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The Measurement and Antecedents of Turnover Intentions
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The Measurement and Antecedents of Turnover Intentions
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2000s-33
The Measurement and Antecedents of Turnover Intentions among IT Professionals
Guy Par, Michel Tremblay
Srie Scientifique Scientific Series
Montral Septembre 2000
CI A!" Le CIRANO est un organisme sans but lucratif constitu en vertu de la Loi des compagnies du ubec! Le financement de son infrastructure et de ses activits de rec"erc"e provient des cotisations de ses organisations# membres$ d%une subvention d%infrastructure du minist&re de la Rec"erc"e$ de la Science et de la 'ec"nologie$ de m(me )ue des subventions et mandats obtenus par ses )uipes de rec"erc"e! CIRANO is a private non-pro it or!ani"ation incorporate# un#er the $ubec Companies Act% Its in rastructure an# research activities are un#e# throu!h ees pai# by member or!ani"ations, an in rastructure !rant rom the Minist&re #e la Recherche, #e la 'cience et #e la Technolo!ie, an# !rants an# research man#ates obtaine# by its research teams% #es organisations-$artenaires % The Partner "rgani&ations *+cole des ,autes +tudes Commerciales *+cole -ol.tec"ni)ue */niversit Concordia */niversit de Montral */niversit du ubec 0 Montral */niversit Laval */niversit Mc1ill *M2 *MRS' *Alcan Aluminium Lte *A3A Canada *4an)ue Nationale du Canada *4an)ue Ro.ale du Canada *4ell ubec *4ombardier *4ourse de Montral *5veloppement des ressources "umaines Canada 65R,C7 *8dration des caisses populaires 5es9ardins de Montral et de l%Ouest#du# ubec *,.dro# ubec *Imasco *Industrie Canada *-ratt : ;"itne. Canada Inc! *Ra.mond C"abot 1rant '"ornton *<ille de Montral = 2000 1u. -ar et Mic"el 'rembla.! 'ous droits rservs! All rig"ts reserved! Reproduction partielle permise avec citation du document source$ incluant la notice =! S"ort sections ma. be )uoted >it"out e?plicit permission$ provided t"at full credit$ including = notice$ is given to t"e source! Ce document est publi dans l%intention de rendre accessibles les rsultats prliminaires de la rec"erc"e effectue au CIRANO$ afin de susciter des c"anges et des suggestions! Les ides et les opinions mises sont sous l%uni)ue responsabilit des auteurs$ et ne reprsentent pas ncessairement les positions du CIRANO ou de ses partenaires! This paper presents preliminary research carrie# out at CIRANO an# aims at encoura!in! #iscussion an# comment% The observations an# vie(points e)presse# are the sole responsibility o the authors% They #o not necessarily represent positions o CIRANO or its partners% ISS! ''()-)'**
The Measurement and Antecedents of Turnover Intentions among IT Professionals+
Guy Par* , Michel Tremblay sum % A,stract 5ans cette tude$ nous prsentons et testons un mod&le de rec"erc"e portant sur la rtention des spcialistes en 'I! Ce mod&le e?amine les relations entre diverses prati)ues de 1R,$ les comportements discrtionnaires$ l%engagement organisationnel et les intentions de )uitter des spcialistes en 'I! /n )uestionnaire f@t dvelopp et envo. au? membres de la 8dration de l%Informati)ue du ubec 68I 7! Les donnes de ABC )uestionnaires ont servi au? fins d%anal.ses statisti)ues! Nous prsentons et discutons les rsultats obtenus et faisons une srie de recommandations au? "auts dirigeants en 'I et en R,! The purpose o this stu#y is to present an# test an inte!rate# mo#el o turnover intentions that a##resses the uni+ue nature o the IT pro ession% ,e i#enti ie# a multi#imensional set o -R practices li.ely to increase retention amon! IT employees an# consi#ere# citi"enship behaviors as (ell as t(o #istinct types o or!ani"ational commitment as .ey antece#ents o turnover intentions% A +uestionnaire (as #evelope# an# sent to the $uebec members o the Cana#ian In ormation Processin! 'ociety% /ata rom 012 respon#ents (ere use# to vali#ate the measures an# test our research mo#el% ,e present an# #iscuss the results an# ma.e a series o recommen#ations or IT an# -R e)ecutives% Mots Cls .e/0ords1estion du personnel en 'I$ roulement du personnel en 'I$ attitudes IS staffing issues$ IS turnover$ attitudes
Corresponding Aut"orE 1u. -ar$ CIRANO$ 2020 /niversit. Street$ 2Ft" floor$ Montral$ c$ Canada ,AA 2AF 'el!E 6FGC7 BHF#C000 8a?E 6FGC7 BHF#C0AB emailE paregIcirano!umontreal!ca
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,2C and CIRANO ,2C and CIRANO
'1 I!T "23CTI"! '"e past fe> .ears "ave been t"e most t"reatening period for enterprises t"at use$ manage or deal in information tec"nolog. 6I'7 or I' services! '"e source of t"e tumult "as been people L i!e! t"e demand$ suppl.$ selection$ recruitment and especiall. retention of I' professionals >orld>ide 62rmel and 4o"l GBBMN Morello GBBHN 1uptill et al% GBBB7! Since late GBBO$ t"e labor marPet for I' professionals "as reac"ed a fever pitc"E I' professional compensation "as soared$ turnover "as rocPeted to GFQ to 20Q annuall.$ 9ob#"opping "as become t"e norm and onl. eig"t out of ten I' positions get filled >it" )ualified candidates 6McNee et al% GBBH7! '"ese trends place bot" I' e?ecutives and ,uman Resources 6,R7 managers under intense pressure! '"e risPs are effectivel. "ig"$ not onl. for t"e I' department$ but for t"e business as a >"ole! At staPe is not"ing less t"an gro>t"$ competitive positioning and t"e strengt" of t"e global econom.! '"e problems in t"e I' labor marPet >ill not go a>a. for man. .ears! '"roug" 200C$ marPet demand for relevant I' sPills and Pno>#"o> >ill continue to outstrip suppl. 6Morello and Claps 20007! 5uring t"at difficult period$ senior ,R e?ecutives and I' e?ecutives must >orP toget"er to correct or refine corporate policies t"at in"ibit retention and recruitment! Recent literature reveals t"at a "eav. investment in t"e "uman capital and t"e implementation of ,R practices ma. contribute to organiRational success 6-feffer and <eiga GBBB7$ specificall. b. reducing t"e turnover of t"e I' staff 6Agar>al and 8erratt GBBBN RoepPe et al% 20007! As t"e demand for I' professionals increases$ so does t"e pressure on I' and ,R managers to design innovative strategies for retaining talent 6Sing and Callo>a. GBBF7! '"e purpose of t"e present stud. is to present and test an integrated model of turnover intentions t"at addresses t"e uni)ue nature of t"e I' profession! ;e identified a multidimensional set of ,R practices liPel. to increase retention among I' emplo.ees and considered citiRens"ip be"aviors as >ell as t>o distinct t.pes of organiRational commitment as Pe. antecedents of turnover intentions! -recisel.$ t"is stud. addresses four researc" )uestionsE G7 ;"at are t"e essential ,R practices necessar. to create an effective plan for retaining I' professionalsT 27 ;"at is t"e impact of compensation and negotiation conditions on t"e turnover intentions of I' personnelT A7 ;"at is t"e effect of emplo.ee demograp"ic c"aracteristics on t"e turnover intentions of I' personnelT and C7 5o organiRational commitment and citiRens"ip be"aviors mediate t"e effects of ,R practices$ compensation and negotiation conditions as >ell as demograp"ic c"aracteristics on t"e turnover intentions of I' personnelT 21 4S4A C5 M"24# Conceptual and empirical models of turnover intentions provide strong support for t"e proposition t"at be"avioral intentions constitute t"e most immediate determinant of actual be"avior 68is"bein and A9Ren GBMFN 'riandis GBH07$ in t"e present case turnover 6e!g!$ Lee and Mo>da. GBHMN O%Reille. and Cald>ell GBHG7! -revious I' empirical studies on turnover "ave used intent to leave rat"er t"an actual turnover be"avior as a criterion variable 64aroudi GBHFN Igbaria and 1reen"aus GBB2N 1uimaraes and Igbaria GBB2N Igbaria and 1uimaraes GBBB7! '"ese researc"ers evoPed$ among ot"er factors$ t"e modest costs associated >it" collecting turnover intention statements! Additionall.$ turnover
