncould be onlyconceived reality, of theultimate ad infinitum. its inultiplicationi The directionin which a method for explaining Thought was givenboth in the proper itself, would mostreadilysuggest withextension. parallelisin and in itspresumed ofthinlking, form and to reason to thinkwas to reason, Speakina philosophically, conwas to subsumea lowerundera higheror more ulniversal or to connect cept,to resolveall subjectsintoa singlepredicate, all predicateswith a single subject; and owingto Aristotle's causes,this processwas conwith efficient offormal confusion withthatby which we rise to the knowledge sideredidenitical in the external world. antecedents of determininig thusmade of speculation up all the threads Spinoza gathered when he defined God as a substance conreadyforhis grasp, hiisinfinite each of whichexpresses attributes, sistingofinfinite addingthat the essencehere and eternalessence; subsequently are attributes ofis Power,and that two of the infinite spokeni knownto things the particular and Thought, whereof .Extension us are nodes. If, now,we ask whythere should be such an being inexistenceas space,the answer is because existence, include every conceivablething. The must niecessarily finite, like a principleof the Epicurean philois strikingly argument to by it. Accordinig sophy,and may well have been suggested the appearanceof design in our world need not be Lucretius, atomsmoving becauseinfinite to creative intelligence, attributed must at lengtharrive, infilnite manners time, in infinite through at the present frame seriesof experiments, a comprehensive after scale is invoked on a smaller of things'; and the same principle and of ofmemory, of organisedbeings, to accountforthe origin space is the root-concivil society.2 In both systemsinfinite used to explain ception; but what Lucretiushad legitimately applies to the elucidationof becoming, Spinoza illegitimately beinig. At one strokeall empiricalknowledgeis placed on an
peromne mutata, muLltis, - Quia multimodis, vexantur plagis, Ex infinito percita et cetus experiundo, Omnegenusmotus, in taleisdisposituras, Tandemldeveniunt suiuma creata.-I., 1023-7. haecrebusconsistit QualibuLs 2 V. 853,IV. 780-800, V. 1025.

The Relationof Greek toModernThotught. Philosophy 239 a priorifounldation. By assuming unlimited creditat the bank of the universe we entitleourselvesto draw a cheque for aniy particular amount. Thus the idea of infiniteattributes is no nmere collateral but formsan essenltial speculation, element of Spinozism. The knownvarietiesof existence are,so to speak, in theirplaces by the endless and fixed surrounded, supported, ofthe unknown. And this conceptioni of being as multitude is anotherproofof Spinoza's Platonic teiiabsolutely ilifinite, of an abstract forit involvesthe realisation dencies, idea,thatis which the philosopher to say, of Being,, treats as something than the facts of consciousness more comprehensive whence it is derived. The relation of Spinoza's Substanceto its attributes is ambiguous. It is at once their cause, their totality,and their term Power helped unity. The highlyelastic and indefinite these various aspects to play inlto and replace one another of the system. It is associated according to the requirements of multiplying withthe subjectivepossibility imaginary existences to any amount; with the-causal energyin which exisand withthe expansiveness tenceoriginates; characteristic alike of Extensionand of Thought. For the two known attributes of the universal substalice are not simply related to it as of a commonsubject; theyseverally co-predicates express its essential Power, and are, to that extent,identical with one another. But whenwe ask, How do theyexpressPower? the recurs. Substanceis revealedthrougLh same ambiguity its attriits effects;as an aggregate through butesas a cause through its its concrete constituents;and as an abstractnotion throug,h embodiments. Thus Extension and Thought are identical through-their silncethese illustratethe versaverydifferences, source.and at the same timejointlycontilityof theircommon ofits perfection. But, forall practical to the realisation tribute purposes, Spinoza deals onlywith the parallelismand resemblance ofthe attributes. We have to see how he establishes it, anldhow far he was helped in so doing by the traditionsof Greekphilosophy. It has been already shown how Extension,having become tookon its mechanical and was identified matter, qualities, witlh conceived as a connectedseries of causes or lodes of motion. The parallel foundby Spinoza forthis series is the chain of a demonstrative reasons and conseque-nts forming argument; and here he is obviously followingAristotle, who although between formaland efficient distinauishing ostensibly causes, confouiids themin the second book of his Posterior hopelessly a thingwhenwe bring Analytics. We are said to understand it undera generalrule, and whenwe discoverthe mechanical

