L.S.

Vygotsky Lev Vygotsky

The Psychology of Art

Written: 1925; Source: Psikologiia Iskusstva; Publisher: MI Press! 19"1; r#nsl#te$: Scri%t# echnic# Inc.; r#nscribe$: &#te Sch'ol(e. #ble o) *ontents: Pre)#ce; I. +n the Metho$ology o) the Proble' *h#%ter 1 , +n he Metho$ology o) -rt II. *riti.ue *h#%ter 2 , -rt #s Perce%tion *h#%ter / , -rt #s echni.ue *h#%ter 0 , -rt #s Psycho#n#lysis III. -n#lysis o) the -esthetic 1e#ction *h#%ter 5 , -n#lysis o) the 2#ble *h#%ter 3 , he Subtle Poison! # Synthesis *h#%ter " , 4unin5s 67entle 4re#th8 *h#%ter 9 , he r#ge$y o) :#'let! Prince o) ;en'#rk IV. he Psychology o) -rt *h#%ter 9 , -rt #s # *#rth#rsis *h#%ter 1< , he Psychology o) -rt *h#%ter 11 , -rt #n$ Li)e.

PREFACE
his book h#s co'e #bout #s the result o) # series o) 'inor #n$ so'e '#=or stu$ies in the #re#s o) #rt #n$ %sychology. hree o) 'y liter#ry ess#ys > on ?rylov! on :#'let! #n$ on the co'%osition o) the short story > )or' the b#sis o) 'y #n#lyses here! #s $o # nu'ber o) #rticles #n$ notes %ublishe$ in v#rious %erio$ic#ls. he $i))erent ch#%ters o) the %resent book @ill give only brie) results! outlines! #n$ su''#ries o) these stu$ies. It @oul$ be i'%ossible! )or eA#'%le! to %resent #n eAh#ustive #n#lysis o) :#'let in # single ch#%ter > this t#sk #lone c#lls )or #t le#st one other book. he se#rch )or # @#y out o) the %rec#rious con)ines o) sub=ectivis' h#s e.u#lly ch#r#cteri(e$ 1ussi#n #rt schol#rshi% #n$ 1ussi#n %sychology $uring the ye#rs o) 'y stu$ies. his ten$ency to@#r$ ob=ectivis'! to@#r$ # %recise! '#teri#listic! scienti)ic #%%ro#ch to kno@le$ge in both )iel$s! g#ve rise to the %resent volu'e.

+n the one h#n$! schol#rly stu$ies o) #rt h#ve incre#singly )elt the nee$ )or # %sychologic#l b#se. +n the other h#n$! %sychology! striving to un$erst#n$ #n$ eA%l#in beh#vior #s # @hole! is inevit#bly $r#@n to the co'%lic#te$ %roble's o) the #esthetic re#ction. I) @e #$$ to this the shi)t th#t is t#king %l#ce in both #re#s o) stu$y! the %resent crisis o) ob=ectivis'! @e sh#ll un$erst#n$ the )ull urgency o) our sub=ect. In )#ct! tr#$ition#l #rt schol#rshi%! @hether consciously or unconsciously! h#s #l@#ys been b#se$ on %sychologic#l #ssu'%tions. 4ut the ol$ %o%ul#r %sychology h#s ce#se$ to be #$e.u#te )or t@o re#sons. In the )irst %l#ce! it @#s still c#%#ble o) nourishing every kin$ o) sub=ectivis' in #esthetics! but ob=ective tren$s re.uire ob=ective %resu%%ositions. Secon$ly! # ne@ %sychology @hich is rebuil$ing the ti'e,honore$ )oun$#tions o) #ll the so,c#lle$ 6sciences o) the soul8 is e'erging. My %ur%ose h#s been to reeA#'ine the tr#$ition#l %sychology o) #rt #n$ to try to $eline#te # ne@ )iel$ o) investig#tion )or ob=ective %sychology > to st#te the %roble' #n$ 'erely suggest # 'etho$ #n$ so'e )un$#'ent#l %sychologic#l %rinci%les o) eA%l#n#tion! #n$ no 'ore. In c#lling this book 6 he Psychology o) -rt!8 I $i$ not @ish to i'%ly th#t it @oul$ %resent # co'%lete syste' or re%resent the @hole g#'ut o) %roble's #n$ c#uses. My go#l h#s! been .uite $i))erent: to o))er not # syste' but # %rogr#'; it @#s not the @hole r#nge o) %roble's but the centr#l %roble' th#t I ke%t const#ntly in 'in$ #n$ %ursue$ #s 'y go#l. I sh#ll there)ore le#ve to one si$e the controversies on %sychologis' in #esthetics #n$ on the boun$#ries se%#r#ting #esthetics )ro' %ure #rt schol#rshi%. I #gree @ith Li%%s th#t #esthetics c#n be $e)ine$ #s # $isci%line o) #%%lie$ %sychology! but I sh#ll no@here %ose this %roble' #s # @hole. I %ro%ose to re'#in content @ith the 'etho$ologic#l #n$ theoretic#l l#@s o) the %sychologic#l eA#'in#tion o) #rt! #long @ith every other #tte'%t! %ointing out the essenti#l i'%ort#nce o) )in$ing # %l#ce @ithin the M#rAist $octrine o) #rt. :ere 'y gui$eline h#s been the @ell,kno@n M#rAist %osition th#t the sociologic#l vie@ o) #rt $oes not $eny its #esthetic consi$er#tion; on the contr#ry! it o%ens @i$e the $oor to it #n$ %resu%%oses it! in Plekh#nov5s @or$s! #s its co'%le'ent. Bet #ny #esthetic $iscussion o) #rt! to the eAtent th#t it $oes not @ish to $e%#rt )ro' M#rAist sociology! 'ust const#ntly b#se itsel) on soci#l %sychology. It is e#sy to sho@ th#t even those #rt schol#rs @ho .uite %ro%erly se%#r#te their o@n )iel$ co'%letely )ro' #esthetics inevit#bly @ork into their tre#t'ent o) the b#sic conce%ts #n$ %roble's o) #rt %sychologic#l #Aio's th#t #re uncritic#l! #rbitr#ry! #n$ %rec#rious. I sh#re Ctit(5s vie@ th#t #rt goes beyon$ the li'its o) #esthetics #n$ even h#s )e#tures th#t #re )un$#'ent#lly $i))erent )ro' #esthetic v#lues! but th#t it begins @ith the #esthetic ele'ent #n$ re'#ins @ith it to the en$. It is #lso cle#r to 'e th#t the %sychology o) #rt 'ust be rel#te$ to #esthetics #s @ell! @ithout losing sight o) the line se%#r#ting one #re# )ro' the other. It 'ust be s#i$ th#t in the ne@ #rt schol#rshi%! #s in ob=ective %sychology! the b#sic conce%ts #n$ )un$#'ent#l %rinci%les #re in the %rocess o) being @orke$ out! the )irst ste%s #re still being t#ken. his is @hy # @ork th#t #rises #t the crossing o) these t@o $isci%lines! #n$ th#t $esires to use the l#ngu#ge o) ob=ective %sychology in $e#ling @ith the ob=ective )#cts o) #rt! 'ust necess#rily be bur$ene$ by the circu'st#nce th#t it re'#ins ever #t the threshol$ o) the %roble'! not %enetr#ting $ee%ly or r#nging @i$ely @ithin it. I h#ve 'erely @ishe$ to $evelo% the %#rticul#r #s%ects o) # %sychologic#l vie@ o) #rt #n$ to note the centr#l i$e#! the 'etho$s o) @orking it out! #n$ the content o) the %roble'. I) #n ob=ective %sychology o) #rt co'es )orth #t the intersection o) these three lines o) thought! the %resent @ork '#y @ell be the s'#ll see$ )ro' @hich it @ill s%rout. he centr#l i$e# o) the %sychology o) #rt! I believe! is the recognition o) the $o'in#nce o) '#teri#l over #rtistic )or'! or! @h#t #'ounts to the s#'e thing! the #ckno@le$ge'ent in #rt o) the soci#l techni.ues o) e'otions. he 'etho$ o) investig#ting this %roble' is the ob=ective,#n#lytic#l 'etho$ @hich %rocee$s )ro' #n #n#lysis o) #rt in or$er to #rrive #t # %sychologic#l synthesis > the 'etho$ o) #n#lysis o) #rtistic syste's o) sti'uli. -long @ith :enne.uin! I look u%on # @ork o) #rt #s 6# co'bin#tion o) #esthetic sy'bols #i'e$ #t #rousing e'otion in %eo%le8 #n$ I #tte'%t! by #n#ly(ing these sy'bols! to

re,cre#te the e'otions corres%on$ing to the'. 4ut the $i))erence bet@een 'y 'etho$ #n$ the #esthetic, %sychologic#l one is th#t I $o not inter%ret these sy'bols #s '#ni)est#tions o) the s%iritu#l org#ni(#tion o) the #uthor or his re#$ers. I $o not #tte'%t to in)er the %sychology o) #n #uthor or his re#$ers )ro' # @ork o) #rt! since I kno@ this c#nnot be $one on the b#sis o) #n inter%ret#tion o) sy'bols. I sh#ll #tte'%t to stu$y the %ure #n$ i'%erson#l %sychology o) #rt @ithout re)erence to either the #uthor or the re#$er! looking only #t the )or' #n$ '#teri#l o) the @ork o) #rt. Let 'e eA%l#in. 2ro' ?rylov5s )#bles #lone @e shoul$ never be #ble to reconstruct his %sychology! #n$ the %sychology o) his re#$ers @ill $i))er bet@een %eo%le o) the nineteenth #n$ the t@entieth centuries! #n$ bet@een grou%s! cl#sses! #ges! #n$ in$ivi$u#ls. 4ut @e c#n! by #n#ly(ing # )#ble! $iscover the %sychologic#l l#@ on @hich it is b#se$! the 'ech#nis' through @hich it #cts; this @e '#y c#ll the %sychology o) the )#ble. -ctu#lly! o) course! this l#@ #n$ this 'ech#nis' h#ve no@here #cte$ in their %ure )or' but h#ve been co'%lic#te$ by # @hole series o) %heno'en# #n$ %rocesses u%on @hich they h#ve i'%inge$. We @ere #lso .uite right in eli'in#ting )ro' the %sychology o) the )#ble its concrete e))ect! =ust #s the %sychologist isol#tes # %ure re#ction! sensory or 'otor! selection or $istinction! #n$ stu$ies it #s #n i'%erson#l re#ction. 2in#lly! the essence o) the %roble'! I believe! is this: the theoretic#l #n$ #%%lie$ %sychology o) #rt shoul$ bring to light #ll the 'ech#nis's th#t o%er#te through #rt #n$ shoul$ #lso %rovi$e the b#sis )or #ll $isci%lines concerne$ @ith #rt. he t#sk o) the %resent @ork is essenti#lly one o) synthesis. MDller,2reien)els h#s very rightly s#i$ th#t the %sychologist o) #rt rese'bles the biologist @ho c#n '#ke # co'%lete #n#lysis o) living '#tter #n$ bre#k it $o@n into its co'%onent %#rts but is un#ble to recre#te the living @hole out o) these %#rts or to $iscover the l#@s th#t govern this @hole. - long series o) %ublic#tions h#s un$ert#ken such # syste'#tic #n#lysis o) the %sychology o) #rt! but I kno@ o) no @ork th#t h#s ob=ectively %ose$ #n$ solve$ the %roble' o) the %sychologic#l synthesis o) #rt. In this sense! it see's to 'e! the %resent #tte'%t $oes re%resent # ne@ ste% #n$ ventures to intro$uce cert#in ne@ #n$ hitherto unst#te$ conce%ts into the )iel$ o) scienti)ic $iscussion. he ne@ i$e#s @hich I consi$er 'y o@n in this book 'ust o) course be teste$ #n$ critici(e$ #g#inst other conce%ts #n$ the )#cts. Bet #t this ti'e they see' reli#ble #n$ '#ture enough to be %resente$ in # book. he gener#l #i' o) this @ork h#s been the #chieve'ent o) # $egree o) scienti)ic soun$ness #n$ sobriety in the %sychology o) #rt! the 'ost s%ecul#tive #n$ 'ystic#lly uncle#r #re# o) %sychology. My thought is eA%resse$ in those @or$s o) S%ino(# @hich #%%e#r in the e%igr#%h #t the beginning o) the book. Like hi'! I h#ve strive$ neither to be #stonishe$! nor to l#ugh! nor to @ee% > but to un$erst#n$.