intentions >"ic" are under more individual control can provide results muc" more )uicPl.$ and are less difficult to predict t"an actual turnover 6-rice and 4luedorn GBMM7! 8or t"ese reasons$ turnover intentions "ave been used in t"e present stud.! 8igure G presents t"e integrated model of turnover intentions tested in t"is stud.! '"e model comprises si? sets of variablesE G7 ,R management practices including recognition$ empo>erment$ procedural and distributive 9ustice$ competence development$ >orP#famil. policies$ and information s"aringN 27 compensation conditions including salar.$ annual bonus$ recruitment bonus$ and U2S retention bonus as >ell as one negotiation condition$ namel.$ t"e number of formal 9ob offersN A7 demograp"ic c"aracteristics including age$ education$ and organiRational tenureN C7 organiRational commitmentN F7 organiRational citiRens"ip be"aviors 6OC47N and O7 turnover intentions! Our model predicts direct effects of ,R practices$ demograp"ic c"aracteristics and compensation and negotiation conditions on organiRational commitment and turnover intentions! ,R practices are also e?pected to "ave direct effects on OC4! ;e furt"er predict direct effects of organiRational commitment on OC4 and turnover intentions as >ell as direct effects of OC4 on turnover intentions! Last$ in addition to t"e direct effects$ our model posits indirect effects of ,R practices$ demograp"ics as >ell as compensation and negotiation conditions on turnover intentions t"roug" OC4 andVor organiRational commitment! Since indirect effects are composites of direct effects$ onl. direct effects are presented as ".pot"eses! '"e rationale for eac" ".pot"esis in t"e model is presented belo>! Insert 6igure ' a,out here "rgani&ational Commitment A number of empirical studies confirm t"e important role of organiRational commitment in t"e turnover process for I' personnel 6Igbaria : 1reen"aus GBB2N Igbaria and 1uimaraes GBBB7! '"e. posit t"at I' emplo.ees >"o are "ig"l. committed to t"eir organiRation are less liPel. to leave t"an t"ose >"o are relativel. uncommitted! In t"e O4 literature$ organiRational commitment >as found to comprise t"ree distinct dimensionsE affective$ continuance and normative commitment 6Me.er and Allen GBBM7! 8irst$ affective commitment corresponds to an emplo.ee%s personal attac"ment and identification to t"e organiRation resulting in a strong belief in an acceptance of t"e organiRation%s goals and values! 2mplo.ees >it" a strong affective commitment continue emplo.ment >it" t"e organiRation because t"e. (ant to do so! Second$ continuance commitment is conceived as a tendenc. to engage in consistent lines of activit. based on t"e individual%s recognition of t"e WcostsX associated >it" discontinuing t"e activit.! 2mplo.ees >"ose primar. linP to t"e organiRation is based on continuance commitment remain because t"e. nee# to do so! '"ird$ normative commitment suggests t"at emplo.ees e?"ibit be"aviors solel. because t"e. believe it is t"e rig"t and moral t"ing to do! 2mplo.ees >it" a "ig" level of normative commitment feel t"at t"e. ou!ht to remain >it" t"e organiRation! -rior studies of turnover intentions among I' personnel "ave onl. considered t"e first and most studied component of t"e construct$ namel.$ affective commitment 6e!g!$ Igbaria and 1reen"aus GBB2N Igbaria and 1uimaraes GBBB7! In t"e
present stud.$ >e decided to pus" furt"er our understanding of t"e mediating role of organiRational commitment and "ence$ >e considered bot" affective and continuance commitment! ;e omitted to include normative commitment for t"ree primar. reasonsE G7 affective and normative commitment are significantl. correlated >it" eac" ot"er 6e!g! Me.er et al% GBBA$ Sommers GBBF7N 27 past researc" s"o>ed a strong overlapping in t"e determinants and conse)uences of bot" constructs 6Me.er et al% GBBA7N and A7 in general$ prior findings in t"e O4 literature are muc" more conclusive for t"e affective dimension t"an for t"e normative one 6e!g!$ 4olon GBBM7! -ast researc" s"o>ed a negative relations"ip bet>een affective commitment and turnover intentions 6Me.er et al% GBBA7! In t"is lig"t$ t"e more emplo.ees identif. t"emselves >it" t"e organiRation$ t"e greater is t"eir intention to sta.! '"ese aut"ors also found a negative correlation bet>een continuance commitment and t"e criterion variable! One e?planation for t"e latter result is t"at some individuals ma. not >ant to )uit t"eir organiRation even if t"e. are not emotionall. attac"ed to it because >orPing conditions are simpl. too good! Sommers 6GBBF7 and C"en et al! 6GBBH7 also found negative relations"ips bet>een bot" t.pes of commitment and turnover intentions! Interestingl.$ bot" empirical studies found a stronger relations"ip bet>een affective commitment and turnover intentions t"an bet>een continuance commitment and turnover intentions! '"ese results suggest t"at emplo.ees are more >illing to remain in an organiRation >"en t"e. "ave an emotional attac"ment to t"e organiRation t"an >"en t"e. perceive a cost of leaving it! 'o summariRe$ ,.pot"esis G predicts t"at organiRational commitment "as a direct effect on turnover intentions of I' personnel! Specificall.$ affective commitment 6,Ga7 and continuance 6,Gb7 commitment are e?pected to be negativel. related to turnover intentions! ;e also posit t"at t"e linP bet>een affective commitment and turnover intentions is stronger t"an t"e relations"ip bet>een continuance commitment and turnover intentions 6,Gc7! "rgani&ational Citi&enshi$ 7ehavior OC4 is considered a Pe. element of organiRational effectiveness! It is defined as an emplo.ee%s >illingness to go above and be.ond t"e prescribed roles >"ic" t"e. "ave been assigned 6Organ GBB07! '"ese e?tra#role be"aviors are considered as a contribution to t"e maintenance and en"ancement of t"e social and ps.c"ological conte?t t"at supports tasP performance in t"e organiRation 6Organ GBBM7! At t"e same time$ suc" discretionar. be"aviors are not e?plicitl. recogniRed b. a formal re>ards s.stem$ and t"eir contribution to organiRational success is based on resource transformations$ innovativeness and adaptabilit. 6Organ GBHH7! 'o date$ t"e linP bet>een OC4 and turnover "as not received t"e attention it deserves! 'o our Pno>ledge$ onl. C"en et al% 6GBBH7 empiricall. tested t"is relations"ip! '"e results of t"eir stud. revealed a negative relations"ip bet>een OC4 and turnover intentions and an even stronger association bet>een OC4 and actual turnover! C"en et al% 6GBBH7 argue t"at a "ig" level of OC4 Wreflect emplo.ees% true >illingness regarding "o> muc" t"e. >ant to be involved in$ or "o> muc" t"e. liPe to be distant from$ t"e organiRationX 6p!B2C7!