toModernThought. Philosophy 240 The Belationof Greek it. For instance, we may know thata agencywhich produces man will die, eitherfromthe fact that all men are particular or fromthe fact that he has receiveda fatal wound. mortal, is not the cause ofwhatwill happen, The generalrule,however, but onlythe cause of our knowingthat it will happen; and with it a knowledge of the rule by no means carries knowledge and cause,as we see in the case of gravitation ofthe efficient whose modusoperandiis still a complete other natural forces was partlyhis falseanalysis mystery. What deceivedAristotle as the connexionof two whichhe interpreted ofthe syllogism to the causal of a middle answering by the interposition terms of the uninexus oftwo phenomena;and partlyhis conception whichmovement spheresthrough verseas a seriesof concentric the two ideas of thus combining fromwithout, is transmitted and inechanicalcausation. Be this as notionalcomprehension oflogical identification it may,Spinoza takes up the Aristotelian and gives it the widest possibledeconnexion, withdynamical velopment. For the Stagiritewould not, at any rate, have to the deany but a subjectiveexistence of attributing dreamed it beyondthe limitsof our norofextending series, monstrative actual knowledge. Spinoza, on the otherhand, assumes that by a chainof materialcauses is represented the wholeinfinite chain of eternalideas; and this chain he calls corresponding intellectof God. Here, besides the necessitiesof the infinite is plainly of mediaeval realislm the influence ;systematisation, of Plato's Ideas evident. For,whenthe absoluteself-existence a to Aristotle'scriticism, in deference had been surrendered homewas still foundforthemby Plotinusin the eternalNous, and by the ChristianSchoolmenin the mindof God; nordid so long as the divineperany difficulties such a beliefpresent of Spinoza, however, sonalitywas respected. The pantheism, and excludedthe notion of any but a finitesubwas absolute, of God is an unsupported intellect jectivity. Thus the infinite chain of ideas recallingthe theoryat one time imaginedby would what Aristotle Plato.' Or its existencemay be merely Spinoza may mean that have called potential; in otherwords, so long as we chooseto reasonswill go on evolvingthemselves with parallelism alwaysin strict studythe dialecticofexistence, the exconstituting the naturalseries of materialmovements all its through ternaluniverse; and just as this is determined or of all matter(whether parts by the totalityo-fextension, of so also at the sulmimit takentogether, movingor motionless) the logicalseriesstandstheidea of God,fromwhose definition follows. It of everylesser idea necessarily the demonstration
1 Seethe above. theRepublic from quoted passage

T[he Relationof Greek Philosophy to ModernThought.241 is truethatin a chain of connectedenergiesthe antecedent, as such, muist be always preciselyequal to the consequent;but apparently thisdifficulty did not presentitselfto Spinoza, nor ineed we be surprised; for a century later, was still Kant,comincg so imbuedwithAristotelian traditions as, similarly, to derivethe category of Cause and Effect from the relationbetweenReason and Consequent in hypothetical propositions.' Meanwhile the parallelismbetweenThoughtand Extension was not exhaustedby the identification just analysed. Extension was not onlya seriesof movements;it still remainedan expressionfor coexistenceand adjacency. Spinoza, therefore, felt himselfobligedto supplyThoughtwith a correspondingly continuousquality. It is here that his chief origirnality lies, here that -he has been mostcloselyfollowedby the philosophy of our own time. Mind,he declai'es, is an attribute everywhere accompanying matter, co-extensive and co-infinite with space. Our own animation is the sum or the resultant of an animation clinging to everyparticlethatenters intothe composition of our bodies. When ourthoughts are affected by an external impulse, to supposethatthis iinpulseproceeds fronianything mnaterial is a delusion; it is producedby the mind belongingto the body whichacts on our body; or rather the two actions are onlydifferent aspectsof a singleprocess. Spinoza has clearly explained the doctrine of animal automatisin, and shownit to be perfectly conceivable; but he has entirelyomittedto explain how the parallel influence of one thought on another is to be (or feeling) understood;foralthoughthistoo is spokenof as a causal relation,it seemsto be quite different from thelogicalconcatenation described as the infinite intellect of God; and to suppose that idea followsfromidea like movement frommovement would amountto a complete of inind; while our philomaterialisation sopher wouldcertainly Mr.Shadworth have repudiated Hodgson's theory that statesof consciousness are onlyconnected through theirextendedsubstratum as the segments of a mosaicpicture are held together surface of masonry. by the underlying The analogybetweenThought and Extensionunder the two aspectsof necessary in relation connexionand mere contingent coexistenceor successionwas, in truth, to its more interesting authoras a basis forhis etlhical than as a development of his metaphysical of relations speculation. The two orders represenlt, in their distinction, the opposition of scienceto opinionorimagination, the oppositionof dutifulconviction to blind or selfish
I The tendency into oflogicians is now,contrariwise, to force reasoning withmathenmatical the proposition parallelisnm as physicsby ilnterpreting an equation between and predicate. subject