The Psychological Problem of Art

2irst Publishe$: 19"1; Source: Psychology o) -rt; Publisher: MI Press; r#nsl#te$: Scri%t# echnic#l r#nscri%tionEM#rku%: &#te Sch'ol(e F'#rAists.orgG 2<<<. his @ork h#s been re%ro$uce$ in #ccor$#nce to H 1<9 o) C.S. co%yright l#@ F itle 1"! %. 13G. his $istribution is '#$e in #ccor$#nce to the re.uire'ents un$er H 1<9: F1G @ithout the %ur%ose o) #ny co''erci#l #$v#nt#ge; F2G in # collection th#t is o%en to the %ublic; #n$ F/G inclu$es # notice o) co%yright o) the re%ro$uce$ @ork.

6-esthetics )ro' #bove8 #n$ 6#esthetics )ro' belo@8. M#rAist theory o) #rt #n$ %sychology. Soci#l #n$ in$ivi$u#l %sychology o) #rt. Sub=ective #n$ ob=ective %sychology o) #rt. he ob=ective,#n#lytic#l 'etho$ #n$ its #%%lic#tion. I) @e @ere to $r#@ # boun$#ry $ivi$ing #ll the tren$s o) conte'%or#ry #esthetics into t@o gre#t $irections! @e @oul$ think o) %sychology. hese t@o $irections! the %sychologic#l #n$ the non%sychologic#l! cover everything th#t is going on in #esthetics. 2echner #%tly s%e#ks o) #n 6#esthetics )ro' #bove8 #n$ #n 6#esthetics )ro' belo@.8 It 'ight see' th#t @e #re $e#ling here not only @ith t@o $i))erent #re#s o) one #n$ the s#'e science! but @ith t@o in$e%en$ent $isci%lines! e#ch o) @hich h#s its o@n sub=ect #n$ its o@n 'etho$ o) stu$y. So'e continue to reg#r$ #esthetics l#rgely #s # s%ecul#tive science! @hile others! such #s +. ?iil%e! #re incline$ to believe th#t 6#t the %resent ti'e #esthetics is in # st#te o) tr#nsition ... the s%ecul#tive 'etho$ o) %ost,?#nti#n i$e#lis' h#s #l'ost co'%letely been #b#n$one$. I'%iric#l investig#tion! ho@ever is in)luence$ by %sychology. o us #esthetics is the te#ching o) #esthetic beh#vior FVerhaltenG! th#t is to s#y! the gener#l st#te %ro$uce$ in # %erson by #n #esthetic i'%ression. We 'ust reg#r$ #esthetics #s the %sychology o) #esthetic en=oy'ent #n$ #rtistic cre#tivity.8 Volkelt hol$s the s#'e vie@. 6-n #esthetic ob=ect8 he s#ys! 6... #c.uires its s%eci)ic #esthetic ch#r#cter only through the %erce%tion! )eeling! #n$ i'#gin#tion o) the %erson %erceiving it.8 his i$e# o) %sychology h#s been recently es%ouse$ by such schol#rs #s Veselovskii. he gener#l i$e# h#s been .uite #%%ro%ri#tely eA%resse$ by Volkelt: 6Psychology must become the basis for aesthetics.8 6 he )irst! 'ost urgent t#sk o) #esthetics is! o) course! to %rovi$e # $et#ile$ #n$ subtle %sychologic#l #n#lysis o) #rt! r#ther th#n 'et#%hysic#l s%ecul#tions.8 - $i#'etric#lly o%%ose$ vie@ @#s hel$ in the #nti%sychologic#l tren$s o) 7er'#n %hiloso%hy! @hich bec#'e so %o@er)ul over the %#st $ec#$e! #n$ # co'%en$iu' o) @hich c#n be )oun$ in :. Sh%etJs #rticle. he %ole'ic bet@een the #$herents o) the t@o vie@%oints @#s c#rrie$ on '#inly @ith neg#tive #rgu'ents #n$ the $e'onstr#tion o) e#ch otherJs @e#knesses. he )un$#'ent#l )utility o) this eAercise '#$e the $eb#te te$ious #n$ $el#ye$ #ny %r#ctic#l solution o) the %roble'. -esthetics )ro' #bove $re@ its l#@s #n$ evi$ence )ro' the 6n#ture o) the soul!8 )ro' 'et#%hysic#l %re'ises! or )ro' s%ecul#tive constructions. It took itsel) )or # so'e@h#t s%eci#l eAistenti#l c#tegory! #n$ even such $istinguishe$ %sychologists #s Li%%s $i$ not esc#%e this co''on )#te. -esthetics )ro' belo@! on the other h#n$! concerne$ itsel) @ith eAtr#or$in#rily %ri'itive eA%eri'ents in or$er to cl#ri)y the 'ost b#sic #esthetic rel#tionshi%s; it @#s thus inc#%#ble o) li)ting itsel) even slightly #bove this co'bin#tion o) %ri'or$i#l #n$ )un$#'ent#lly 'e#ningless )#cts. It bec#'e ever 'ore obvious th#t both #esthetic tren$s @ere in the throes o) # $ee% crisis. M#ny #uthors re#li(e$ th#t the subst#nce #n$ n#ture o) the crisis @ent )#r beyon$ @h#t 'ight h#ve been reg#r$e$ #s the crisis o) #n in$ivi$u#l tren$. he origin#l %re'ises o) both tren$s #s @ell #s their scienti)ic b#ses o) investig#tion #n$ 'etho$s su$$enly turne$ out to be )#lse. his bec#'e obvious @hen the crisis s%re#$ to both the e'%iric#l %sychology #n$ the 7er'#n i$e#listic %hiloso%hy o) recent $ec#$es. o bre#k this $e#$lock! # r#$ic#l ch#nge in the b#sic %rinci%les o) investig#tion! the selection o) tot#lly ne@ 'etho$s! #n$ # ne@ $e)inition o) the %roble' #re necess#ry. -s concerns #esthetics )ro' #bove! it is obvious th#t # theory c#n be $evelo%e$ only )ro' sociologic#l #n$ historic#l b#ses. It is e.u#lly obvious th#t #rt @ill beco'e the ob=ect o) scienti)ic stu$y only i) it is reg#r$e$ #s one o) the vit#l )unctions o) society! inti'#tely connecte$ @ith #ll the other s%heres o) soci#l li)e in its '#teri#l,historic#l st#te. +) #ll the sociologic#l tren$s in #rt theory! the 'ost consistent in its %rogress is the theory o) historic#l '#teri#lis'! @hich tries to b#se the scienti)ic #n#lysis o) #rt on the %rinci%les #%%lie$ to the stu$y o) #ll %heno'en# o) soci#l li)e. 2ro' this %oint o) vie@ #rt is usu#lly

reg#r$e$ #s one o) the )or's o) i$eology #rising! #s $o #ll other )or's! #s # structure su%eri'%ose$ on econo'ic #n$ %ro$uctive rel#tions. It is .uite obvious th#t since #esthetics )ro' belo@ @#s #l@#ys e'%iric#l #n$ %ositive! the M#rAist theory o) #rt @oul$ '#ke # cle#r,cut #tte'%t to intro$uce such # %sychology into #esthetics. Lun#ch#rskii even goes so )#r #s to vie@ #esthetics #s # br#nch o) %sychology. &onetheless! it @oul$ be .uite su%er)ici#l to #ssert th#t #rt h#s no evolution#ry l#@ o) its o@n. he )lo@ o) @#ter is $eter'ine$ by its be$ #n$ its b#nks. So'eti'es @#ter stretches out in # st#gn#nt %on$. So'eti'es it )lo@s in # c#l' '#=estic current. hen it '#y s@irl #n$ )o#' #long # stony be$! or $ro% in @#ter)#lls! turn right or le)t! or even turn b#ck. 4ut no '#tter ho@ cle#r it is th#t the course o) # brook is $eter'ine$ by the in)leAible l#@s i'%ose$ by outsi$e con$itions! its essence is $eter'ine$ by the l#@s o) hy$ro$yn#'ics! l#@s @hich @e c#nnot $erive )ro' the out@#r$ con$itions o) )lo@ @ithout h#ving so'e kno@le$ge #bout the n#ture o) @#ter. 2or this theory! the boun$#ry th#t )or'erly $ivi$e$ #esthetics )ro' #bove )ro' #esthetics )ro' belo@! )ollo@s # tot#lly $i))erent course. &o@ it se%#r#tes the sociology o) #rt )ro' the %sychology o) #rt #n$ sho@s e#ch o) these )iel$s its o@n ch#r#cteristic %oint o) vie@ concerning one #n$ the s#'e ob=ect o) investig#tion. Plekh#nov! in his stu$ies on #rt! $istinguishes very sh#r%ly bet@een the t@o vie@s. :e %oints out th#t the %sychologic#l 'ech#nis's @hich $e)ine the #esthetic beh#vior o) '#n #re $eter'ine$ by sociologic#l c#uses. here)ore! %sychology stu$ies the e))ect o) these 'ech#nis's! @hile sociology stu$ies their c#us#lity. 6M#nJs n#ture is such th#t he c#n h#ve #esthetic t#stes #n$ conce%ts. :is environ'ent#l con$itions '#ke this %ossibility # re#lity; the environ'ent #ccounts )or the )#ct th#t # given soci#l in$ivi$u#l For # given society! %eo%le! or cl#ssG h#s cert#in #esthetic t#stes #n$ conce%ts r#ther th#n others. ...8 hus! #t v#rious st#ges o) his soci#l evolution! '#n receives )ro' n#ture $i))erent i'%ressions! bec#use he sees n#ture )ro' $i))erent %oints o) vie@. +) course! the e))ect o) the gener#l l#@s governing '#nJs %sychologic#l n#ture is not interru%te$ $uring #ny o) these st#ges. 4ut since #t $i))erent %erio$s 6'#nJs 'in$ receives #nything but ho'ogeneous #n$ i$entic#l '#teri#l! it is not sur%rising th#t the results )ro' %rocessing th#t '#teri#l #re #nything but i$entic#l.8 6... to @h#t eAtent c#n the %sychologic#l l#@s be reg#r$e$ #s # key to eA%l#n#tion o) the history o) i$eology in gener#l #n$ the history o) #rt in %#rticul#rK In the %sychology o) seventeenth, century '#n! the %rinci%le o) #ntithesis %l#ye$ eA#ctly the s#'e role #s in th#t o) our conte'%or#ries. Why! then! #re our #esthetic t#stes $i#'etric#lly o%%ose$ to those o) seventeenth century '#nK 4ec#use @e )in$ ourselves in # tot#lly $i))erent con$ition. his 'e#ns th#t @e #re #bout to re#ch # conclusion @ell kno@n to us: the %sychologic#l n#ture o) '#n '#kes it %ossible )or hi' to h#ve #esthetic conce%ts! #n$ ;#r@inJs %rinci%le o) #ntithesis Fthe :egeli#n $i#lecticG %l#ys #n eAtre'ely i'%ort#nt role! hitherto not su))iciently eA%l#ine$! in the 'ech#nis' o) these conce%ts. Why! ho@ever! # given soci#l in$ivi$u#l h#s %recisely these r#ther th#n other t#stes; @hy he likes %recisely these r#ther th#n other ob=ects > this $e%en$s u%on environ'ent#l con$itions.8 Plekh#nov! better th#n #nyone else! @#s #ble to eA%l#in the theoretic#l #n$ 'etho$ologic#l nee$ )or the %sychologic#l investig#tion o) the M#rAist theory o) #rt. In his @or$s! 6all ideologies have one common root: the psychology of a given era.8 Csing the eA#'%les o) :ugo! 4erlio(! #n$ ;el#croiA! he sho@s ho@ the %sychologic#l ro'#nticis' o) their er# g#ve birth to three $i))erent )or's o) i$eologic#l ro'#nticis' in three co'%letely $i))erent )iel$s: %oetry! 'usic! #n$ %#inting. In the )or'ul# given by Plekh#nov to eA%ress the rel#tionshi% bet@een the b#se #n$ the su%erstructure! @e h#ve )ive se.uenti#l ele'ents:

1. he st#te o) %ro$uctive )orces 2. he econo'ic con$itions /. he socio%olitic#l regi'e 0. he %syche o) soci#l '#n 5. V#rious i$eologies re)lecting the %ro%erties o) this %syche. hus! the %syche o) soci#l '#n is vie@e$ #s the gener#l substr#tu' co''on to #ll the i$eologies o) # given er#! inclu$ing #rt. -n$ @e #lso recogni(e th#t #rt is $eter'ine$ #n$ con$itione$ by the %syche o) soci#l '#n. Inste#$ o) the ol$ #nt#gonis'! @e no@ )in$ so'e h#r'ony bet@een the %sychologic#l #n$ #nti, %sychologic#l tren$s in #esthetics. here is #lso # 'ore %recise $e'#rc#tion bet@een the' on the b#sis o) M#rAist sociology. his sociologic#l syste'! the %hiloso%hy o) historic#l '#teri#lis'! is o) course not likely to eA%l#in #nything on the b#sis o) hu'#n %syche #s the ulti'#te c#use. 4ut it is #lso not likely to re=ect or ignore the %syche #n$ the signi)ic#nce o) its stu$y #s #n #uAili#ry 'ech#nis'! @hich! together @ith econo'ic rel#tionshi%s #n$ the socio%olitic#l regi'e! gener#tes i$eologies. When investig#ting co'%leA #rt )or's! this theory insists on the nee$ o) stu$ying the %syche! bec#use the $ist#nce bet@een econo'ic rel#tions #n$ i$eologic#l )or' gro@s const#ntly gre#ter; hence! #rt c#n no longer be eA%l#ine$ #s # $irect conse.uence o) econo'ic con$itions. Plekh#nov h#$ this in 'in$ @hen he co'%#re$ the $#nce o) -ustr#li#n #borigines @ith the eighteenth,century 'inuet. 6 o un$erst#n$ the $#nce o) -ustr#li#n n#tive @o'en! it su))ices to kno@ the role %l#ye$ in the trib#l li)e o) -ustr#li#n #borigines by @o'en g#thering @il$,gro@ing %l#nts. o un$erst#n$ the 'inuet! ho@ever! it $oes not su))ice to kno@ the econo'y o) eighteenth,century 2r#nce. We #re $e#ling here @ith # $#nce th#t eA%resses the %sychology o) # non%ro$uctive cl#ss. ... here)ore! the econo'ic L)#ctorJ yiel$s its %l#ce #n$ %osition to the %sychologic#l )#ctor. We 'ust re'e'ber! ho@ever! th#t the e'ergence o) non%ro$uctive cl#sses in hu'#n society is # %ro$uct o) econo'ic evolution.8 hus! the M#rAist #%%ro#ch to #rt! es%eci#lly in its 'ore co'%leA )or's! necess#rily involves the stu$y o) the %sycho%hysic#l e))ect o) #rtistic cre#tion. - sub=ect o) sociologic#l investig#tion '#y be #n i$eology #s such! or else it '#y be $e%en$ent u%on cert#in )or's o) soci#l evolution. 4ut no sociologic#l investig#tion %er se Fi.e.! not co'%le'ente$ by %sychologic#l investig#tionG @ill ever be #ble to eA%ose the %ri'e c#use o) #ny i$eology! the %syche o) soci#l '#n. o $eter'ine the 'etho$ologic#l boun$#ry bet@een the $i))erent vie@%oints! it is o) %#r#'ount i'%ort#nce to un$erst#n$ @h#t $istinguishes %sychology )ro' i$eology. We c#n no@ un$erst#n$ the $istinct role #ssigne$ to #rt #s # s%eci#l i$eologic#l )or' $e#ling @ith # tot#lly $istinct #n$ %eculi#r #s%ect o) the hu'#n %syche. -n$! i) @e #re to un$erst#n$ this %#rticul#r ch#r#cteristic o) #rt #n$ to kno@ @h#t eA#ctly $istinguishes it #n$ its #ction )ro' #ll other i$eologic#l )or's! @e c#nnot but resort to %sychologic#l #n#lysis. -rt syste'#ti(es # very s%eci#l s%here in the %syche o) soci#l '#n > his e'otions. While it is true th#t #ll the re#l's o) the %syche #re gener#te$ by the s#'e c#uses! it is #lso true th#t! by #cting vi# v#rious %sychic 'o$es o) beh#vior FVerhaltungsweisenG! these c#uses bring to li)e v#rious i$eologic#l )or's. he ol$ #nt#gonis' is there)ore tr#ns)or'e$ into #n #lli#nce o) t@o tren$s in #esthetics! e#ch o) @hich c#n beco'e signi)ic#nt only @ithin # gener#l %hiloso%hic#l syste'. he re)or' o) #esthetics )ro' #bove is no@ un$er @#y! #n$ is l#i$ out in # nu'ber o) @orks to such #n eAtent th#t it is %ossible to stu$y these %roble's in the s%irit o) historic#l '#teri#lis'. +n the other h#n$! #s )#r #s the %sychology o) #rt is concerne$! things #re tot#lly $i))erent. here #re $i))iculties #n$ %roble's co'%letely unkno@n to the convention#l 'etho$ology o) %sychologic#l #esthetics. +ne o) these is the se%#r#tion o) soci#l )ro' in$ivi$u#l %sychology @hen stu$ying #rt. he ol$ vie@%oint @hich $i$ not #$'it # $istinction bet@een these t@o 'ust be thoroughly revise$. I )eel th#t the convention#l conce%tion o) the ob=ect #n$ the sub=ect o) soci#l %sychology @ill turn out to be )#lse #t its very root i) teste$ #g#inst the ne@

#%%ro#ch. In$ee$! the vie@%oint o) soci#l %sychology! or the %sychology o) %eo%les! #s $e)ine$ by Wun$t! chose #s the sub=ect o) its stu$ies l#ngu#ge! 'yths! custo's! #rt! #n$ religious syste's! #s @ell #s =uri$ic#l #n$ ethic#l st#n$#r$s. here is no $oubt th#t )ro' the vie@%oint o) the ne@ #%%ro#ch #ll this is no longer %sychology but # conglo'er#te o) i$eology! or cryst#ls o) i$eology. he t#sk o) %sychology! ho@ever! is to stu$y the solution %er se! to stu$y the soci#l %syche #n$ not the i$eology. L#ngu#ge! custo's! #n$ 'yths #re the results o) the #ctivity o) the soci#l %syche! not its %rocess. :ence! @hen soci#l %sychology $e#ls @ith the sub=ect! it substitutes i$eology )or %sychology. It is evi$ent th#t the )un$#'ent#l %re'ise o) convention#l soci#l %sychology #n$ o) the u%co'ing collective re)leAology! #ccor$ing to @hich the %sychology o) the in$ivi$u#l is not )it to eA%l#in soci#l %sychology! @ill be sh#ken by the ne@ 'etho$ologic#l #ssu'%tions. 4ekhterev cl#i's th#t 6... obviously! the %sychology o) in$ivi$u#ls is not suit#ble )or eA%l#ining soci#l 'ove'ents. ...8 he s#'e vie@ is hel$ by other soci#l %sychologists Flike Mc;oug#ll! Le 4on! 2reu$! et #l.G! @ho reg#r$ the soci#l %syche #s secon$#ry! origin#ting )ro' the %syche o) the in$ivi$u#l. hey #ssu'e th#t there is # s%eci#l in$ivi$u#l %syche #n$ th#t )ro' the inter#ction o) in$ivi$u#l %syches or %sychologies there #rises # collective %syche or %sychology co''on to #ll in$ivi$u#ls hus! soci#l %sychology is reg#r$e$ #s the %sychology o) # collective in$ivi$u#l! in the s#'e @#y th#t # cro@$ is '#$e u% o) single in$ivi$u#ls! even though it h#s # su%r#,in$ivi$u#l %sychology. We see th#t non, M#rAist soci#l %sychology h#s # %ri'itive e'%iric#l #%%ro#ch to the soci#l entity! reg#r$ing it #s # cro@$! # collective entity! # rel#tion bet@een in$ivi$u#ls or %ersons. Society is t#ken to be #n #ssoci#tion o) %eo%le! #n$ it is reg#r$e$ #s #n #ccessory #ctivity o) one in$ivi$u#l. hese %sychologists $o not #$'it th#t so'e@here! in # re'ote #n$ inti'#te corner o) his thought! his )eelings! etc.! the %syche o) #n in$ivi$u#l is soci#l #n$ soci#lly con$itione$. It is e#sy to sho@ th#t the sub=ect o) soci#l %sychology is %recisely the %syche o) the single in$ivi$u#l. *hel%#novJs vie@! )re.uently .uote$ by others! #ccor$ing to @hich s%eci)ic#lly M#rAist %sychology is # soci#l %sychology th#t stu$ies the genesis o) i$eologic#l )or's #ccor$ing to # s%eci)ic#lly M#rAist 'etho$! involving the stu$y o) the origin o) given )or's b#se$ on the soci#l econo'y! is incorrect. I.u#lly incorrect is his vie@ th#t e'%iric#l #n$ eA%eri'ent#l %sychology c#nnot beco'e M#rAist! #ny 'ore th#n 'iner#logy! %hysics! che'istry! etc.! c#n. o corrobor#te his vie@! *hel%#nov re)ers to *h#%ter VIII o) Plekh#novJs Fundamental Problems of Marxism! in @hich the #uthor eA%oun$s the origin o) i$eologies. he eA#ct o%%osite is 'ore likely to be true! n#'ely th#t only the in$ivi$u#l Fi.e.! the e'%iric#l #n$ eA%eri'ent#lG %sychology c#n beco'e M#rAist. In$ee$! ho@ c#n @e $istinguish soci#l %sychology )ro' in$ivi$u#l %sychology i) @e $eny the eAistence o) # %o%ul#r soul! # %o%ul#r s%irit! #n$ so )orthK Soci#l %sychology stu$ies %recisely the %syche o) the single in$ivi$u#l! #n$ @h#t he h#s in his 'in$. here is no other %syche to stu$y. he rest is either 'et#%hysics or i$eology; hence! to #ssert th#t this %sychology c#nnot beco'e M#rAist Fi.e.! soci#lG! =ust #s 'iner#logy #n$ che'istry c#nnot beco'e M#rAist! is t#nt#'ount to not un$erst#n$ing M#rAJs )un$#'ent#l st#te'ent @hich s#ys th#t 6'#n in the 'ost liter#l sense is # zoon politicon Fsoci#l #ni'#l > -ristotleG! #n #ni'#l to @ho' soci#l intercourse is not only %eculi#r but necess#ry in or$er to st#n$ out #s # single in$ivi$u#l.8 o #ssu'e the %syche o) the single in$ivi$u#l Fthe ob=ect o) eA%eri'ent#l #n$ e'%iric#l %sychologyG to be #s eAtr#soci#l #s the ob=ect o) 'iner#logy! 'e#ns to #ssu'e # %osition $i#'etric#lly o%%ose$ to M#rAis'. +) course! %hysics! che'istry! 'iner#logy! #n$ so on! c#n be either M#rAist or #nti,M#rAist i) @e t#ke science to be not only # b#re listing o) )#cts! # c#t#logue o) rel#tionshi%s #n$ )unctions but # syste'#ti(e$ kno@le$ge o) the @orl$ in its entirety. here no@ re'#ins only the .uestion concerning the genesis o) i$eologic#l )or's. Is it re#lly the t#sk o) soci#l %sychology to stu$y the $e%en$ence o) these )or's on soci#l econo'yK It see's to 'e th#t it is not. his is the gener#l t#sk o) e#ch %#rticul#r $isci%line #s # br#nch o) gener#l sociology. he history o) religion #n$ =uris%ru$ence! the history o) #rt! #n$ the history o) science #cco'%lish this t#sk )or their o@n )iel$s o) en$e#vor.