'"is form of emplo.ee be"avioral >it"dra>al could t"us be considered as an antecedent of turnover intention! According to ;illiams : Anderson 6GBBG7$ citiRens"ip be"aviors can be directed at t"e organiRation 6OC4O7 6e!g!$ carr.ing out role re)uirements >ell be.ond minimum re)uired levels7 andVor t"e. ma. benefit specific individuals 6OC4I7 6e!g!$ "elping a specific ot"er person >it" a relevant tasP7 and contribute onl. indirectl. to t"e organiRation! ,o>ever$ OC4 "as fre)uentl. been treated as a unidimensional construct 6e!g!$ 4ateman : Organ$ GBHAN 1eorge GBBG7$ >"ic" ma. "ave led to results t"at are difficult to interpret! '"e present stud. is t"e first to investigate t"e mediating influence of OC4 on turnover intentions of I' specialists! In lig"t of t"e preliminar. findings$ ,.pot"esis 2 posits t"at citiRens"ip be"aviors "ave a direct effect on turnover intentions! -recisel.$ >e predict t"at bot" OC4I 6,2a7 and OC4O 6,2b7 are negativel. related to turnover intentions of I' personnel! ;"ile fe> researc"ers "ave e?amined t"e nature of t"e association bet>een OC4 and turnover$ several empirical studies "ave tested t"e linP bet>een organiRational commitment and OC4! Allen and Smit" 6GBHM7 and Me.er and Allen 6GBBG7 found t"at self#report measures of OC4 correlated positivel. >it" affective commitment and negativel. >it" continuance commitment! Me.er et al% 6GBBA7 tested t"e influence of commitment on OC4 among a population of registered nurses! '"e. found a significant positive correlation bet>een affective commitment and OC4! More recentl.$ Organ and R.an 6GBBF7 and C"en et al% 6GBBH7 also identified a positive linP bet>een OC4 and organiRational commitment! ,o>ever$ a meta#anal.sis conducted b. Organ and R.an 6GBBF7 asserted t"at onl. affective commitment >as related to OC4! A plausible e?planation for t"is result is t"at emplo.ees are >illing to invest t"eir time and energ. in OC4 activities if and onl. if t"e. are emotionall. attac"ed to t"e organiRation! In lig"t of t"ese empirical results$ ,.pot"esis A predicts t"at organiRational commitment is associated >it" OC4! Specificall.$ >e posit t"at affective commitment >ill be positivel. related to OC4I 6,Aa7 and OC4O 6,Ab7! Moreover$ >e e?pect no significant relations"ip bet>een continuance commitment and OC4I 6,Ac7 and OC4O 6,Ad7! 5 $ractices Alt"oug" sets of innovative ,R practices >ere recentl. proposed to en"ance effectiveness in organiRations and to retain talented emplo.ees 6Arnett and Obert GBBFN -feffer and <eiga GBBBN 5essler GBBB7$ t"e configurations of suc" practices are narro>l. focused and t"ese suggestions are often not t"eoreticall. grounded! 8or e?ample$ StoPes 6GBBF7 identified team#based re>ard and recognition practices as a ma9or factorN and 1illiam 6GBBC7 recommended t"at I' managers focus on moving computer people out into t"e user communit.$ offering non cas" inducements$ and stressing team>orP! In our vie>$ t"e conceptual model of La>ler 6GBHO7 ma. be a good starting point! McMa"an$ 4ell and <iricP 6GBBH7 argue t"at t"is model is t"e primar. contributor to t"e evolution of contemporar. strategic ,R management! -recisel.$ La>ler 6GBHO7 suggests t"at four organiRational processes ma. influence >orP#related attitudes and be"aviors$ namel.$ information#s"aring$ empo>erment$ competence development and re>ard! ,o>ever$
recent studies "ave s"o>n t"at re(ar# is a comple? process t"at ma. not be full. understood >it"out taPing into account some of its underl.ing dimensions$ namel. t"e distributive$ procedural and recognition aspects 6S"eppard et al% GBB2N MilPovic" and Ne>man GBBH7! In addition$ recent literature suggests t"at >orP#famil. conflict is a critical c"allenge for an organiRation o>ing to its conse)uences on individual attitudes and be"aviors 6C"iu and Ng GBBB7! 1reater individual and organiRational effectiveness is e?pected >"en all t"ese processes are spread t"roug"out t"e organiRation! '"e present stud. e?amines seven ,R practices t"at an organiRation can emplo. to increase commitment$ favor e?tra#role be"aviors and decrease turnover intentions among I' emplo.ees! ;e >ill define and illustrate eac" of t"ese practices in turn! 8irst$ for most I' professionals$ a significant part of t"eir motivation comes from t"e recognition t"e. get from managers for a >ell 9ob done and t"e feeling t"at t"e. are an important part of t"e organiRation 6Agar>al and 8erratt GBBBN 1omolsPi 20007! In t"is stud.$ reco!nition practices refer to non#monetar. means 6e!g!$ e?tended vacations$ ticPets to a baseball game$ organiRational recognition events7 and monetar. >a.s 6e!g!$ spot cas" a>ards7 b. >"ic" an organiRation tangibl. signals its appreciation of outstanding performances and accomplis"ments! Second$ Agar>al and 8erratt 6GBBB7 found t"at successful I' organiRations are devoting resources to>ard empo(erin! I' professionals to taPe increasing responsibilit. for t"eir >orP and for decision maPing! '"ird$ >e posit it is easier to recruit and retain people in an organiRation >"ere I' professionals "ave a sense of e)uit.! In t"is stud.$ >e distinguis" bet>een distributive and procedural 9ustice! /istributive 3ustice refers to t"e perceived fairness >it" regard to issues suc" as mandates$ compensation conditions$ performance evaluations and promotions >"ile proce#ural 3ustice relates to t"e perceived e)uit. of t"e means used to determine mandates assignments$ compensation conditions as >ell as evaluation and promotion criteria 68olger GBMM7! 8ourt"$ competence #evelopment practices 6e!g! 9ob rotation programs$ mentoring$ training7 conve. to t"e emplo.ees t"at t"e organiRation considers "uman resources to be a competitive advantage 6Sc">oc"au et al% GBBM7$ and t"at it is seePing to establis" a long#term relations"ip >it" emplo.ees 6'sui et al% GBBF7! '"at signal is liPel. to be an important factor in retaining productive I' professionals 61uptill GBBHN Agar>al and 8erratt GBBB7! 8ift"$ >it" t"e s"ortfall of I' staff not e?pected to disappear in t"e near term$ it is sensible business practice to accommodate t"ose emplo.ees >"o ma. not 9oin t"e >orPforce for a t.pical B#to#F >orPda. because of ot"er constraints in t"eir personal life 6Agar>al and 8erratt GBBB7! ,ere$ (or.-li e policies correspond to >orP conditions provided b. organiRations to taPe into account t"e needs of t"e I' >orPforce and to minimiRe t"e conse)uences of conflict bet>een t"e >orP and famil. issues 66,one.cutt and Rosen GBBMN Sopelman et al% GBHA7! Last$ I' professionals need to be made a>are of t"e larger conte?t >it"in >"ic" t"eir >orP fits and to develop a sense of communit. 6Agar>al and 8erratt GBBB7! One pat" to accomplis" t"is is t"roug" in ormation sharin! practices 6e!g!$ group meetings to discuss timel. issues7 >"ic" aim at clarif.ing t"e e?pectations of t"e organiRation along >it" efforts made b. t"e organiRation to listen to preoccupations and emplo.ee suggestions! All seven practices "ave been found to be positivel. related to affective commitment 61rover and CrooPer GBBFN Rod>ell et al% GBBHN Smit" GBBFN 8iorito et al% GBBMN C"en et