16

to ModernThought. of Greek 242 The Relation, Philosophy impulse. Spinoza borrowsfromthe Stoics theiridentification of out the consequences withbelief; but in working of volitioni this principleit is of Plato ratherthan of the Stoics that he whatsense, imaginareminds us. The passionsare in his system tion and opinionwerein thatof the Athenianidealist; and his of the Republic ethics may almost be called the metaphysics turnedoutsidein. Joy,griefand desire are more or less imof reality-a realitynot belongingto the perfect porceptions external world but to the conscious subject itself. When of raised or expectation Spinoza tracesthemto a consciousness of Hobbes; but or loweredpower, we recognisethe influence we powerwithexistence, he identifies when,hereas elsewhere, to Greekformsof thought. The great conflict detecta return is foughtout once more; onlythis betweenillusionand reality deceivedand timeit is about our own essencethatwe are first of outward things thenenlightened. If the nature and origin our half concealedby sense and imagination, are halfrevealed, medium and distorting arein like manner emotions theobscuring through whichwe apprehendour inmost selves, and whatever the plenitudeof our existence; and adds to or takes away from are to the other. and religion what scienceis to theone,morality It is remarkable thatwhile Spinoza was givinga new appliMalebranche, Cartesian, cationto the Platonic method, another on the old lines of speculative it out morestrictly was working de la/VJrite of this unjustlyneglected research. The Becherche thinkeris a methodicalaccount of the various subjectiveobof thingsas theyreally stacleswhichimpedeour apprehension exist,and ofthe means by which it may be facilitated. Here on the subjectiveside of philois concentrated also, attention sophy; and if the mental processesselected for study are of atwe may probably ratherthan practicalinterest, theoretical thisto the circumstance that everyethicalquestionwas tribute he whoseorders by the Church alreadydecidedforMalebranche ofprofessed in thewritings had assumed. But it was notmerely that the new aspect of Platonismfoundexpresphilosopher? sion. All greatart embodies in one form or another the leading of its age; and the latter half of the seventeenth conceptions in the comediesof Moli6re. century foundsuch a manifestation theyowe If theseworksstandat the head of French literature, brilliant wit thanto his theirpositionnot moreto theirauthor's of life; or ratherwe should say thatwith profound philosophy are one. The comic power of Shakehim wit and philosophy appearancesof this the outward spearewas shownby resolving world intoa series of dissolvingillusions. Like Spinoza and what perMalebranche, Moli6returnsthe illusion in, showing vertedopinions men formof thenmselves through and others,

The Relationof Greek Philosophy toModernThought. 243 misconceptions and passionseither of spontaneous growth or sedulouslyfostered by designing hands. Society, withhim,seems almost entirely made up of pretenders and their dupes, both characters beingnot unfrequently combined in the same person, whois madea victim through hisdesireto pass forwhathe is not and cannotbe. And this is what essentially distinguishes the art of Moli6refrom the New Comedyof Athens, whichhe,. like other moderns, had at firstfelt inclined to imitateuntil the Ridicules showed him where his true successofthe Pre'cieuses opportunities lay. For the New Comedy was Aristotelian wlhere it was notsimplyhumanist; thatis to sav, it was an exhibition of types like thosesketched byAristotle's disciple, Theophrastus, and alreadyprefigured in the master'sown Ethics. These were and perishinginthe perennialformsin a world of infinite dividualexistences, not concealedbehindphenomena, but incorporatedin themand constituting their essentialtruth. The Old and Comedyis something different again; it is prae-philosophic, may be characterised as an attemptto describegreat political interestsand tendenciesthroughthe medium of myths and fables and familiardomesticities, just as the old theoriesof nature, the old lessons of practicalwisdom,and the firstgreat national chronicles had been throwninto the same homely form.' the definiition The purelyintellectual view of human nature, of mindin termsof cognition, is one more fallacyfrom which Aristotle's teaching, had it not fallenintoneglect or contempt, his parallelism bemight have guardedSpinoza. Nevertheless, saves himfrom theworst tweenpassionand sensuousperception of his Greek predecessors. For the senses,howextravagances never were nor could be ever much theymightbe maligned, altogether rejected; while the passions met with little mercy them the Stoics,who considered from Plato and withnonefrom but even unnatural. Spinoza more not onlyunnecessary wisely of the howeverobscure and confused, sees in themassertions, individual existence. will to be and grow which constitutes out And he sees thattheycan no morebe removedby pointing can be abolished thansense-impressions theirevil consequences by proving their fallaciousness. On the other hand, when Spinoza speaks as if one emotioncould onlybe conqueredor we must not allow his peculiar expelled by anotheremotion, us the purelyintellectual character to concealfrom phraseology of his whole ethical system. What he really holds is that beemotioncan be overcomeby reason or betterknowledge,
1 Greek ofthe old patriarchal is just thereverse-an expansion tragedy and feeling ofa relations intoa mouldfitted to receive thehighest thought civilised age.