he incorrectness o) the %revious %oint o) vie@ beco'es evi$ent not only )ro' theoretic#l consi$er#tions but #lso )ro' the %r#ctic#l eA%erience o) soci#l %sychology. Wun$t! in est#blishing the origin o) soci#l cre#tivity! @#s )in#lly )orce$ to resort to the cre#tivity o) the single in$ivi$u#l. :e s#ys th#t the cre#tivity o) one in$ivi$u#l c#n be recogni(e$ by #nother in$ivi$u#l #s #n #$e.u#te eA%ression o) his o@n i$e#s #n$ e'otions; hence! # nu'ber o) $i))erent %ersons c#n be si'ult#neously the cre#tors o) one #n$ the s#'e conce%t. In critici(ing Wun$t! 4ekhterev .uite correctly sho@s th#t 6in this c#se there c#n be obviously no soci#l %sychology since there #re no ne@ t#sks other th#n those th#t #re co'%rise$ in the %sychology o) single in$ivi$u#ls.8 -s # '#tter o) )#ct! the e#rlier vie@%oint! #ccor$ing to @hich there is # )un$#'ent#l $istinction bet@een the %rocesses #n$ the %ro$ucts o) %o%ul#r #n$ in$ivi$u#l cre#tivity! #%%e#rs no@ to h#ve been un#ni'ously $isc#r$e$. o$#y no one @oul$ $#re #ssert th#t #n #ncient bylina F# 1ussi#n %o%ul#r e%icG @ritten )ro' the @or$s o) #n -rkh#ngel5sk )isher'#n! #n$ # Pushkin %oe' c#re)ully correcte$ #n$ e$ite$ by the %oet! #re the %ro$ucts o) $i))erent cre#tive %rocesses. he )#cts testi)y to eA#ctly the o%%osite. -ccur#te investig#tion reve#ls th#t the $i))erence here is %urely .u#ntit#tive. he n#rr#tor o) the bylina $oes not recount it in eA#ctly the s#'e @#y in @hich he receive$ it )ro' his %re$ecessor. :e intro$uces ch#nges! cuts! #$$itions #n$ he reshu))les @or$s #n$ %#rts. hus! he beco'es the #uthor o) th#t %#rticul#r version using the re#$y '#$e st#n$#r$s #n$ clichMs o) %o%ul#r %oetry. :ence! the notion th#t %o%ul#r %oetry is unso%histic#te$ in the sense th#t it is cre#te$ by #n entire %eo%le #n$ not by %ro)ession#ls Fn#rr#tors! troub#$ours! storytellersG o) #rtistic cre#tivity #%%lying # tr#$ition#l! rich! #n$ s%eci#li(e$ techni.ue to their cr#)t #n$ using it in eA#ctly the s#'e @#y #s the @riters o) l#ter %erio$s! is co'%letely @rong. +n the other h#n$! #n #uthor @ho %uts $o@n in @riting the %ro$uct o) his cre#tivity is by no 'e#ns the sole cre#tor o) his @ork. Pushkin! )or eA#'%le! is not the in$ivi$u#l #uthor o) his %oe's. :e $i$ not invent the 'etho$s o) @riting verse #n$ rhy'es! or o) construing # sub=ect or the'e in # s%eci)ic @#y. Like the n#rr#tors o) the byliny! he %#sses on the i''ense herit#ge o) liter#ry tr#$ition @hich to # gre#t eAtent $e%en$s on the evolution o) l#ngu#ge! verse @riting techni.ues! tr#$ition#l sub=ects! the'es! i'#ges! co'%osition#l sub=ects! #n$ so on. Were @e to $eter'ine in # liter#ry @ork @h#t is cre#te$ by the #uthor hi'sel) #n$ @h#t he h#s t#ken re#$y '#$e )ro' the liter#ry tr#$ition! @e @oul$ )in$ th#t the #uthorJs cre#tivity #'ounts to selecting cert#in ele'ents! co'bining the' @ithin given! gener#lly #cce%te$ st#n$#r$s! tr#ns%osing cert#in tr#$ition#l ele'ents into other syste's! #n$ so )orth. In other @or$s! in both the -rkh#ngel5sk n#rr#tors o) byliny #n$ in Pushkin @e c#n #l@#ys $etect the eAistence o) both ele'ents: the in$ivi$u#l #uthorshi% #n$ the liter#ry tr#$itions. he $i))erence! #s st#te$ be)ore! consists only in the .u#ntit#tive rel#tionshi% bet@een the t@o. In Pushkin the in$ivi$u#l #uthorshi% %rev#ils! @hile in the bylina n#rr#tive it is the liter#ry tr#$ition th#t %rev#ils. o use Silvers@#nJs @ell chosen si'ile! both re'in$ us o) # s@i''er crossing # river #n$ being $r#gge$ #@#y by the current. he s@i''erJs %#th! like the @riterJs cre#tivity! is the result#nt o) t@o )orces! the s@i''erJs o@n e))ort #n$ the $evi#ting )orce o) the current. We h#ve enough re#sons to #ssert th#t )ro' # %sychologic#l %oint o) vie@ there is no )un$#'ent#l $i))erence bet@een the %rocesses o) %o%ul#r #n$ in$ivi$u#l cre#tivity. hus! 2reu$ is co'%letely right @hen he st#tes th#t in$ivi$u#l %sychology )ro' the ince%t is #t the s#'e ti'e #lso soci#l %sychology. #r$eJs inter'ent#l %sychology Finter%sychologyG #s @ell #s the soci#l %sychology o) other #uthors 'ust there)ore be vie@e$ in # co'%letely $i))erent light. In #gree'ent @ith Siegel! $e L# 7r#sserie! 1ossi! #n$ others! I #' incline$ to believe th#t @e 'ust $istinguish bet@een soci#l #n$ collective %sychology! but I )eel th#t the @#y to $o this 'ust be )un$#'ent#lly $i))erent. 4ec#use this $istinction is b#se$ on the $egree o) org#ni(#tion o) the collective un$er stu$y! this o%inion is not gener#lly #cce%te$ in soci#l %sychology. he $i))erence beco'es sel) evi$ent i) @e consi$er the %syche o) the single in$ivi$u#l #s the sub=ect o)