al% GBBH7! 8urt"er$ researc"ers found a positive relations"ip bet>een continuance commitment and distributive 9ustice 6Me.er and Allen GBB0N ;ard and 5avis GBBF7! As in t"e case of affective commitment$ all ,R practices$ e?cept >orP#famil. policies$ "ave been determined to "ave a direct and positive impact on OC4 6Morrisson GBBON Cappelli and RogovsP. GBBHN Allen and Rus" GBBHN Sc"naPe et al% GBBFN SonovsP. and -ug" GBBCN 'rembla. et al% GBBH7! ;"ile findings support t"e direct effects of ,R practices on turnover 6,uselid GBBF$ Art"ur GBBC7$ t"e influence on turnover intentions over and above t"eir effects on organiRational commitment and OC4 "ave$ "o>ever$ not been full. tested to date! 8or instance$ C"en et al% 6GBBH7 found t"at turnover intentions >as more strongl. correlated >it" organiRational commitment t"an OC4 and 9ob re>ards$ and t"at OC4 and turnover intentions "ad a significant effect on actual turnover! ,o>ever$ t"e. did not test t"e influence of 9ob re>ards$ organiRational commitment and OC4 on t"e >illingness to )uit! 1iven t"ese recent empirical results$ >e posit t"at ,R practices "ave direct effects on organiRational commitment$ bot" forms of OC4$ and turnover intentions! Specificall.$ it is predicted t"at all seven practices are positivel. related to OC4I and OC4O 6,Ca to ,Cn7 and affective commitment 6,Fa to ,Fg7$ and are negativel. related to turnover intentions 6,Oa to ,Og7! ;e also posit t"at not onl. re>ards related to distributive 9ustice perceptions but also >orP#life policies 6>orP conditions7 and affective commitment >ill be positivel. related to continuance commitment 6,Ma to ,Mc7! Com$ensation and negotiation conditions Conventional >isdom suggests t"at in order to retain productive I' emplo.ees$ companies must pa. t"em >ell! 8our compensation variables and one negotiation condition >ere e?amined in t"is stud.! Compensation variables include salar.$ annual bonus$ recruitment bonus and U2S retention bonus! '"ese variables are differentiated from distributive 9ustice practices because t"e. represent ob3ective variables and t"e. are not founded on 9udgments or comparisons of emplo.ees! In t"is stud.$ t"e negotiation conditions correspond to t"e number of formal 9ob offers! It is e?pected t"at compensation and negotiation conditions "ave a direct impact on organiRational commitment and turnover intentions! Salar. "as been found to be positivel. related to organiRational commitment and negativel. to turnover intentions among I' personnel 6e!g!$ Igbaria and 1reen"aus GBB27! Similar results are anticipated for annual bonus$ recruitment bonus and U2S retention bonus! Me.er and Allen 6GBB07 found continuance commitment and lacP of alternative 9ob offers to be positivel. associated! In conse)uence$ ,.pot"esis F predicts t"at compensation and negotiation conditions "ave direct effects on organiRational commitment and turnover intentions! Specificall.$ salar.$ annual bonus$ recruitment bonus$ and retention bonus are ".pot"esiRed to all be positivel. related to continuance commitment and negativel. related to turnover intentions 6,Ha to ,H"7$ >"ereas t"e number of formal 9ob offers is negativel. related to continuance commitment 6,Hi7 and positivel. related to turnover intentions 6,H97!
2emogra$hic varia,les -rior researc" reveals t"at age and organiRational tenure are positivel. related to affective commitment 6Me.er and Allen GBBG7$ >"ile education "as been found to be negativel. related to continuance commitment 6Me.er and Allen GBB07! Regarding OC4$ t"ere is little evidence t"at demograp"ic variables "ave a direct influence on t"is t.pe of be"avior 6Organ and R.an GBBFN C"en et al% GBBH7! Lastl.$ prior researc" suggests t"at demograp"ic variables ma. "ave direct effects on turnover intentions over and above t"eir effects on OC4 and organiRational commitment 6C"en et al% GBBH7! '"erefore$ ,.pot"esis O predicts t"at demograp"ic c"aracteristics "ave direct effects on organiRational commitment and turnover intentions! Specificall.$ it is predicted t"at age and organiRational tenure are positivel. related to affective commitment 6,Ba and ,Bb7 and continuance commitment 6,Bc and ,Bd7$ and are negativel. related to turnover intentions 6,Be and ,Bf7! In contrast$ education is predicted to be positivel. related to turnover intentions 6,Bg7$ and is negativel. related to continuance commitment 6,B"7!
3. METHODOLOGY
In order to test our researc" ".pot"eses$ a )uestionnaire >as developed and sent to t"e uebec members of t"e Canadian Information -rocessing Societ. 6CI-S7! '"e sample >as c"osen because CI-S members represent a >ide variet. of I' 9obs and organiRational settings! '"e researc" instrument contained ten sections and included empiricall. establis"ed measurement scales! A pretest of t"e )uestionnaire >as conducted >it" a convenient sample of G0 I' practitioners and academics! 2ac" of t"e respondents completed a preliminar. version of t"e )uestionnaire and provided feedbacP about t"e process 6e!g! administration time$ clarit. of directions7 and t"e measures! In general$ respondents indicated t"at t"e )uestionnaire >as relativel. clear and eas. to complete! 8ollo>ing t"e pretest$ a number of modifications to t"e instrument >ere made in order to improve t"e measures$ along >it" t"e overall structure and clarit. of t"e )uestionnaire! '"e revised version of t"e )uestionnaire$ >it" a cover letter indicating t"e purpose and t"e importance of t"e stud.$ >as sent to all uebec members 6n Y 2$ABH7 of CI-S! 2?cluded from t"e sample >ere t>o CI-S members >"o "ad been surve.ed in t"e pretest of t"e instrument! It s"ould be noted t"at participation >as voluntar.$ and respondents >ere assured t"at t"eir individual responses >ould be treated as confidential! '>o >eePs follo>ing t"e initial mailing$ a follo>#up letter >as sent to t"e uebec members of CI-S! '"is letter stressed t"e importance of t"eir responses and provided a number to call if t"e. "ad an. )uestions or re)uired a ne> cop. of t"e surve.! A total of ABC )uestionnaires >ere returned to t"e researc"ers >it"in an H#>eeP periodN GAC )uestionnaires >ere returned because of unspecified address c"anges 6response rate of GM!CQ7! '"e some>"at lo> response rate >as to be e?pected for several reasons! 8irst$ t"e )uestionnaire >as distributed to>ard t"e end of November GBBB! Several members of CI-S telep"oned us upon reception of t"e reminder letter to let us Pno> t"e. could not complete t"e )uestionnaire simpl. because of t"e Wred tapeX associated >it" t"e U2S problem andVor t"e end of t"e fiscal .ear! Anot"er reason is related to t"e c"aracteristics of t"e sample itselfE a small portion of CI-S members in uebec are believed to be self# M