toModerin Thought. 244 The Relationof Greek Philosophy cause it is itself an imperfect cognition. Point by point,an analogy-or something miore thanan analogy--is made out betweenthe errors joined to imagination, of sensuousperception and the errors of our spont,aneous efforts after happinessor selfrealisation. Both are iinposedon us from without, and neither can be gotrid ofby a simpleact of volition. Both are affected like the by illusionsofperspective:the nearerobjectof desire, a disproportionate place in nearerobjectof perception, assuming the fieldof view. In both,accidentalcontiguity is habitually of confounded with causation; while in both the assignment an infinite causes to effects, insteadofbeingtracedback through withthe antecedent nearestto seriesof antecedents, stopsshort to theirsuperficial ourselves. If objectsare classified according or the usages of common so also are the resemblances language, -desires sustainedand intensified by imitationand rivalry. By moraleducation must be conductedon the parityof reasoniing, it is shownhow our education. First, same lines as intellectual individualexistence, dependingas it does on forcesinfinitely our own,is to be maintained. Thisis chiefly done by exceeding relationswith other men; probably,alcultivatingfriendly on the thoug,h Spinoza does not hiinselfmake the comparison, in the mutual assistanceand as that 'observed same principle by rectification of the senses,together with their preservation means ofverbalsigns. The misleading passionsare to be overiome theirorigin; byreferring the pleasuresand by discovering pains which produce them to the rightcauses; -bycalling in to redress the balance of imagination;by dividing the thought by deattentionamong an infinite numberof causes; finally, monstrating the absolute necessity of whateveractions excite in the them, and classifying, them accordingto theirrelations, same way thatthe phenomenaof the material world are dealt withwhensubjectedto scientific analysis.So farSpinoza,following the example of Stoicism, has only studied the means by which reason conquers passion. He now proceed5to show, in the spiritof Plato or of Platonic how far superiorto the pleasures of sense and Christianity, opinionare thoseafforded by truereligion-by the love of God and the possession of eternallife. But, here also, as in the Greeksystem, logic does duty for emotion. The love of God a place in the meansno morethan viewingourselvesas filling framework of existence, to be what infinite and as determined we are by the totality offorces composing it. And eternallife the adjustment is merely ofourthoughts to the logical order by which all modes of existenceare deduciblefromthe idea of infinite power. Thus,while Spinoza draws to a head all the tendenciesin-

tEhe to ModernThought. 245 Relationof Greek Philosophy herited from Greek philosophy, borrowingfrom the early physicists theirnecessarianism; from the Atomists, theirexclusion of final causes,their denial of the supernatural, and their infinite worlds; from the Athenianschool, their distinction between mind and body,and between reason and sense; from Aristotle, his parallelism between causationand syllogism;from the Epicureans, their vindication ofpleasure;and from theStoics, theiridentification ofbeliefwithaction, their conquestofpassion and their devotionto humanity;-it is to the dominant Platonism of the seventeenth centurythat his systemowes its foundation, its development, and its crown; for he begins by realising the abstract conception ofbeing,and infers its absolute infinity fromthe nlisleadinganalogyof space which is not an at all; deduceshis conclusions 'abstraction according to the geometricalmethodrecommended by Plato; and ends like Plato, by translating dialecticformulas into the emotional languageof religious faith. From this grand synthesis, however, a single element was it omitted; and, like the uninvitedguest of fairy tradition, proved strongenough singlyto destroy what had been constructedby the united efforts of all the rest. This was the the criticalanalysis of ideas,firstexercised scepticalprinciple, to by Protagoras, made a new starting-point by Socrates, carried perfection by Plato, supplementing experiencewith Aristotle, and finally in its purity proclaimed as the sole function ofphilosophyby an entire schoolof Greekthougllt. the sterility Notwithstanding commonly associatedwithmere it was this which, negation, of all the later Greek schools, possessed the greatest powersofgrowth. Besides passing through morethan one stage ofdevelopment on its own account, Scepticismimposedseriousmodifications on Stoicism, gave birthto and contribuited to the establishment of Neo-PlaEclecticism, tonism. The explanation is not'farto seek. The more highly a system to change, organised is,the moreresistance does it offer scholastic the moredoes itstransmission tendto assumea rigidly form. To 'such dogmatismthe Sceptics were. on principle, ofphilosophy opposed; and by keepingthe problems open,they while facilitated the task of all who had a newsolutionto offer; the unimindand its activities to some extent, safe from being, threwback versal doubt,the scepticalprinciplespontaneously thoughton a subjectiveinstead of an objectivesynthesisof idealismthe on that psychological knowledge-in otherwords, and comprehensiveness pregnancy of which are every day becomingmore clearlyrecognised. And we shall now see how in the same fertilising has been manifested power of criticism modern titnes as well.