soci#l %sychology. It is obvious th#t the sub=ect o) in$ivi$u#l %sychology coinci$es @ith th#t o) $i))erenti#l %sychology! the t#sk o) @hich is the stu$y o) in$ivi$u#l $i))erences in single in$ivi$u#ls. he conce%t o) gener#l re)leAology! #s o%%ose$ to 4ekhterevJs collective re)leAology! #lso co'%letely coinci$es @ith this. 6In this res%ect there is # cert#in rel#tion bet@een the re)leAology o) the single in$ivi$u#l #n$ collective re)leAology; the )or'er #i's #t cl#ri)ying the %eculi#rities o) the single in$ivi$u#l! tries to )in$ $i))erences in the in$ivi$u#l 'ent#lities o) %ersons! #n$ sho@ the re)leAologic#l b#sis o) these $i))erences! @hile collective re)leAology! @hich stu$ies '#ss or collective '#ni)est#tions o) correl#tive #ctivity! is essenti#lly #i'e$ #t cl#ri)ying ho@ soci#l %ro$ucts o) # correl#tive #ctivity #re obt#ine$ by the correl#tion bet@een single in$ivi$u#ls in soci#l grou%s #n$ by s'oothing #@#y their in$ivi$u#l $i))erences.8 It is obvious th#t @e #re $e#ling here @ith $i))erenti#l %sychology in the %recise #cce%t#nce o) th#t ter'. Wh#t! then! is the sub=ect o) collective %sychology #s suchK here is # si'%le #ns@er to this .uestion: Iverything @ithin us is soci#l! but this $oes not i'%ly th#t #ll the %ro%erties o) the %syche o) #n in$ivi$u#l #re inherent in #ll the other 'e'bers o) this grou% #s @ell. +nly # cert#in %#rt o) the in$ivi$u#l %sychology c#n be reg#r$e$ #s belonging to # given grou%! #n$ this %ortion o) in$ivi$u#l %sychology #n$ its collective '#ni)est#tions is stu$ie$ by collective %sychology @hen it looks into the %sychology o) the #r'y! the church! #n$ so on. hus! inste#$ o) $istinguishing bet@een soci#l #n$ in$ivi$u#l %sychology! @e 'ust $istinguish bet@een soci#l #n$ collective %sychology. he $i))erence bet@een soci#l #n$ in$ivi$u#l %sychology in #esthetics #%%e#rs to be the s#'e #s th#t bet@een nor'#tive #n$ $escri%tive #esthetic bec#use! #s sho@n .uite correctly by MDnsterberg! historic#l #esthetics @#s connecte$ @ith soci#l %sychology! #n$ nor'#tive #esthetics @ith in$ivi$u#l %sychology. 2#r 'ore i'%ort#nt is the $i))erence bet@een sub=ective #n$ ob=ective %sychology o) #rt. he $i))erence o) the intros%ective 'etho$ #s #%%lie$ to the stu$y o) #esthetic )eelings beco'es obvious )ro' the in$ivi$u#l %ro%erties o) these )eelings. 4y its very n#ture! #n #esthetic )eeling is inco'%rehensible #n$ )un$#'ent#lly obscure in its evolution to the %erson eA%eriencing it. We $o not re#lly kno@ or un$erst#n$ @hy @e like or $islike #n ob=ect. -nything @e $evise to eA%l#in its beh#vior is but #n #)terthought! #n obvious r#tion#li(#tion o) unconscious %rocesses. he very subst#nce o) the eA%erience! ho@ever! re'#ins 'ysterious. he %ur%ose o) #rt is to $isguise #rt! #ccor$ing to # 2rench '#Ai'. Psychology #tte'%te$ to solve these %roble's eA%eri'ent#lly! but #ll 'etho$s o) eA%eri'ent#l #esthetics! #s #%%lie$ by 2echner Fthe 'etho$s o) selection! $eter'in#tion! #n$ #%%lic#tionG or #%%rove$ by ?Dl%e F'etho$ o) selection! gr#$u#l ch#nge! #n$ ti'e v#ri#tionG! #re essenti#lly not #ble to be #nything but the si'%lest #n$ 'ost ele'ent#ry #esthetic ev#lu#tions or #%%r#is#ls. In su''#ri(ing the results o) this 'etho$ology! 2rebes re#ches very l#'ent#ble results. :#'#n #n$ *roce critici(e$ it severely! #n$ the l#tter bluntly c#lle$ it #esthetic #strology. &ot 'uch better is the n#ive #%%ro#ch to stu$ying #rt by eA%loring the #rtistJs %erson#lity @ith such test .uestions #s! 6Wh#t @oul$ you $o i) your belove$ betr#ye$ youK8 Iven i) @e @ere to t#ke the #rtistJs %ulse or res%ir#tion or i) the #rtist @ere #ske$ to eA%ress hi'sel) on s%ring! su''er! #utu'n! or @inter $uring such # test > it still @oul$ be #n ine))ective! ine))icient! #n$ ri$iculous @#y o) stu$ying the sub=ect. he )un$#'ent#l error o) eA%eri'ent#l #esthetics consists in st#rting )ro' the @rong en$! th#t o) #esthetic %le#sure #n$ #esthetic #%%r#is#l! #ll the @hile intention#lly ignoring the )#ct th#t both %le#sure #n$ #%%r#is#l '#y be #rbitr#ry! secon$#ry! or even irrelev#nt )e#tures o) #esthetic beh#vior. -nother error is the in#bility to $etect the s%eci)ics th#t $istinguish #n #esthetic eA%erience )ro' #n or$in#ry one. IA%eri'ent#l #esthetics @ill never be #ble to #chieve #nything so long #s it ev#lu#tes si'%le co'bin#tions o) colors! soun$s! lines! #n$ so on! #n$ )#ils to un$erst#n$ th#t these #lone $o not ch#r#cteri(e #esthetic %erce%tion #s such.

2in#lly! the thir$ #n$ 'ost serious error o) eA%eri'ent#l #esthetics is the #ssu'%tion th#t # co'%leA #esthetic eA%erience is the su' o) in$ivi$u#l 'inor #esthetic %le#sures. he be#uty o) #n #rchitectur#l structure or o) # 'usic#l co'%osition c#n! #ccor$ing to this #ssu'%tion! be co'%rehen$e$ #s # su''#ry eA%ression o) in$ivi$u#l h#r'o'es! chor$s! the gol$en section! #n$ so on. It is obvious th#t )or convention#l #esthetics the ter's 6sub=ective8 #n$ 6ob=ective8 @ere synony'ous @ith %sychologic#l #n$ non,%sychologic#l #esthetics. he conce%t o) ob=ective %sychologic#l #esthetics @#s # senseless #n$ contr#$ictory co'bin#tion o) conce%ts #n$ @or$s. he gre#t crisis in %sychology to$#y h#s s%lit %sychologists 'ore or less into t@o c#'%s: +ne o) these h#s gone )urther #n$ $ee%er into sub=ectivis' th#n even ;ilthey et #l.! obviously le#ning to@#r$ %ure 4ergsonis'. he other! r#nging )ro' -'eric# to S%#in! is trying to cre#te #n ob=ective %sychology. -'eric#n beh#vioris'! 7er'#n 7est#lt %sychology! re)leAology! #n$ M#rAist %sychology #re eA#'%les o) such #tte'%ts. It is cle#r th#t this tren$ to@#r$ ob=ectivis' involves not only the 'etho$ology o) convention#l #esthetics but #lso th#t o) %sychologic#l #esthetics. he '#=or t#sk o) this %sychology is there)ore the cre#tion o) #n ob=ective 'etho$ #n$ syste' o) #rt %sychology; this is # '#tter o) li)e #n$ $e#th )or this entire )iel$ o) kno@le$ge. 4ut in or$er to #tte'%t the solution o) this %roble'! one 'ust )irst outline the %sychologic#l %roble' o) #rt 'ore %recisely #n$ only then begin stu$ying its 'etho$s. It c#n be sho@n .uite re#$ily th#t #ny investig#tion o) #rt 'ust necess#rily o%er#te @ith cert#in %sychologic#l %re'ises #n$ $#t#. L#cking # )inishe$ %sychologic#l theory o) #rt! these investig#tions use the vulg#r $#y,to,$#y %sychology #long @ith $o'estic observ#tions. It is e#sier to sho@ by #n eA#'%le ho@ un)orgiv#ble 'ist#kes c#n '#ke their @#y into serious books @hen they resort to co''on%l#ce %sychology. +ne such error is the co''on %sychologic#l ch#r#cteri(#tion o) verse 'eter. In # recent book! 7rigor5ev %oints out th#t the sincerity o) the %oetJs e'otions #n$ )eelings c#n be teste$ by # rhyth'ic curve $evise$ by -n$rei 4ely )or $i))erent %oe's. :e $escribes the trochee %sychologic#lly #s 6... use)ul )or eA%ressing cheer)ul! $#ncing 'oo$s! #s )or eA#'%le in L*lou$s #re r#cing! clou$s #re @hirlingJ 8 F# %oe' by PushkinG. 4ut i) # %oet uses the trochee to eA%ress #n elegi#c 'oo$! then it is evi$ent th#t the 'oo$ is insincere or #rti)ici#l! #n$ the #tte'%t to use the trochee )or #n elegy is #s %re%osterous #s! #ccor$ing to # @itty re'#rk by the %oet 1uk#vishnikov! 6#n #tte'%t to scul%ture # &egro in @hite '#rble.8 It is enough to re'in$ onesel) o) the Pushkin %oe' .uote$ by 7rigor5ev or even o) # single line )ro' it F6%l#intive s.ue#ls #n$ ho@ls #re h#rro@ing 'y soul8G! to re#li(e th#t here is no tr#ce o) the 6cheer)ul! $#ncing 'oo$8 #scribe$ to the trochee. Inste#$! the %oet uses the trochee in # lyric#l %oe' to eA%ress # so'bre! $es%er#te 'oo$. 7rigor5ev c#lls this #tte'%t #s %re%osterous #s scul%turing # &egro )ro' @hite '#rble. +nly # b#$ scul%tor @oul$ %#int # @hite '#rble st#tue o) # &egro bl#ck! #n$ only # b#$ %sychologist @oul$ $ecree troch#ic verses to be )it )or eA%ressing only cheer)ul! $#ncing 'oo$s. White '#rble st#tues '#y in$ee$ re%resent &egroes! =ust #s lyric#l verses eA%ressing s#$ or $es%er#te 'oo$s '#y be troch#ic. It is true! ho@ever! th#t both inst#nces nee$ # s%eci#l eA%l#n#tion th#t c#n be given only by the %sychology o) #rt. -s #n #$$en$u' to this @e '#y bring u% #n #n#logous ch#r#cteri(#tion o) verse 'eters given by Ber'#kov: 6In the %oe' L- Wintery 1o#$J Fby PushkinG! the %oet uses # s#$! i#'bic 'eter )or this highly sensitive @ork! #n$ gener#tes # )eeling o) inti'#te #lien#tion #n$ utter s#$ness. ...8 his %sychologic#l construction c#nnot st#n$ u% #g#inst # si'%le )#ct > the %oe' 6- Wintery 1o#$8 @#s @ritten in %ure troch#ic tetr#'eters #n$ not in 6# s#$! i#'bic 'eter.8 he %sychologist @ho tries to un$erst#n$ PushkinJs 'el#ncholy )ro' the i#'bic or his cheer)ulness )ro' the trochees h#s lost his @#y in bro#$ $#ylight #n$ h#s )orgotten the scienti)ic#lly est#blishe$ )#ct )or'ul#te$ by 7ershen(on th#t 6)or Pushkin the 'eter is obviously i''#teri#l. :e uses the s#'e 'eter to $escribe the %#rting )ro' # belove$ @o'#n F6 o the Shores o) the 1e'ote 2#therl#n$8G! the ch#sing o) # 'ouse by # c#t Fin 6*ount &ulin8G! the encounter o) #n #ngel @ith # $e'on! # c#%tive siskin. ...8