emplo.ed$ and "ence not directl. concerned b. t"e current stud.! Not>it"standing$ it is >ort" noting t"at several of t"ese >orPers "ave s"o>n a great interest in receiving a cop. of t"e results of t"is researc"! In s"ort$ >e believe t"ese reasons to be more plausible causes for non#response t"an t"e nature of t"e )uestion under stud.! Sevent.#seven )uestionnaires >ere received after t"e mailing of t"e follo>#up letter! '"e. >ere used in order to assess t"e possibilit. of a non#response bias! In fact$ a comparison of t"e responses returned earl. 6first >aveE n Y AGM7 >it" t"ose returned late 6second >aveE n Y MM7 >as conducted 6LinsP. GBMF7! Crosstabs anal.ses$ Mann#;"itne. tests and t#tests >ere conducted to determine >"et"er differences in response time 6earl. vs! late7 >ere associated >it" differing responses! Results indicated no significant differences in an. of t"e variables of interestN "ence$ no significant bias >as detected! Measures '"e dependant variable >as adapted from t"e measurement instrument developed b. Me.er et al% 6GBBA7! '"is measure used in t"e present stud. consists of t>o itemsE W,o> often do .ou feel liPe )uitting .our 9ob in t"is organiRationTX$ and W,o> liPel. is it t"at .ou >ill actuall. leave .our organiRation >it"in t"e ne?t .earTX '"e response options to t"e first item ranged from G7 almost never to M7 almost ever. da.$ >"ile t"e options to t"e second item ranged from G7 ver. unliPel. to M7 ver. liPel.! '"e responses to t"e items >ere coded suc" t"at "ig" scores reflected stronger intentions to leave t"e organiRation! '"e ten items used to construct t"e commitment scale >ere derived from t>o of t"e t"ree dimensions of t"e instrument developed b. Me.er and Allen 6GBB07$ namel. affective 6F items7 and continuance 6F items7! Sample items of affective commitment areE WI reall. feel as if m. organiRation%s problems are m. o>nX and WM. organiRation "as a great deal of personal meaning for me!X '"e items measuring continuance commitment includeE WIt >ould be ver. "ard for me to leave m. organiRation rig"t no>$ even if I >anted toX and WIt >ould be too costl. for me to leave m. organiRation no>!X '"e response options to all ten items ranged from G7 strongl. disagree to M7 strongl. agree! '"e responses to t"e items >ere coded suc" t"at "ig" scores reflected greater commitment to t"e organiRation! '"e items measuring bot" t.pes of commitment are presented in Appendi?! OC4I and OC4O >ere measured using a F#item scale and a M#item scale$ respectivel.! '"ese scales >ere adopted from -odsaPoff et al% 6GBB07 and ;illiams and Anderson 6GBBG7! Respondents >ere asPed to t"inP "o> t"eir supervisor >ould evaluate t"eir o>n citiRens"ip be"aviors on M#point LiPert#t.pe scales! Sample items of OC4I includeE WI "elp colleagues >"o "ave been absent from >orP$X and WI am mindful of "o> m. be"avior affects ot"er people%s 9ob!X '"e items measuring OC4O includeE WI attend meetings t"at are not mandator. but are considered importantX and WI ad"ere to informal rules devised to maintain order!X '"e response options to all items ranged from G7 strongl. disagree to M7 strongl. agree! '"e responses to t"e items >ere coded suc" t"at "ig" scores s"o>ed "ig"er levels of OC4! '"e items used to measure OC4I and OC4O are presented in Appendi?!
Recognition practices >ere measured using a GC#item scale adapted from 'rembla. et al% 6GBBM7 and 'rembla. : 1ua. 6GBBH7! 2mpo>erment >as measured b. a B#item scale developed b. 'rembla. et al% 6GBBM7$ and adapted b. 'rembla. and 1ua. 6GBBH7! '>o scales >ere designed to measure t"e different t.pes of organiRational 9usticeE distributive and procedural! '"e first scale comprises GG items >"ile t"e second scale includes G2 items! Competence development practices >ere measured using a B#item scale mainl. based on t"e >orP of 'rembla. et al% 6GBBM7! ;orP#famil. policies >ere measured using a O#item scale based on 4ee"r et al%%s 6GBMO7 stud. of >orP overload and Sopelman et al%%s 6GBHA7 >orP on >orP#famil. conflict! Last$ information s"aring >as measured b. a nine#item scale developed b. 'rembla. et al% 6GBBM7 and adapted b. 'rembla. and 1ua. 6GBBH7! '"e response options to all items ranged from 6G7 strongl. disagree to 6M7 strongl. agree! '"e items used to measure t"e ,R practices included in our researc" model are presented in Appendi?! All compensation and negotiation variables >ere eac" measured b. one item! '"e salar. measure >as based on annual salar. in current position! Categories ranged from G7 belo> ZC0$000 to F7 ZG00$000 or above! Annual bonus >as measured using categories t"at ranged from G7 0Q of annual salar. to O7 G00Q or above of annual salar.! ;e also asPed respondents if t"e. "ad received a recruitment bonus >"en t"e. >ere "ired$ and if t"e. "ad signed a U2S retention bonus 6noY0$ .esYG7! In addition$ t"e number of formal 9ob offers received b. t"e respondent >as measured using a LiPert#t.pe scale ranging from G7 no 9ob offers to M7 several 9ob offers! Age >as measured in .ears! OrganiRational tenure >as measured b. t"e number of .ears an individual "as been emplo.ed in "is or "er current organiRation! 2ducation consisted of si? levels from G7 some "ig" sc"ool to O7 doctorate! Respondents >ere also instructed to indicate t"eir 9ob title and t"e sector of activit. of t"eir current organiRation in open# ended scales! 81 A!A#9TICA# T4C5!I:34S In order to perform t"e various statistical anal.ses$ our sample >as divided into t"ree sub# samples! One "undred respondents >ere randoml. assigned to t"e initial sample 6SG7 >"ile anot"er G00 respondents >ere randoml. grouped in a "oldout sample 6S27! SG >as utiliRed for instrument validation purposes onl. >"ile S2 served for furt"er validation purposes and preliminar. ".pot"esis testing! '"e remaining GBC )uestionnaires >ere used to test t"e revised researc" model 6SA7! '"e reason for selecting G00 cases in bot" t"e initial and t"e "oldout samples >as to provide us >it" enoug" cases to ade)uatel. perform a factor anal.sis 6Serlinger GBHO7! Crosstab$ SrusPal#;allis and One>a. tests >ere conducted to confirm t"e similarit. of t"e t"ree groups! Anal.sis begins >it" an e?amination of t"e measurement model in terms of its reliabilit. and construct validit.! 'able G presents t"e results associated >it" t"e assessment of t"e internal consistenc. of eac" scale using SG! '"e composite reliabilit. coefficients of all t"e scales$ but one$ satisfied Nunall.%s 6GBMH7 guidelines! Indeed$ onl. OC4O obtained an alp"a inferior to t"e cutoff point of !M0! 4ased on t"e results of t"e reliabilit. anal.sis$
t"e inter#item correlation coefficients matri? 6not s"o>n "ere7$ and t"e results of a principal components factor anal.sis 6not s"o>n "ere7$ GH of t"e M0 items measuring t"e various ,R practices >ere removed from t"e instrument! '"e in ormation sharin!, (or.li e policies and competence #evelopment scales remained unc"anged follo>ing t"ese anal.ses! Insert Ta,le ' a,out here '"e first five items to be removed pertains to t"e construct proce#ural 3ustice! -RO[/SH loaded more "ig"l. on t"e in ormation sharin! scale >"ile t"e factor loadings for -RO[/SG$ -RO[/S2$ -RO[/SH and -RO[/SGM >ere not above t"e cutoff point! Ne?t$ si? items from t"e distributive 9ustice scale "ad to removed based on t"e results of t"e reliabilit. and factor anal.sis! 4ot" 5IS[/SGC and 5IS[/SGB loaded more "ig"l. on t"e competence #evelopment scale >"ile 5IS[/SGF$ 5IS[/SGO$ 5IS[/SGH and 5IS[/S22 >ere removed because of t"eir >eaPness regarding t"e convergent validit. criterion! '"ree items also "ad to be removed from t"e empo(erment scale$ t>o of >"ic" 62M-G and 2M-C7 did not satisf. t"e 0!F0 cut off point! '"e t"ird item to be eliminated$ 2M-B$ loaded more "ig"l. on anot"er scale! '"e last four items to be removed pertained to t"e reco!nition scale 6R2CH$ R2CG0$ R2CGA$ R2CGC7! All four items >ere removed based on t"e results of t"e factor anal.sis! As for t"e ot"er constructs included in our researc" model$ namel.$ a ective commitment$ continuous commitment, turnover intentions, OC4I and OC4O$ onl. t"e latter "ad to be modified! -recisel.$ item OC4M did not satisf. t"e convergent validit. criterion and "ence >as removed from t"e scale! Once t"e appropriate modifications to t"e measurement instruments >ere made$ t"e same statistical anal.ses >ere conducted using t"e "oldout sample 6S27! 