246 The Relationof GreecPhilosophy to ModernThought. The sceptical philosophy, already advocatedin the Middle Ages by Johnof Salisbury, was,like every form of ancient other thought, revived at the Renaissance, but onlyunder the very superficial form whichinfersfromthe coexistenceof manydivergentopinions that none of them can be true. Even so, however, it led Montaigne to soundernotionsof toleration and humanity thanwere entertained by any of his contemporaries. WithBacon,and stillmorewithDescartes, it also appearsas the necessary preparation for a remodelling of all belief; but.the greatdogmaticsystemsstill exercisedsuch a potentinfluence on boththose thinkersthat theirprofessed demand fora new of the old unmethod merely leads up to an alteredstatement provedassumptioins. Meanwhile the old principleof universal doubt could no longerbe maintained in presenceof the certainties alreadywon by modern science. Man, in the timeof Newton, had, as Pope tersely puts it," too muchknowledge forthe scepticside". The problem was nothowto establish thereality, buthowto ascertain the origin and possibleextentof that knowledge. The firstto perceivethis,the first to evolvecriticism out of scepticism, and was Locke. therefore the real founderof modernphilosQphy, Nevertheless, even with him, the advantage of studyingthe morerecent in close connexion withthe earlierdevelopments of does not cease; it onlyenterson a new phase. If he thought to one or cannot,like his predecessors, be directlyaffiliated moreof the Greekschools, his positioncan be illustrated by a parallel derived from the historyof those schools. What Arcesilaus and Carneades had been to Socratesand his sucthat Locke was in a large measure to Bacon and the cessors, Cartesians. He wentback to the initialdoubtwhichwiththem had been overborne and insistedon by the dogmaticreaction, makingit a reality. The spiritof the Apologiais absentfrom Plato's laterdialogues, witheven morethanits onlyto reappear original powerin the teachingof the New Academy. And,in like manner, withitsdemandfor Descartes'introspective method, clear ideas;becomes, in theEssay concerning Hwbman Understanding,an irresistible and physicsof its solventforthe psychology first propounder. The doctrine of innateideas,thedoctrine that thedoctrine extension is theessenceofmatter, thatthought is the essenceof mind,the moregeneraldoctrine, held also by Bacon, all their thatthings have a diseoverable essencewhence properties may be deducedby a processanalogousto mathematical reasoning,-all collapsed when broughtto the test of definite and concreteexperience. We have here,indeed,something comparablenot onlyto the scepticismof the New Academy, but also to the Aristotelian ofPlato's metaphysics; and at criticism

to ModernThought. 247 Philosophy -The Relationof Greek was sightit mightseem as if the Peripateticphilosophy first destinedonce moreto regainthe positiontaken fromit by the of its ancientfoe. But Locke was not inclinedto resuscitation for another. By applying of scholasticisin one form substitute the analytical method of Atomism to knowledge itself,he createda weaponequally fatal to the two competingsystems. Under his dissectionthe concreteindividual substance of the than the universalideas of the one vanishedno less completely remainedbut a bundle of qualities held toother. Nothingr by a subjectivebond. gether Similarly, in politicalsciencethe analyticalmethodof assumof individual a concurrence to resultfrom ino civil government ecclesiwhich with Hobbes had served onlyto destroyWills, while leaving intact and even strengthening astical authority, by Locke as a was reinterpreted of secularrulers, the authority whatever. negationof all absolutism to observehow,herealso,the positivescience It is interesting its philosophic of the age had a large share in determining of the earth'strue shape, character. Founded on the discovery by the discovery had been overthrown metaphysics Aristotle's to of the earth'smotion. And now the claims of Cartesianism of and a definition ofmatter an exact knowledge have furnished could be deduceda priori, it whenceall the factsof observation of universal gravitaby the discovery refutedl were summarily tion. The Cartesians complainedthat Newton was bringingr of back the occultqualitiesofthe Schoolmen;but the tendency provedas certainas it was bodiesto movetowardsone another mysterious. For a time,the study of causes was iniexplicably supersededby the study of laws; and the new method of physical science moved in perfect harmonywith the pheconsequenceof this of Locke. One mostimportant nomenism on a footing was to place the new Criticalphilosophy revolution thatoccupiedby the ancientsceptics. Both from quite different to our own statesof consciousness; certain knowledge restricted impeaching be done without but it now appearedthatthismight which was more conclusions, the value of accepted scientific would have admitted. In other than the Academicphilosophy it was words,grantingthat we were limited to phenomena, the relations of shown that science consistedin ascertaining these phenomenato one anotherinstead of to a problematic existedand thatsuchrelations realitylyingbehindthem; while, was what no part of the phenomenathemselves, were,in fact, scepticcould easily deny. of idealismhad theeffect in each case subjective Nevertheless concentrating speculation,properlyso called, on ethical and practical interests. Locke struck the keynote of eighteenth

Philosophy to ModernThoutght. 248 The Relationof GPeek to be "the when he pronouncedmnorality century philosophy properscienceand businessof mankindin general"''" And no than the significance of soonerhad morality cometo the front through ancientthought again made itselfapparent. Whether about conscious imitation, or because the same causes brought the same effects, ethical inquiriesmoved alongthe lines orioinally laid down in the schools of Athens. When rules of conduct were not directlyreferredto a divine revelation, or on the theywerebased eitheron a supposedlaw of nature, of the or on some combination necessities of humanhappiness, centuiry of the eighteenth -two. Nothing is morecharacteristic thanits worshipof nature. Even the theologyof the age is of thosewho redeeplycoloured by it; and with the majority jected theology it became a new religion. But this sentiment and foundits most elaborate, is demonstrably of Greekorigin, thoughnotits mostabsoluteexpression in Stoicism. The Stoics had inherited who held the faithin greater it from the Cynics, a certain purity; and these,again,so faras we can judge,from of whose teachinghave been Sophistic school,some fragments who gave preservedby Xenophon and Plato; while the first was, in all probability, wide currency to thisfamousabstraction assois due that intimBate Heracleitus. To the Stoics,however, ciationof naturalism whichmeetsus again in the withteleology the docand even now wherever philosophy ofthe last century, trine of evolutionhas not been thoroughly accepted. It was assumed, in the teeth of all evidence,that nature bears the beneficent design, thatevil is exclusively marksof a uniformly of humanorigin, good and thateven humannatureis essentially restrictions. whenunspoiledby artificial fromthe Yet if teleology a falling-off was, in some respects, schoolsand taughtby the prae-Socratic rigidmechanicism first thenagain by the Cartesianschool,in at least one respectit markeda comparative progress. For the firstattemptsmade bothby ancientand modernphilosophy to explain vital phepremanomenaon purelymechanical principles werealtogether which ofbiological knowledge immense extension ture; and tfhe tookplace subsequently to both,could not but bring about an in the opposite direction. The firstto irresistible movement from a transition revive teleology was Leibniz,who furnished the seventeenth century by his monadology. to the eighteenth In this,Atomism ideas just as it withAristotelian is combined had previously withPlatonicideas by Descartes. been combined The movementof the atoms is explained by their aspiration after a more perfect state instead of by mechanicalpressure.
1 Essay, Bk. iv. ch. 12.