We sh#ll never be #ble to un$erst#n$ the l#@s governing the )eelings #n$ e'otions in # @ork o) #rt @ithout %ro%er %sychologic#l investig#tion. It is #lso re'#rk#ble th#t the sociologic#l stu$ies o) #rt #re un#ble to co'%letely eA%l#in the 'ech#nics o) # @ork o) #rt. - use)ul tool is the ;#r@ini#n 6%rinci%le o) #ntithesis8 @hich Plekh#nov e'%loys to inter%ret '#ny %heno'en# in #rt. -ll this is evi$ence o) the coloss#l co'%leAity o) the in)luences #cting u%on #rt! @hich c#nnot #n$ 'ust not be re$uce$ to # %ri'itive #n$ single,v#lue$ )or' o) eA%ression. In the )in#l #n#lysis this is no 'ore th#n the %roble' o) the co'%leA e))ect o) # su%erstructure #s bro#che$ by M#rA @hen he s#ys th#t cert#in %erio$s o) its F#rtJsG blosso'ing by no 'e#ns corres%on$ to the gener#l %rogress o) society! #n$ th#t in the )iel$ o) #rt! cert#in i'%ort#nt #rt )or's #re %ossible only #t # lo@ st#ge in the evolution o) #rt. :o@ever! the $i))iculty $oes not consist in the )#ct th#t 7reek #rt #n$ e%ics #re #ssoci#te$ @ith cert#in )or's o) soci#l evolution. It consists r#ther in the )#ct th#t they continue to give us #rtistic %le#sure #n$! to # cert#in eAtent! re'#in #s st#n$#r$ #n$ un#tt#in#ble 'o$els. We h#ve here # %recise )or'ul#tion o) the %sychologic#l %roble' o) #rt. We 'ust! in )#ct! $eter'ine the signi)ic#nce #n$ #ction o) the vit#lity #n$ )#scin#tion o) #rt @hich 6#re not in contr#$iction @ith the un$evelo%e$ soci#l level )ro' @hich they s%r#ng!8 NM#rAO! r#ther th#n est#blish the origin o) #rt #s # )#ctor o) econo'y. hus! the rel#tionshi% bet@een #rt #n$ the econo'ic con$itions gener#ting it turns out to be eAtre'ely co'%leA. his $oes not 'e#n th#t soci#l con$itions $o not co'%letely $eter'ine the ch#r#cter #n$ the e))ect o) # @ork o) #rt; it 'erely sho@s th#t they $eter'ine it in$irectly. he )eelings #n$ e'otions #rouse$ by # @ork o) #rt #re soci#lly con$itione$. his is best sho@n by eA#'%les o) Igy%ti#n %#inting! @here the )or' Fstyli(#tion o) the hu'#n )igureG h#s 'ost obviously the )unction o) c#rrying # soci#l 'ess#ge @hich is l#cking in the ob=ect re%resente$ but is given it by #rt. I) @e eA%#n$ this i$e#! @e '#y =uAt#%ose the e))ect o) #rt #n$ th#t o) science #n$ technology. :ere! too! the %roble' o) %sychologic#l #esthetics is solve$ by the s#'e %#ttern #s th#t )or sociologic#l #esthetics. We #re re#$y to .uote 7#u(enshtein! substituting 6%sychology8 )or his 6sociology8: 6- %urely scienti)ic sociology o) #rt is # '#the'#tic#l )unction.8 6Since #rt is )or'! sociology o) #rt ulti'#tely $eserves this $e)inition only @hen it is #lso # sociology o) )or'. Sociology o) content is %ossible #n$ necess#ry! but it is not sociology o) #rt in the %ro%er sense! since sociology o) #rt! in its %recise 'e#ning! c#n only be sociology o) )or'. Sociology o) content is nothing but gener#l sociology! #n$ it re)ers to the civil history o) society r#ther th#n to its #esthetic history. Vie@ing # revolution#ry %#inting by ;el#croiA )ro' the st#n$%oint o) its sociologic#l content is t#nt#'ount to eA#'ining the Puly revolution r#ther th#n stu$ying the sociology o) the )or'#l ele'ent #ssoci#te$ @ith ;el#croiAJ gre#t n#'e.8 hus! the sub=ect o) this stu$y is gener#l %sychology! not %sychology o) #rt. 6 he sociology o) style c#n never be # sociology o) #n #rt )or'! )or the sociology o) style $e#ls @ith the e))ect on )or'.8 hus the .uestion #rises @hether or not it is %ossible to $eter'ine so'e %sychologic#l l#@s o) the e))ect o) #rt on '#n. IAtre'e i$e#lis' ten$s to $eny #ny regul#r %#ttern in #rt or %sychologic#l li)e. 6&o@ #s be)ore #n$ #)ter! the soul is #n$ @ill be )or ever un)#tho'#ble ... here #re no l#@s )or the soul; hence! there #re none )or #rt.8 4ut i) @e #$'it # %#ttern o) regul#rity in one %sychologic#l li)e! @e 'ust necess#rily re)er to it to eA%l#in the @orkings o) #rt! since these #re #l@#ys #ssoci#te$ @ith our other )or's o) #ctivity. :enne.uinJs #estheto,%sychologic#l 'etho$ involves! there)ore! the correct i$e# th#t soci#l %sychology #lone c#n give # %ro%er b#se #n$ $irection to the #rt stu$ent. Cn)ortun#tely! this 'etho$ bec#'e 'ire$ in @h#t 'ight be c#lle$ # no '#nJs l#n$ bet@een sociology #n$ %sychology. It is there)ore essenti#l )or #ny rese#rch in #rt %sychology to $eter'ine cle#rly #n$ une.uivoc#lly the subst#nce o) the %sychologic#l #rt %roble' #s @ell #s its boun$#ries. We #gree @ith ?Dl%e! #ccor$ing to @ho' #esthetics $oes not )un$#'ent#lly shun %sychology: 6 he )#ct th#t this rel#tion @ith %sychology is occ#sion#lly $is%ute$ is #%%#rently $ue to #n unessenti#l inner $iscre%#ncy: so'e consi$er #estheticsJ

s%eci#l t#sks to be the #%%lic#tion o) # %#rticul#r %oint o) vie@ to the stu$y o) %sychic %heno'en#. +thers reg#r$ the' #s the stu$y o) # %eculi#r region o) )#cts @hich #re usu#lly investig#te$ %sychologic#lly. In the )or'er c#se @e h#ve #n #esthetics o) %sychologic#l )#cts! #n$ in the l#tter! # %sychology o) #esthetic )#cts.8 he '#in t#sk! ho@ever! is to $istinguish #rtJs %sychologic#l %roble' )ro' its sociologic#l one @ith ut'ost %recision. +n the b#sis o) e#rlier #rgu'ents I )eel th#t this is best #chieve$ by using the %sychology o) # single in$ivi$u#l. he gener#lly #cce%te$ )or'ul# #ccor$ing to @hich the eA%eriences! )eelings! #n$ e'otions o) #n in$ivi$u#l c#nnot be use$ #s '#teri#l )or soci#l %sychology is obviously in#%%lic#ble here. It is not true th#t the %sychology o) #n in$ivi$u#lJs eA%erience in #rt is #s little rel#te$ to sociology #s is # 'iner#l or # che'ic#l co'%oun$; but it is evi$ent th#t stu$ying the genesis o) #rt #n$ its $e%en$ence on sociologic#l econo'y is the s%eci#l sub=ect o) the history o) #rt. -rt %er se! #s # @ell,est#blishe$ tren$! #s the su' o) #v#il#ble @orks! is #n i$eology like #ny other. hus! to be or not to be is # %roble' o) 'etho$ )or ob=ective %sychology. he %sychologic#l stu$y o) #rt h#s hitherto )ollo@e$ but one o) t@o tren$s: either the %sychology o) the cre#tor F#rtistG @#s stu$ie$ #s it reve#le$ itsel) in the @ork o) #rt! or the %sychology o) the rece%tor Fvie@er! re#$er! etc.G @#s investig#te$. he i'%er)ection #n$ )utility o) both 'etho$s #re su))iciently obvious. *onsi$ering the eAtr#or$in#ry co'%leAity o) cre#tive %rocesses #n$ the tot#l l#ck o) kno@le$ge #bout the l#@s governing the eA%ression o) the #rtistJs %syche in his @ork '#kes it cle#r th#t @e c#nnot @ork b#ck )ro' the @ork o) #rt to the #rtistJs %sychology unless @e resign ourselves to being lost )orever in con=ectures. 2urther'ore! Ingels h#s sho@n th#t #ny i$eology is #l@#ys cre#te$ @ith # )#lse consciousness or! essenti#lly! unconsciously. -ccor$ing to M#rA! @e c#nnot =u$ge #n in$ivi$u#l on the b#sis o) @h#t he thinks o) hi'sel). here)ore @e c#nnot =u$ge # revolution on the b#sis o) its consciousness. +n the contr#ry! this consciousness 'ust be eA%l#ine$ by the contr#$ictions o) '#teri#l li)e. In one o) his letters Ingels @rites th#t i$eology is # %rocess %er)or'e$ by # so,c#lle$ thinker in )ull consciousness! even though this consciousness is )#lse. he re#l i'%elling )orces th#t set hi' in 'otion re'#in unkno@n to hi'; other@ise this @oul$ not be #n i$eologic#l %rocess. *onse.uently! he c#n conceive o) only the )#lse or )ictitious i'%elling )orces. I.u#lly )utile is the #n#lysis o) the e'otions o) the vie@er! since he! too! is shrou$e$ in the %sycheJs unconsciousness. It see's to 'e th#t #nother 'etho$ )or stu$ying the %sychology o) #rt c#n be $evise$ @hich! ho@ever! nee$s so'e 'etho$ologic#l subst#nti#tion. +ne o) the )irst! #n$ e#siest! ob=ections #g#inst it is the one co''only r#ise$ #g#inst stu$ying the unconscious by 'e#ns o) %sychology. he unconscious! it is s#i$! is by $e)inition so'ething @e $o not recogni(e; it is so'ething unkno@n to us! #n$ there)ore it c#nnot beco'e the sub=ect o) scienti)ic investig#tion. his re#soning %rocee$s )ro' the )#lse #ssu'%tion th#t @e c#n stu$y only @h#t is $irectly recogni(#ble. his is obviously # su%er)ici#l #%%ro#ch! since @e $o stu$y '#ny things o) @hich @e h#ve kno@le$ge only )ro' #n#logies! hy%otheses! sur'ises! etc. hus! @e g#ther our i$e#s o) the %#st )ro' %iecing together! in the 'ost $iverse )#shion! $#t# #n$ '#teri#l th#t )re.uently h#ve no rese'bl#nce to these i$e#s or 'ent#l %ictures! in the s#'e @#y #s 6# (oologist! )ro' the bone o) #n eAtinct #ni'#l! $eter'ines its si(e! #%%e#r#nce! li)e h#bits! )ee$ing h#bits! #n$ so )orth. -ll this in)or'#tion is not i''e$i#tely #v#il#ble to the (oologist! #n$ is cert#inly not $irectly eA%erience$ by hi'; inste#$! it is the result o) in)erences #n$ $e$uctions )ro' # )e@ $#t# $irectly recogni(#ble )ro' the bone.8 +n the b#sis o) these #rgu'ents @e c#n no@ suggest # ne@ 'etho$ o) #rt %sychology! @hich in MDller, 2reien)elsJ cl#ssi)ic#tion is ter'e$ the 6ob=ective,#n#lytic 'etho$.8 -ccor$ingly! the @ork o) #rt! r#ther th#n its cre#tor or its #u$ience! shoul$ be t#ken #s the b#sis )or #n#lysis. While it is true th#t # @ork o) #rt #s such is not #n ob=ect o) %sychology Fh#ving no %syche o) its o@nG! @e 'ust re'e'ber th#t # histori#n! stu$ying )or inst#nce the 2rench revolution )ro' '#teri#ls th#t $o not cont#in #ny o) the ob=ects o) his stu$y! )in$s hi'sel) )#ce$ @ith the necessity o) #ctu#lly cre#ting the ob=ect o) his stu$y