'able 2 reports t"e reliabilit. coefficients associated >it" t"e revised scales! '"e reliabilit. coefficients s"o>ed an improvement in comparison >it" SGN t"e composite reliabilit. coefficients of t"e revised scales ranged from 0!M0 to 0!BA! Convergent and discriminant validit. >ere also tested using S2! As mentioned earlier$ to demonstrate convergent validit.$ items t"at measure t"e same trait or construct s"ould correlate "ig"l. >it" one anot"er! Results s"o> t"at inter#item correlations >ere all significant at t"e !00G level for all scales but t>o! 8irst$ t"e correlation coefficients bet>een items G and A as >ell as bet>een items G and C pertaining to t"e affective commitment scale >ere significant at t"e 0!0F level! Item G >as t"en removed from t"e scale! Second$ t"e correlation coefficients bet>een item F and all t"e ot"er items of t"e continuance commitment scale >ere not significant at t"e 0!0F level! 8or t"is reason$ item F >as removed from t"e measurement scale! In general$ t"oug"$ our data supports t"e convergent validit. of t"e ten scales comprised in t"e researc" model! Insert Ta,le 2 a,out here 8inall.$ a principal components factor anal.sis for ,R practices >as also performed using S2! As s"o>n in 'able A$ results provided strong support for discriminant validit.! Onl. four additional items "ad to be removed$ leaving a total of CH items for t"e seven measurement scales! 8irst$ IN8OS,AM$ IN8OS,AB and COM-G all loaded more "ig"l.
G0
on t"e recognition scale$ and "ence$ >ere all removed! Second$ R2CG2 >as removed from t"e recognition scale since it loaded more "ig"l. on t"e information s"aring scale! Accordingl.$ t"e removed items >ere not considered in furt"er statistical anal.ses! In summar.$ t"e reliabilit. and construct validit. of our measures using S2 are "ig"l. satisfactor.! Insert Ta,le 3 a,out here ;1 4S3#TS ,.pot"eses >ere initiall. tested t"roug" -earson correlation coefficients and Mann# ;"itne. tests 6S27! It ma. be seen from 'ables C and F t"at CA of t"e FH sub#".pot"eses >ere statisticall. significant 6p\!0F or inferior7! ,.pot"eses G$ 2 and A >ere supported! 8irst$ bot" t.pes of organiRational commitment are significantl. and negativel. related to turnover intentions and$ as e?pected$ t"e association bet>een affective commitment and turnover intentions is stronger t"an t"e relations"ip bet>een continuance commitment and turnover intentions! Second$ bot" forms of citiRens"ip be"aviors 6OC4I and OC4O7 >ere found to be significantl. and negativel. related to t"e criterion variable! '"ird$ >e found strong support for t"e linP bet>een affective commitment and OC4 and for t"e lacP of a significant relations"ip bet>een continuance commitment and OC4! Most ".pot"eses linPing ,R practices to OC4$ affective commitment and turnover intentions >ere supported$ providing strong support for ,C$ ,F and ,O! Indeed$ onl. four sub# ".pot"eses >ere not supported$ namel.$ t"e association bet>een >orP#life policies and affective commitment as >ell as t"ose bet>een bot" forms of OC4 and t>o ,R practices 6distributive 9ustice and >orP#life policies7! Ne?t$ t"e e?pected linP bet>een distributive 9ustice and continuance commitment >as not supported 6,Mb7 providing partial support for ,M! In regard to t"e compensation and negotiation variables$ >e found t"at annual bonus and number of 9ob offers >ere positivel. related to bot" continuance commitment and turnover intentions >"ile salar.$ recruitment bonus and retention bonus >ere not found to "ave an. influence on t"ese variables! '"erefore$ onl. partial support >as found for ,H! '"is result suggests t"at >"ile salar. mig"t be crucial for getting good I' staff$ it "as muc" less to do >it" Peeping good I' >orPers! Last$ t"e relations"ips bet>een demograp"ic variables and commitment and turnover intentions >ere all significant but one! Indeed$ onl. education >as not found to be significant! '"ese results provide strong support for ,B! Insert Ta,les 8 and ; a,out here A revised model containing onl. t"ose ".pot"eses found to be significant at t"e !00G or inferior level 6see last column of 'ables C and F7 >as tested using a different data set 6SA7! As s"o>n in 'able O$ a linear regression of predictors on turnover intentions >as conducted! '"e independent variables account for CHQ of t"e variance in t"e criterion variable! Si? of t"e predictors >ere statisticall. different from Rero! '"e standardiRed regression coefficients s"o> t"at affective commitment$ number of 9ob offers$ OC4I$ organiRational tenure and t>o ,R practices$ namel.$ distributive 9ustice and competence development "ad significant and #irect effects on turnover intentions! On t"e ot"er "and$
GG
continuance commitment$ age$ OC4O$ and five ,R practices 6information s"aring$ procedural 9ustice$ recognition$ >orP#life policies and empo>erment7 "ad no significant direct effect on turnover intentions! Insert Ta,le < a,out here 'able M presents t"e results pertaining to t"e relations"ips of t"e predictors of affective commitment! '"ree ,R practices >ere found to "ave significant positive effects on affective commitment$ namel.$ recognition$ empo>erment and competence development! As e?pected$ tenure >it"in t"e organiRation >as found to "ave a significant effect on affective commitment! On t"e ot"er "and$ t"e data s"o> t"at e)uit. practices 6distributive and procedural7 and information s"aring practices >ere not found to "ave a significant and direct effect on affective commitment! '"e stud. variables e?plained AOQ of t"e variance in affective commitment! Insert Ta,le * a,out here Last$ 'able H reports t"e results pertaining to t"e determinants of OC4I! 2ig"teen percent of t"e variance in OC4I is e?plained b. t"e independent variables! Among t"e seven ".pot"esiRed predictors$ onl. recognition >as found to "ave a significant positive influence on citiRens"ip be"aviors among I' personnel! Affective commitment$ continuous commitment$ information s"aring$ distributive 9ustice$ empo>erment and competence development >ere all found to be nonsignificant! Summar. of t"e significant findings are s"o>n in 8igure 2! Insert Ta,le ) and 6igure 2 a,out here <1 2ISC3SSI"! In t"is section$ >e >ill present and discuss t"e Pe. conclusions derived from our results and >e >ill maPe consistentl. a series of recommendations for I' and ,R e?ecutives! As illustrated in 8igure 2$ several ,R practices "ave bot" direct and indirect effects on turnover intentions! -recisel.$ t"e results demonstrate clearl. t"at I' specialists$ >"et"er t"e. are s.stems anal.sts$ programmers$ s.stems engineers$ consultants$ directors or data base administrators$ are particularl. sensitive to t>o t.pes of practices$ namel.$ distributive 9ustice and competence development! 8irst$ results s"o> t"at distributive 9ustice practices "ave a negative and significant effect on turnover intentions among I' specialists! Indeed$ t"e more an emplo.ee >ill perceive a "ig" level of internal e)uit. 6in comparison >it" ot"er emplo.ees of t"e same department andVor t"e same compan.7 and e?ternal e)uit. 6in comparison >it" individuals occup.ing a similar 9ob in ot"er organiRations7 in regard to issues suc" as compensation and benefits$ performance evaluation$ promotions$ and mandates$ t"e less "e >ill intend to leave "is current emplo.er! 1iven t"at distributive 9ustice practices "ave a direct influence on turnover intentions$ it seems clear t"at t"e notion of e)uit.$ bot" internal and e?ternal$ must be considered as a critical component of a corporate I' retention strateg.!