to MIodern Thought. 249 of Greek Philosophy The JRelation But while Leibniz still relies on the ontologicalargumentof Descartesto provethe existenceof God, this was soon abanfor the argument argument, doned,alongwiththe cosmological from design, whichwas also that used by the Stoics; whilein of thingswas substituted for the more meethicsthe fitness as the rule of conduct; and chanical law of self-preservation, the subjectionof all impulse to reason was replaced by the over ofa controlexercisedby the benievolent milderprinciple the malevolentinstincts. This was a verydistinctdeparture faithful yetthosewho madeit weremnore from the Stoicmethod, to teleology thau Stoicismhad been; for to condemnhuman the workof nature was immplicitly to condemn feeling altogether or of God. its century, of the eighteenth The othergreatethicalmethod was closelyconnectedwith the sceptical movement hedonism, new in speculative an entirely and like thatreceived philosophy, associated withthe idea of law. Those significance by becoming led to seek in the universe are necessarily who isolateman from and their of his actions, his interests as such the sole regulator went sole sanctionin the opinion of his fellows. Protagoras to recognise his unwillingness alreadyso far,notwithstanding ofhis truesucend; and in the system pleasureas the supreme cessor, Aristippus,the nmostextremehedonismwent hand in hand with the most extrenme idealism; while with Epicurus, of naturalism imposby the influence again,bothare tempered ofobjectivelaw alike in scienceand ing on himits conceptions in practice. Still his systemleaned heavilyto the side of selfgratification pure and simple; and it was reservedfor modern thought to establisha completeequilibriumbetween the two of Greek ethics. This has been effected tendencies competing in Utilitarianism; mistakenl and those criticsare entirely who, ofEpicureanismii. it as a merereproduction like M. Guyau,regard versionof It might withfullas muchreasonbe called a modern is essentiallyStoic; to work Stoicism. The idea of humanity forthe good of humanity was a Stoic precept; and to sacrifice one's own pleasureforthathigher good is a virtuewhich would have satistiedthe most rigorousdemandsof a Cleanthes,an or an Aurelius. Epictetus, the ancient hedonismin holding Utilitarianism agreeswitlh pleasureto be the sole good and pain the sole evil. Its adherents the7most part,admitthatthe desire of the one also, for and the dreadof the otherare the sole motivesto action; but, universaland impersonal, they while makingthe end absolutely make the motive into a momentary impulsewithout any neto the futurehappiness of the agent himself. cessaryrelation The good mandoeshis dutybecausedoingit giveshimpleasure,

to ModernThought. Philosophy 250 The Relationof Greek or because the failureto do it would give him pain, at the coursewould save he knows that a contrary moment; although him fromgreaterpain or win him greaterpleasure hereafter. a selfish or inwould call this acting from No accuratethinker of Epicurus. motive; nordoes it agreewiththe teaching terested then, beingsto be unitedin a singleorganism, Were all sensitive in the sense of interpreted self-interest, principles, on utilitarian would be the only and pleasure, its own preservation seeking, law that the individualisedaggregatecould rationallyobey. to subordinated But the good of each partwould be rigorously desiresthatwe morality the good of the whole; and utilitarian at least in referwere realised, shouldact as ifthis hypothesis interests. Now,theidea of humanity ence to ourown particular whole is not Epicurean. It besuch a consolidated as formiing whichalways reprobated pleasure prelongsto the philosophy of was associatedwith the dereliction ciselybecauseits pursuit rivalry forthe possessionof what, public dutyand with bitter whilethe existed onlyin limitedquantities, by its verynature, orat anyratefarexceededthesupply. for itwas unlimited demand to the Stoics,there was onlyone way in which the According withoutabandoning individualcould studyhis privateinterest and thiswas to findit exclusively his positionas a social beingr, rein the practice of virtue. But virtue and public interest by appeals to the mained mere formsscantilysupplemented of until the idea of generalised happiness, traditional morality, came to fill throughthe whole community, pleasure diffused themwithsubstanceand life. It has also to be observedthat as a testof moral goodnessis quite distinct the idea ofutility in the mostunequivocalterms hedonism. Plato proclaims from insteadof by theirconsequences thatactionsmustbe estimated or antipathywlhichtheyexcite; by the feelingsof sympathy to making pleasure the yet no one could object more strongly seem to converge doctrines end of action. Thus,threedistinct of which all are traceable to Greek in imodern Englishethics, in particular, and not butt onlyone to Epicureanism philosophy, whenceit sprang. to thatbut to the oldersystems ultimately bya new findourselves confronted And herewe unexpectedly betweenancientand modernthought. Each acts as a relation what miglht otheron the other, dissolving precipitant powerful and combining wise have passed for inseparableassociations, might have led us to whicha less complete elements experience with one another. The inincompatible regardas necessarily nordoesit standalone. stancejust analysedis highly significant; was impossible oftentalk as if morality Modern spiritualists apart fromtheir peculiar metaphysics. But the Stoics, conof antiquity, wereuncompromising the purestmoralists fessedly