by 'e#ns o) in$irect! th#t is! #n#lytic 'etho$s. In$ee$! this h#%%ens in # nu'ber o) other $isci%lines #n$ sciences. hey se#rch )or the truth in # @#y si'il#r to th#t o) # court investig#ting # cri'e )ro' le#$s! circu'st#nti#l or other evi$ence. +nly # b#$ =u$ge @oul$ %#ss # sentence on the b#sis o) st#te'ents )ro' either the $e)en$#nt or the %l#inti))! both o) @ho' #re %re=u$ice$ #n$ boun$ to $istort the truth. he %sychologist o%er#tes in # si'il#r )#shion @hen he stu$ies the st#te'ents o) # re#$er or # vie@er o) # @ork o) #rt. his $oes not 'e#n! ho@ever! th#t # =u$ge shoul$ not he#r the intereste$ %#rties > %rovi$e$ he t#kes their st#te'ents @ith # gr#in o) s#lt. -n$ the %sychologist never re)uses to use #ny '#teri#l! even though he kno@s )ro' the outset th#t it '#y not be correct. he =u$ge est#blishes the truth by co'%#ring v#rious )#lse st#te'ents! checking the' #g#inst ob=ective evi$ence! #n$ so )orth. he histori#n uses notoriously )#lse or bi#se$ '#teri#l 'ost o) the ti'e; #n$ like the histori#n or the geologist @ho )irst cre#tes the ob=ect o) his stu$ies #n$ only then sub=ects it to scrutiny! the %sychologist is )orce$ to resort to '#teri#l evi$ence > the @orks o) #rt > #n$ cre#te # corres%on$ing %sychology in or$er to be #ble to stu$y the l#@s governing it. 2or the %sychologist #ny @ork o) #rt is # syste' o) sti'uli! consciously #n$ intention#lly org#ni(e$ in such # @#y #s to eAcite #n #esthetic re#ction. 4y #n#ly(ing the structure o) the sti'uli @e reconstruct the structure o) the re#ction. :ere is # si'%le eA#'%le: We stu$y the rhyth'ic structure o) # %hilologic#l eAcer%t #n$ $e#l @ith non, %sychologic#l )#cts; but i) @e #n#ly(e it #s being v#riously $irecte$ to c#use # corres%on$ing )unction#l re#ction! @e cre#te! %rocee$ing )ro' ob=ective $#t#! cert#in ch#r#cteristics o) the #esthetic re#ction. It is obvious th#t the #esthetic re#ction thus cre#te$ is co'%letely i'%erson#l! th#t is! it $oes not belong to #ny single in$ivi$u#l! nor $oes it re)lect #ny concrete in$ivi$u#l %sychic %rocess > @hich is its virtue. hus @e #re #ble to $eter'ine the n#ture o) #esthetic re#ction in its %ure )or' @ithout con)oun$ing it @ith #ll the r#n$o' %rocesses #ccu'ul#te$ @ith it in #n in$ivi$u#lJs %syche. his 'etho$ gu#r#ntees # su))icient ob=ectivity o) results #n$ o) investig#tion! since it %rocee$s every ti'e )ro' the stu$y o) soli$! ob=ectively eAisting! #ccount#ble )#cts. :ere is the )or'ul# o) this 'etho$: )ro' the )or' o) the @ork o) #rt! vi# the )unction#l #n#lysis o) its ele'ents #n$ structure! recre#te the #esthetic re#ction #n$ est#blish its gener#l l#@s. he t#sk #n$ the %l#n o) the %resent book c#n be ter'e$ #n #tte'%t #t #%%lying this ne@ 'etho$ consistently #n$ thoroughly to #ctu#l %roble's. his h#s obviously %revente$ us )ro' %ursuing #ny syste'#tic t#sks. We h#$ to renounce the )un$#'ent#l #n$ consistent revie@ o) the entire '#teri#l in the )iel$ o) 'etho$ology! the criti.ue o) the stu$y #s such! the theoretic#l gener#li(#tion o) the results! #n$ the est#blish'ent o) their %r#ctic#l v#lue. his! #s # '#tter o) )#ct! coul$ beco'e the sub=ect o) # host o) )urther stu$ies. M#ny ti'es I h#$ to $evise # @#y )or solving the si'%lest %roble's #n$ )or testing the v#li$ity o) the 'etho$. I h#ve there)ore chosen so'e )#bles! short stories! #n$ tr#ge$ies to sho@ @ith su))icient cle#rness ho@ this 'etho$ @orks. I consi$er 'y t#sk co'%lete$ i) this @ork @ill result in @h#t '#y turn out to be # gener#l outline o) the %sychology o) #rt. he Psychology o) -rt. Vygotsky 1925

Art As Perception
Princi%les o) *riticis'. -rt #s Perce%tion. 1#tion#li(#tion o) this 2or'ul#. *riticis' o) the heory o) 2or's. Pr#ctic#l 1esults o) this heory. ;e)iciencies o) the Psychology o) 2or's. ;e%en$ence on -ssoci#tive #n$ Sensu#listic Psychology here eAist v#rious %sychologic#l theories! e#ch eA%l#ining in its o@n @#y the %rocesses o) #rtistic cre#tivity or %erce%tion. Very )e@ o) the'! ho@ever! h#ve ever been %ursue$ to #n en$. here is no

co'%letely #n$ gener#lly #cce%te$ syste' o) #rt %sychology. So'e #uthors! such #s MDller,2reien)els! @ho @#nt to consoli$#te #ll th#t h#s been $one in this )iel$! give only #n eclectic re%ort or syno%sis o) $is%#r#te vie@%oints. Most %sychologists @orke$ only on so'e %#rticul#r %roble's o) the gener#l theory o) #rt #n$ %rocee$e$ in their rese#rch )ro' $i))erent #%%ro#ches! )ollo@ing $ivergent %#ths! #n$ re#ching $i))erent conclusions. Without # gener#l i$e# or # v#li$ 'etho$ologic#l %rinci%le it is $i))icult to #%%r#ise syste'#tic#lly @h#t %sychology h#s #chieve$ in this $irection. We c#n there)ore investig#te only those %sychologic#l theories o) #rt @hich h#ve been! or c#n be! $evelo%e$ into # syste'#tic theory! #n$ #%%ly their %re'ises to our stu$y. In other @or$s! @e c#n #%%ro#ch critic#lly only those %sychologic#l theories th#t o%er#te @ith #n ob=ective,#n#lytic 'etho$ F#n ob=ective #n#lysis o) the @ork o) #rtG #n$! %rocee$ing )ro' th#t #n#lysis! $evelo% # suit#ble %sychology. +ther 'etho$s o) investig#tion #re out o) our re#ch. o check the results o) our stu$y @ith the #i$ o) the )#cts #n$ rules est#blishe$ e#rlier @oul$ re.uire the )in#l results o) our stu$y! since only the ulti'#te conclusions c#n be co'%#re$ @ith the results o) other investig#tions th#t h#ve %rocee$e$ #long # co'%letely $i))erent %#th. his %roce$ure re$uces the nu'ber o) theories @hich c#n be sub=ecte$ to critic#l investig#tion to three ty%ic#l %sychologic#l syste's! e#ch o) @hich is #ssoci#te$ @ith # v#riety o) %#rti#l stu$ies! uncoor$in#te$ #%%ro#ches! etc. he criti.ue @hich @e inten$ to $evelo% 'ust! #ccor$ing to the inter%ret#tion #n$ signi)ic#nce o) the t#sk set be)ore us! %rocee$ )ro' the %urely %sychologic#l strength #n$ reli#bility o) e#ch theory. he 'erits o) e#ch theory in its o@n s%eci#li(e$ )iel$! such #s linguistics or liter#ture! @ill not be consi$ere$ here. he )irst #n$ 'ost @i$es%re#$ )or'ul# o) #rt %sychology goes b#ck to W. von :u'bol$t; it $e)ines #rt #s %erce%tion. Potebni# #$o%te$ this #s the b#sic %rinci%le in # nu'ber o) his investig#tions. In # 'o$i)ie$ )or'! it #%%ro#ches the @i$ely hel$ theory th#t co'es to us )ro' #nti.uity! #ccor$ing to @hich #rt is the %erce%tion o) @is$o'! #n$ te#ching #n$ instruction #re its '#in t#sks. +ne o) the )un$#'ent#l vie@s o) this theory is the #n#logy bet@een the #ctivity #n$ evolution o) l#ngu#ge #n$ #rt. he %sychologic#l syste' o) %hilology h#s sho@n th#t the @or$ is $ivi$e$ into three b#sic ele'ents: the soun$! or eAtern#l )or'; the i'#ge! or inner )or'; #n$ the 'e#ning! or signi)ic#nce. he inner )or' is un$erstoo$ to be the ety'ologic#l )or' th#t eA%resses the content. 2re.uently this inner )or' is )orgotten! or is $is%l#ce$ by the eA%#n$e$ 'e#ning o) the @or$. In other c#ses! ho@ever! this inner )or' c#n be re#$ily $eter'ine$. Ity'ologic#l investig#tion reve#ls th#t @here only the out@#r$ )or' #n$ 'e#ning @ere ret#ine$! the inner )or' eAiste$ once but @#s )orgotten #s the l#ngu#ge evolve$. 2or eA#'%le! the 1ussi#n @or$ )or 6'ouse8 once signi)ie$ 6thie)!8 #n$ only by 'e#ns o) the inner )or' h#ve the soun$s #c.uire$ the 'e#ning 6'ouse.8 In such @or$s #s streetc#r! ne@s%#%er! $ogc#rt! #n$ so on! the inner )or' is still #%%#rent! #s is the )#ct th#t the i'#ge cont#ine$ in these @or$s is gr#$u#lly being %ushe$ out by their eA%#n$e$ content. his le#$s to # con)lict bet@een the origin#l! stricter sense o) these @or$s #n$ the subse.uent bro#$er #%%lic#tion. When @e s#y ne@s%#%ers! or horse,$r#@n $ogc#rt! this con)lict beco'es obvious. o illustr#te the signi)ic#nce o) the inner )or' #n$ its i'%ort#nt role in #n #n#logy @ith #rt! let us eA%lore the %heno'enon o) synony's. @o synony's h#ve the s#'e content but # $i))erent soun$ )or'! bec#use the inner )or' o) e#ch @or$ is co'%letely $i))erent. In 1ussi#n 'oon #n$ 'onth 'e#n eA#ctly the s#'e thing. Ity'ologic#lly! in 1ussi#n 'oon 'e#ns so'ething c#%ricious! @hi'sic#l! ch#nge#ble! #n$ v#ri#ble F#llu$ing to the lun#r %h#sesG! @hile 'onth is # 'e#sure F#llu$ing to 'e#suring ti'e by lun#r %h#sesG. he $i))erence bet@een the t@o @or$s is 'erely %sychologic#l. hey le#$ to the s#'e result! but @ith the #i$ o) $i))erent thought %rocesses. Si'il#rly! t@o $i))erent clues '#y c#use us to guess the s#'e thing! but the 'o$e o) guessing @ill be $i))erent e#ch ti'e. Potebni# )or'ul#tes this thought .uite brilli#ntly: 6 he inner )or' o) e#ch @or$ gives our thought # $i))erent $irection ...8