G2
A second significant set of ,R practices is t"e opportunit. to build and appl. ne> sPills! Indeed$ it is >ell#Pno>n t"at I' professionals "ave a vested interest not onl. in Peeping in tune >it" t"e industr.$ but also in sta.ing several steps a"ead of t"e e?perience and sPill curve 6Morello and Claps 20007! 'raining is too often seen as a perP >"en it s"ould be seen as essential investment in t"e intellectual capital of t"e organiRation! '"is is true in ever. professional field$ but is per"aps more acute in I' >"ere c"ange is rapid and one can become t"e ]department%s dinosaur^ in a flas"! '"e implementation of ,R practices suc" as training$ coac"ing$ 9ob rotation programs$ and opportunities for e?perimentation send a clear message t"at management is seePing to establis" a long#term relations"ip >it" emplo.ees! ;"ile suc" investments in "uman capital could bacPfire eventuall. b. maPing emplo.ees WtooX attractive to outside recruiters$ it is seen as necessar. and beneficial to t"e organiRation 61uptill$ GBBH7! In t"is regard$ >e argue t"at for suc" practices to be reall. effective$ managers must also "elp emplo.ees s"ape and direct t"eir careers$ so t"e. can gain e?perience >it"in t"e enterprise rat"er t"an outside it! A careful e?amination of 'able O s"o>s t"at affective commitment >as found to be t"e strongest predictor of turnover intentions in t"is stud.! '"is corroborates previous results in t"e O4 6e!g!$ -rice and Mueller GBHON 'ett and Me.er GBBA7 and I' 6e!g!$ Igbaria and 1reen"aus GBB27 fields! Managers must t"erefore Peep in mind t"at I' specialists >"o identif. t"emselves and feel emotionall. attac"ed to t"eir organiRation andVor >orP unit are t"ose >"o risP least to leave! '"is result leads us to asP t"e follo>ing )uestionE ];"at are t"e most compelling ,R practices for increasing t"e level of affective commitment of I' specialistsT^ 8igure 2 s"o>s t"at t"ree particular ,R practices "ave significant and direct effects on affective commitment! -recisel.$ results s"o> t"at a compan. >"ic" G7 invests t"oug" divers means in its "uman capital 6sPills and Pno>#"o>7 and "elps emplo.ees s"ape t"eir career$ 27 sets up s.stems allo>ing I' managers and pro9ect team leaders to recogniRe individual contributions to t"e organiRation and A7 encourages greater participation in decision maPing and latitude in t"e definition$ organiRation and conduct of >orP$ sees its >orPforce demonstrating a greater identification to t"e organiRation and a "ig"er level of affective commitment! Interestingl.$ citiRens"ip be"aviors t"at benefit specific individuals 6OC4I7 constitute anot"er Pe. indication of intentions to sta.! Indeed$ be"aviors suc" as "elping a colleague >"o "as been absent from >orP$ "elping ot"ers >"o "ave "eav. >orPloads$ being mindful of "o> one%s o>n be"avior affects ot"ers% 9obs$ and providing "elp and support to ne> emplo.ees represent clear indications of an emplo.ee%s interest for its >orP environment and$ "ence$ "ave direct effects on turnover intentions! '"is result leads us to pose t"e follo>ing )uestionE ];"at are t"e most compelling ,R practices for motivating I' emplo.ees to adopt e?tra#role be"aviorsT^ Our results are clear once again! Recognition of performance is t"e onl. predictor of OC4I! Indeed$ it seems t"at a successful emplo.ee >"ose >orP performance is recogniRed b. "is superiors and "is peers >ill tend to do more t"an >"at is formall. re)uired of "im! '"e most obvious form or recognition comes in t"e form of salar. increases and bonuses! 4ut in t"e broader terms of a positive >orP environment$ recognition can taPe man. forms from a formal a>ard program to a t"anP .ou note for a 9ob >ell done! Importantl.$ as 4olon 6GBBM7$ >e
GA
argue t"at if I' leaders trul. >ant to create a culture t"at encourages emplo.ees to displa. OC4$ t"e. ma. >ant to e?"ibit suc" citiRens"ip be"aviors t"emselves in order to communicate to emplo.ees t"at suc" discretionar. be"aviors are valued b. t"e organiRation! Agar>al and 8erratt 6GBBB7 recentl. recommended t"at$ considering t"e variet. of ,R practices available$ I' e?ecutives must c"oose among t"ose practices t"at are liPel. to address best t"e particular needs of I' specialists! In lig"t of t"e results obtained in t"e present stud.$ it appears t"at an effective I' retention strateg. >ill focus on four Pe. categories of ,R practices$ namel.$ G7 distributive 9ustice$ 27 competence development and career pat"sN A7 recognition of performance$ and C7 empo>erment! Altoget"er$ t"ese practices attest to t"e compan.%s concern for t"e specific needs of its I' >orPforce 6sense of e)uit.V9ustice$ recognition and empo>erment7 and t"e. indicate t"e e?tent to >"ic" an organiRation seePs a long#term relations"ip >it" its I' >orPforce 6development of competencies and career planning7! '"at is in radical opposition >it" a s"ort#term vie> of I' retention >"ere additional resources >ill be e?pended on W".gieneX factors suc" as compensation and benefits! According to our results$ it seems t"at man. I' professionals >ill >illingl. remain in organiRations >"ere >orP is stimulating and c"allenging$ c"ances for advancement are "ig" and if t"e. feel reasonabl. >ell paid 6enterprise#based and marPet#based pa.7$ even if t"e. are paid some>"at less t"an >"at t"e. could obtain else>"ere! '"is confirms t"e estimations of GartnerGroup >"ic" estimates at onl. 20Q t"e proportion of I' professionals >"o are read. to accept anot"er 9ob on t"e one base of compensation conditions 6Morello and Clapps 20007! In s"ort$ organiRations adopting a long#term investment strateg. >"ic" considers t"e specific needs of I' professionals are liPel. to e?perience t"e "ig"est intentions to sta. and$ most liPel.$ t"e least turnover! 8urt"er$ our results indicate t"at t"ree out of t"e seven t.pes of ,R practices included in our researc" model seem to "ave a some>"at smaller influence on OC4I$ organiRational commitment$ and turnover intentions! '"ese practices are associated >it" procedural 9ustice$ information s"aring$ and >orP#life policies! A potential e?planation mig"t be t"at >"ile suc" practices mig"t not favor commitment$ e?tra#role be"aviors and retention$ t"eir >eaPness mig"t generate some dissatisfaction! In s"ort$ >e believe t"at t"ese practices must not be perceived b. top I' and ,R e?ecutives as being ineffective but rat"er as being complementar. to t"e more essential practices of distributive 9ustice$ recognition$ competence development and empo>erment! Most I' and ,R managers face anot"er c"allenge in implementing a retention strateg.! '"e. "ave a mi? of I' people$ some of >"om$ for instance$ are in muc" greater demand or far lo>er suppl. t"an normal! Our results s"o> t"at t"e number of formal 9ob offers 6liPel. t"ose emplo.ees >it" sPills in "ig" demand7 "as a direct and positive influence on turnover intentions >"ile organiRational tenure "as a direct and negative influence on t"e criterion variable! S"ould managers adopt different strategies for t"ese groups of I' emplo.eesT In agreement >it" Agar>al and 8erratt 6GBBB7$ our recommendation to management is to implement a dominant retention strateg. for t"e overall I' population! '"is >ill ensure t"at emplo.ees do not receive mi?ed signals or conflicting messages from diverse groups of I' leaders! Contrar. to Igbaria and 1reen"aus 6GBB27$ age and