The Ielacdion of-reek Philosophy to ModernThought.2O1 materialists; whilethe-spiritualist Aristotletaughtwhatis not easily distinguishable from a veryrefined sortof egoism. Again, the doctrine offree-will is now commonly connected witha beliefin the separability of consciousness frommatter, and like that is declared to be an indispensable condition of morality. Among the Greeks,however, it was held by the nmaterialist Epicureansmoredistinctly than by any otherschool; whilethe Stoics did not findnecessarianism inconsistent with self-sacrificingvirtue. The partial derivationof knowledgefrom an in our own minds is anothersupposed concomitant activity of spiritualism;although Aristotletraces every idea to aii externalsource, whileat the same time holding some cognitions to be necessarily true-a tlheory repudiated by modern experientialists. To Plato the spirituality of the soul seemedto involve its pre-existence not no less thanits immortality, a consequence acceptedby his mnodern imitators. Teleology is now commonly opposed to pantheism; the two were closely combined in Stoicism; while Aristotle, althoughhe believed in a personal God, attributed the marksof design in natureto purelyunconscious agencies. The naturalism and utilitarianism of the eighteenth century are the last conceptions directly inherited fromancient philosophy by modernthought. Henceforward, whateverlight the can throw studyofthe former on the vicissitudesof the latter, is due either to theirpartialparallelisnm or to an influence beand more difficult comingeveryday fainter to trace amid the multitude of factors of analyticalcritiinvolved. The progress cismwas continually deflected or arrested by the still powerful resistanceof scholasticism, just as the sceptical tendenciesof the New Academy had been before, thoughhappilywith less pernmanent this had happened success; and as, in antiquity, withinno less thanwithout thecritical school, so also did Locke ofDescartes;Berkeley clingto thetheology lapse intoPlatonism; Hume play fastand loose with his own principles, while Reid was rallyingthe Aristotelian psychology to a desperatestand against the new movement; and Kant leaves it doubtfulto whichside he belonged,so evenlywere the two opposingtendenciesbalancedin his mind,so dexterously did he adapt the new criticism to the framework of scholasticlogic and metaphysics. Meanwhilethe strength ofthe analytical method was doubled to the phenomenaof growth by its extension and change; for, as appliedto these, it becamethe famous theory ofDevelopment or Evolution. No idea belongsso completely to modern philosophy; foreventhe ancientthinkers who threw theircosmology into a historical had neverattempted form to explainthe present

to Modern Philosophy 252 TheRelationof Creek Thouzght. thepastby thepresent, theyexplained by thepast. If anythinig, of the analogyto existbetweenthe formation -a rough assuming universeas a wholeand the aenesisof thosenaturalor artificial or being builtup before growing bodies whichwerecontinually was, in fact,nothingbut the old theireyes. Their cosmology strippedof its personalor consciouselement; and, mythology evidence;byanyexternal unsupported likeit,was a hypothesis thatthiseliminawiththe admission not inconsistent a criticism was, even in elementfromspeculation tion of the supernatural an the absence of any solid addition to human knowledge, is method value. The evolutionary of inestimable achievemenit but it is a great deal of the supernatural, also an elimination to their of compoundstructures the history inore. By tracing to whichtheir the successiveincrements and noting first origin, as no statical analysis ever gradual growthis due,it reveals, of the and the nmeaning could,the actual orderof synthesis, are by whosejoint actiontheirmovements separateconstituents suppliesus with theirdissolution while,conversely, determined; of in which the influence ofready-made experiments a number each particularfactorin the sum total may be detectedby watchingthe changes that came on its removal. In a word, extendedfrom method, is the atomistic of evolution the method inmatter to motion, and viewed underthe formof succession of coexistence. stead ofunderthe form like the theoryof Development, As a universalphilosophy, to manifest modern idea, has onlybeen permitted everyother formsof the old scholaswith different itselfin combination ticism. The whole speculativemovementof our centuryis stilldimadeup of such hybrid systems;and threein particular ofmanythinking menwho have notbeen able vide the suffrages ideas. These of reactionary to shake offthe influence entirely and ofMr. HerbertSpencer. ofHegel,of Comte, are the systems from Greekthought inherited In each the logic and metaphysics withthe new science. And each,for compouDded are variously one to fromi thatveryreason,servesto facilitatethe transition the other; a part analogous to that played among the Greeks or, of Plato and Aristotle, themselves by the vast constructions by the Stoic and Alexandrian in an age of less productivity, eclecties. The influenceof Aristotlehas, indeed,continuedto make the teaching of his-nodernimitators, itselffeltnot onlythrough or through in literature, as a living tradition but moredirectly at firsthand. Even in the the renewedstudyof his writings recent period, pure sciences it surviveduntil a comparatively exard, so faras the Frenchintellectgoes, is not yet entirely tinct. FromAbelardon, Paris was the headquartersof that