GC
education did not correlate significantl. >it" commitment and turnover intentions! '"is reinforces our contention to articulate and adopt a dominant strateg. for all I' emplo.ees regardless of t"eir individual c"aracteristics! 4ut if it is necessar. to var. one or t>o practices 6e!g!$ compensation7 to retain Pe. groups of I' people$ t"ose variations s"ould be clearl. identified as variations from t"e main practices and communicated full. >it"in t"e organiRation! In summar.$ I' professionals looP for a compelling place to >orP and "ence$ an effective corporate I' retention strateg. >ill consider t"e follo>ing essential building blocPsE Affective commitment constitutes t"e primar. predictor of turnover intentions! I' specialists grant a lot of importance for t"e alignment bet>een t"eir o>n values and t"ose conve.ed b. management and t"e. looP for a >orP environment or milieu >"ic" >ill allo> t"em to develop a strong feeling of belongingN CitiRens"ip be"aviors of I' emplo.ees provide furt"er evidence of t"eir interest for t"eir >orP environment and constitute a reliable indicator of t"eir intention to remain >it"in t"e organiRation! In t"e vie> of I' specialists$ internal and e?ternal e)uit. as >ell as competence development and opportunities for gro>t"$ recognition of individual contribution and good >orP and e?panded 9ob responsibilities form t"e essence of compelling places to >orP! I' managers must t"erefore G7 sta. informed on t"e going rates for various I' positions and maPe sure t"eir staff feel t"e. are ade)uatel. and fairl. compensated for t"eir >orPN 27 maPe training a centerpiece of staff development and >orP closel. >it" t"eir staff on goal setting and career developmentN A7 develop a culture >"ere staff feel appreciated and re>ardedN and C7 empo>er I' staff and encourage innovation and creativit. in dail. >orPN -rocedural 9ustice$ information s"aring$ and >orP#life policies practices must be considered as complementar. means to ac"ieve lo>er I' turnover ratesN Compensation$ t"oug" important$ becomes a secondar. concern >"en enterprises demonstrate t"eir investment in long#term relations"ips! A retention strateg. t"at solel. focuses on compensation conditions and benefits is not liPel. to favor commitment and lo.alt. of emplo.ees and offer an. guarantee in satisfaction and retention! 8urt"er$ suc" a strateg. is not liPel. to compensate for t"e lacP of professional recognition and c"ances of advancement and for a little stimulating I' 9obN 8inall.$ e?ecutives s"ould articulate and adopt a dominant retention strateg. for t"e overall I' organiRation! If needed$ variations s"ould be clearl. identified and communicated full. >it"in t"e organiRation!
'o conclude$ >e s"ould recogniRe t"at ever. organiRation "as its uni)ue contingencies t"at can impede or favor retention among I' specialists! More often t"an not$ events be.ond t"e control of I' e?ecutives contribute to creating suc" special circumstances 6e!g!$ corporate do>nsiRing$ gro>t"$ "ig"l. competitive geograp"ic region7! 8or t"is reason$ >e posit t"at several different manifestations of a global or dominant retention strateg. >ill emerge! 2ven >it" suc" differences$ "o>ever$ t"e managerial logic and values embedded in a given strateg. s"ould be similar! '"us$ >e support Agar>al and
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8erratt%s 6GBBB7 contention t"at t"ere is a ]best^ set of beliefs and values regarding t"e nature of I' intellectual capital! In our vie>$ I' specialists s"ould not be managed as disposable productive resources but considered as "umans >it" specific needs and interests suc" as e)uit. and 9ustice$ opportunit. to learn and innovate$ recognition of peers and managers$ attainment of ne> levels of responsibilit.$ and empo>erment! '"erefore$ managers "ave to bolster I' professionals% sense of self#>ort" b. treating t"em as intellectual assets$ not operating e?penses$ and b. "elping t"em s"ape and direct t"eir careers$ so t"e. can gain e?perience >it"in t"e enterprise rat"er t"an outside it! ;it"in t"is set of beliefs I' e?ecutives "ave a ver. large number of degrees of freedom to implement specific ,R practices! *1 #IMITATI"!S A!2 2I 4CTI"!S 6" 63T3 4 4S4A C5 Several limitations of t"is stud. must be acPno>ledged! 8irst$ common met"od variance is a ma9or concern and in an attempt to control for it$ >e used ,arman%s one#factor test 6-odsaPoff and Organ GBHO7! Results of t"e unrotated factor solution suggests t"at no substantial amount of common met"od variance >as present in our data since several factors >ere generated and no one general factor accounted for t"e ma9orit. of t"e covariance in t"e independent and dependent variables! Nevert"eless$ future researc" s"ould attempt to gat"er data from multiple met"ods suc" as structured intervie>s$ )uestionnaires$ and observation and from multiple sources including peers$ subordinates$ and supervisors! A second issue concerns t"e use of more ob9ective ,R practices measures! Indeed$ I' professionals% perceptions regarding ,R practices ma. differ from a more ob9ective assessment of t"ese practices obtained via intervie>s >it" e?ecutives andVor ,R professionals! 8uture investigations s"all attempt to assess t"e e?tent of congruit. bet>een management%s vision of "o> I' professionals are managed and t"e I' professionals% perception of management%s vision! '"ird$ t"e e?clusion of actual turnover s"ould also be taPen into account in future researc" efforts! Longitudinal studies are needed in order to validate t"e predictive dimension of t"e model! 8urt"ermore$ it >ould be interesting to e?amine turnover in anot"er lig"t! Researc"ers could vie> turnover as an e?treme on one side of a >it"dra>al continuum! Less e?treme manifestations mig"t include increased sicP da.s$ missed meetings$ and formal 9ob intervie>s! As stressed earlier$ lacP of citiRens"ip be"aviors s"ould also be considered as one indication of organiRational >it"dra>al! '"is approac" >ould move turnover from a binar. to a continuous variable$ at t"e same time increasing insig"ts into >"at causes I' people to leave! 8ourt"$ ot"er attitudinal variables must be included in future researc" models! 8or one t"ing$ peer#based commitment >"ere emplo.ment revolves around t"e pressure$ status$ and prestige of >orPing >it" a particular compan. 6A9Ren GBBGN 'riandis GBH07 must be considered! It >ould also be relevant to investigate "o> satisfaction 6or dissatisfaction7 mediate t"e effect of compelling ,R practices on organiRational commitment and turnover intentions! Last$ future models could consider t"e inclusion of personalit. traits suc" as positiveVnegative affect 6;atson et al% GBHH7!
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