The Belationof Greek Philosophy toModernThought. 253 sobererscholasticism which took its cue fromthe Peripatetic logic; and the resulting direction of thought, deeply impressed as it becameon the Frenchcharacter and the Frenchlanguage, was interrupted ratherthan permanently altered by the Carand with the fall of Cartesiailism tesianrevolution, gradually its old predominance. The Aristotelian recovered is philosoplly remarkableabove all othersfor clear definitions, fulldescriptions, comprehensive classifications, lucid reasoning,encycloand disinterested paedicscience, love of knowledge;alongwitl a certain forethicalspeculation,' incapacity strongconservative and a generaltendency leanings, towards the rigid demarcation rather thanthe fruitful commingling ofideas. And it will probably be admittedthat these are also traits characteristic of Frenchthinking, as opposed to Englishor Germailthinking. For instance, as is the Micanique Ce'leste widelydifferent from the astronomy of Aristotle's treatiseOn theHeavens, both agree in beingattempts to provethe eternalstability of the celestial system.2 The destructive delugesby which Aristotlesupposes civilisation Do be periodically interrupted, reappearon a larger scale in the theory of catastrophes still held by French geoloAristotelian gists. Another the fixity dogma, of organic species, assailed by eminentFrench naturalists, thoughvigorously has, on the whole,triumphed over the opposite doctrineof transin France,and now impedes the acceptance of Mr. formism Darwin'steaching even in circleswhere theologicalprepossesin botanyand sions are extinct. The accepted classifications zoologyare the workofFrenchmen in the footsteps of following whosegeniusformethodical Aristotle, arrangement was signally in at least one ofthese departments, exemplified the divisionof animalsintovertebrate aild invertebrate beingoriginally due to him. Bichat'sdistinction between the animaland thevegetable functions recalls Aristotle'sdistinction between the sensitive and nutritive souls; while his methodof studyingthe tissues in the treatiseon the Parts of before the organsis prefigured Anim.als. For a long timethe rulingof Aristotle's Poeticswas in French criticism;and if anythingcould disenundisputed titleMontesquieu's Esprit des Lois to the proud motto, Prolen sine matrecreata m, it would be its close relationship to the Politicsofthe same universal master. Finally,if it be granted thatthe enthusiasm ofits utilitarian forknowledgeirrespective applications existsto a greater degree classes amongtheeducated
1 WhatAristotle has written on the subjectis not ethicsbutnatural history. 2 "C Ne remarque-t-on comment chaquerecherche analytique de Laplace a faitressortir dansnotre globeet dalis l'univers des conditions d'ordre et de duree ? "-Arago, cEuvres III. 496.

to ModernThought. Philosophy 254 lhe Relationof Greek we may plausibly of France thanin any othermodernsociety, to thefostering influence thishonourable characteristic attribute of one who has proclaimedmore eloquentlythan any other philosopherthat theoreticalactivity is the highest good of and the sole beatitudeof God. humanlife,the idea of all nature, which ancient It remains to add a fewwordson the position occupytowardstheology. respectively and modernphilosophy rather thanof resemblance. Here theirrelation is one of contrast distancefromreligious startat an immense The Greekthinkers and theirfirstallusions to it are markedby a scornful belief, denial of its validity. Gradually,with the transitionfrom betweenthe two an approximation physicalto ethical inquiries, occasionalreturns to their is brought about,though not without ofa common former attitudeof hostility. Finally,in presence and almost identified withone interwoven dangertheybecomie another; while the new religion against which they make the samespectacleof metaphysical cause itself common presents withthe spontaneous intocombination and moralideas entering And be it observed that products of popular nmythology. were the wholeof this process action and reaction throughout of philosophy equal and contrary. The declineand corruption of religion. was the pricepaid forthe elevationand purification While the one was constantly sinkingthe otherwas constantly on tlle plane of dogmatictheology. untiltheyconverged rising, of the case an opposite course has By the verycircumstances of miodern on the development been imposed philosophy. Startit slowly disengages union with religion, ing from an intimate here also the compromising alliance; and, although itselffrom rethe normalcourseofideas has been interrupted by frequent has been no ofEuropeanthought the generalmovement actions, from thepopular towards a complete less decidedly emancipation had been towards of Greek thought beliefsthanthe movement and support. theirconciliation BENN ALREDW.