Psychologists h#ve )oun$ the s#'e three ele'ents th#t '#ke u% # @or$ #re #lso )oun$ in # @ork o) #rt. It is #sserte$ th#t the %sychologic#l %rocesses o) the %erce%tion #n$ cre#tion o) # @ork o) #rt coinci$e @ith the i$entic#l %rocesses o) %erce%tion #n$ cre#tion o) # @or$. 6 he s#'e ele'ent#l )orces!8 s#ys Potebni#! 6#re #lso )oun$ in # @ork o) #rt! #n$ @e c#n recogni(e the' i) @e re#son the )ollo@ing @#y: L here is # '#rble st#tue Fouter )or'G o) # @o'#n @ith s@or$ #n$ sc#les Finner )or'G re%resenting =ustice FcontentG.J We @ill )in$ th#t in # @ork o) #rt the i'#ge re)ers to the content! #s in # @or$ the conce%t re)ers to the sensory i'#ge or i$e#. Inste#$ o) the LcontentJ o) # @ork o) #rt @e '#y use # 'ore co''on ter'! the Li$e#J. his #n#logy reve#ls the 'ech#nis' o) the %sychologic#l %rocesses th#t corres%on$ to the cre#tion o) # @ork o) #rt. It beco'es obvious th#t the signi)ic#nce or $escri%tive %o@er o) # @or$ e.u#ls its %oetic v#lue! so th#t the b#sis o) #n #rtistic eA%erience is re%resent#tion! #n$ its gener#l ch#r#cter tr#its #re the co''on %ro%erties o) the intellectu#l #n$ %erceiving %rocesses. - chil$ @ho h#s never be)ore seen # gl#ss s%here '#y c#ll it # s'#ll @#ter'elon! #n$ eA%l#in the unusu#l #n$ unkno@n eA%erience by 'e#ns o) #n ol$ #n$ )#'ili#r i'#ge. he )#'ili#r i$e# o) # s'#ll @#ter'elon hel%s the chil$ to #%%erceive the ne@ conce%t. 6Sh#kes%e#re cre#te$ +thello!8 s#ys +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii! 6to #%%erceive the i$e# o) =e#lousy.8 he chil$ h#s use$ Ls'#ll @#ter'elonJ to #%%erceive # gl#ss s%here ... L- gl#ss s%here is nothing but # s'#ll @#ter'elon!J s#ys the chil$. LPe#lousy! th#tJs +thello!J s#ys Sh#kes%e#re. Success)ully or not! the chil$ h#s eA%l#ine$ the gl#ss s%here. Sh#kes%e#re h#s brilli#ntly eA%l#ine$ =e#lousy! )irst to hi'sel)! #n$ then to #ll. hus! %oetry or #rt is # s%eci#l @#y o) thinking @hich! in the )in#l #n#lysis! le#$s to the s#'e results #s scienti)ic kno@le$ge FSh#kes%e#reJs %l#nt#tion o) =e#lousyG! but in # $i))erent @#y. -rt $i))ers )ro' science only in its 'etho$! in its @#y o) eA%eriencing #n$ %erceiving! in other @or$s! %sychologic#lly. 6Poetry #n$ %rose!8 s#ys Potebni#! 6#re )irst #n$ )ore'ost # Lcert#in @#y o) thinking #n$ %erceiving. Without #n i'#ge there is no #rt! es%eci#lly no %oetry.8 -ccor$ing to this theory o) #rtistic un$erst#n$ing! # @ork o) #rt c#n be #%%lie$ #s # %re$ic#te to ne@! i'%erce%tive %heno'en# or i$e#s! to #%%erceive the' in the s#'e @#y #s the i'#ge in # @or$ hel%s #%%erceive the ne@ 'e#ning. Wh#t @e #re un#ble to un$erst#n$ i''e$i#tely #n$ $irectly c#n be un$erstoo$ in # roun$#bout @#y! #llegoric#lly. he @hole %sychologic#l e))ect o) # @ork o) #rt c#n then be entirely cre$ite$ to this in$irectness. In the 1ussi#n @or$ 'ouse! #ccor$ing to +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii! the thought goes to the t#rget! n#'ely to the $e)inition o) the conce%t! )ollo@ing # $irect %#th #n$ '#king only one ste%. In the S#nskrit it t#kes #n in$irect %#th! )irst to the 'e#ning thie)! #n$ )ro' there to the 'e#ning 'ouse! thus '#king t@o ste%s. *o'%#re$ to the )irst rectiline#r 'ove'ent! the l#tter is 'ore rhyth'ic#l ... In the %sychology o) l#ngu#ge! th#t is! in ter's o) re#listic thinking Fnot #l@#ys )or'#lly logic#lG! @h#t '#tters is ho@ so'ething is s#i$! ho@ it is thought! #n$ ho@ the content is %resente$! not @h#t is s#i$ or thought. It is obvious there)ore th#t @e #re $e#ling @ith #n intellectu#l theory. -rt re.uires br#in @ork; #ll the rest is inci$ent#l in the %sychology o) #rt. 6-rt is # cert#in eAercise )or thought!8 s#ys +vsi#niko, ?ulikovskii. he )#ct th#t #rt! @hether cre#te$ or %erceive$! is #cco'%#nie$ by strong e'otions is s#i$ by these #uthors to be # '#rgin#l %heno'enon #n$ not # %#rt o) the %rocess itsel). It co'es #s # %ri(e )or the e))ort! bec#use the i'#ge necess#ry to un$erst#n$ # cert#in i$e#! the %re$ic#te to this i$e#! 6h#s been given to 'e be)oreh#n$ by the #rtist! #n$ it c#'e )ree.8 he )ree )eeling o) rel#tive lightness! o) the %#r#sitic en=oy'ent o) eA%loiting so'ebo$y elseJs l#bor )ree o) ch#rge is the source o) #rtistic en=oy'ent. In # '#nner o) s%e#king! Sh#kes%e#re @orke$ )or us by )in$ing )or the i$e# o) =e#lousy the )itting i'#ge o) +thello. -ll the en=oy'ent @e eA%erience in re#$ing +thello co'es )ro' the %le#s#nt use o) so'ebo$y elseJs @ork #n$ )ro' the eA%loit#tion @ithout eA%ense o) so'ebo$y elseJs #rtistic cre#tivity. It is interesting to note th#t this unil#ter#l intellectu#lis' o) the syste' is o%enly #$'itte$ by #ll the 'ost %ro'inent re%resent#tives o) this school. :orn)el$! )or inst#nce! s#ys th#t the $e)inition o)

#rt #s %erce%tion 6covers only one o) the #s%ects o) the #rtistic %rocess.8 :e #lso %oints out th#t @ith such #n inter%ret#tion o) the %sychology o) #rt! the boun$#ry bet@een the %rocess o) scienti)ic #n$ #rtistic %erce%tion is e))#ce$! th#t in this res%ect 6the gre#t scienti)ic truths #re si'il#r to #rtistic i'#ges!8 #n$ th#t! conse.uently! 6this $e)inition o) %oetry re.uires # subtler differentia specifica @hich is not e#sy to )in$.8 It is .uite interesting th#t this theory is in con)lict @ith the entire %sychologic#l tr#$ition #ssoci#te$ @ith the %roble'. he schol#rs h#ve eAclu$e$ #ll intellectu#l %rocesses )ro' #esthetic #n#lysis. 6M#ny theoretici#ns un$erscore so unil#ter#lly th#t #rt is # '#tter o) %erce%tion! )#nt#sy! or )eeling! contr#sting #rt @ith science #s the )iel$ o) kno@le$ge! th#t it '#y #%%e#r #s irreconcil#ble @ith the theory o) #rt i) @e #ssert th#t the %rocess o) thinking is #lso # %#rt o) #rtistic en=oy'ent.8 his is one #uthorJs eAcuse )or inclu$ing the thinking %rocess in the #n#lysis o) #esthetic en=oy'ent. hought is use$ here #s # cornerstone in the eA%l#n#tion o) the #rt %heno'enon. his one,si$e$ intellectu#lis' reve#le$ itsel) .uite e#rly! so th#t the secon$ gener#tion o) rese#rchers h#$ to intro$uce subst#nti#l corrections to the theories o) their te#chers. Strictly s%e#king! )ro' # %sychologic#l vie@%oint! these corrections re$uce to n#ught the te#chersJ #ssertions. &one less th#n +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii h#$ to co'e out @ith # te#ching or theory! #ccor$ing to @hich lyrics #re # s%eci#l #s%ect o) #rtistic cre#tivity! @hich reve#ls # 6)un$#'ent#l %sychologic#l $i))erence8 )ro' the e%ic. he essence o) lyric#l #rt c#n be re$uce$ to %rocesses o) %erce%tion! or to %ure br#in@ork. he $ecisive role is %l#ye$ by e'otion! #n e'otion so $istinct th#t it c#n be se%#r#te$ )ro' the secon$#ry e'otions th#t #rise in the course o) scienti)ic #n$ %hiloso%hic#l cre#tivity. -ny hu'#n cre#tivity involves e'otions. In #n#ly(ing the %sychology o) '#the'#tics! )or eA#'%le! @e @ill $iscover # s%eci#l kin$ o) L'#the'#tic#l e'otion.J :o@ever! no '#the'#tici#n! %hiloso%her! or eA%eri'ent#l biologist @ill #gree th#t his t#sk consists o) cre#ting s%eci)ic e'otions #ssoci#te$ @ith his )iel$ o) en$e#vor. We c#nnot %ossibly s%e#k o) science or %hiloso%hy #s e'otion#l #ctivities . . . I'otions %l#y # $o'in#nt role in #rtistic cre#tivity. hey #re gener#te$ by the content itsel) #n$ c#n be o) #ny sort or kin$: grie)! sorro@! %ity! #nger! sy'%#thy! in$ign#tion! horror! #n$ so on. hese e'otions %er se #re not lyric#l! but they '#y inci$ent#lly inclu$e # lyric#l Lstre#kJ i) the @ork o) #rt h#s # lyric#l )or'! #s )or inst#nce # %oe' or # %iece o) rhyth'ic %rose. Let us t#ke the scene o) :ectorJs )#re@ell )ro' -n$ro'#che. In re#$ing it @e '#y eA%erience # strong e'otion #n$ '#y even be 'ove$ to te#rs. 4ut this e'otion h#s nothing lyric#l in it since it is c#use$ only by the e'otion#l scene. :o@ever! #cco'%#nie$ by the rhyth'ic e))ect o) the )lo@ing heA#'eters! it c#uses lyric#l e'otion. he l#tter @#s 'ore %o@er)ul in the $#ys @hen :o'erJs %oe's @ere sung by blin$ rh#%so$ists #cco'%#nie$ by the soun$s o) the cith#r#. he rhyth' o) singing #n$ 'usic =oins th#t o) the verse. he lyric#l ele'ent is strengthene$ #n$ occ#sion#lly '#y even h#ve re%l#ce$ the e'otion c#use$ by the sub=ect '#tter. o get this e'otion in its %ure )or'! @ithout the #$'iAture o) its lyric#l co'%onent! #ll @e h#ve to $o is tr#ns%ose the scene into %rose $evoi$ o) #ny rhyth'ic c#$ence. I'#gine! )or inst#nce! :ectorJs )#re@ell )ro' -n$ro'#che $escribe$ by Pise'skii. 6Bou @ill eA%erience true )eelings o) sy'%#thy! co'%#ssion! #n$ %ity; you '#y even she$ # te#r; but there @ill be nothing lyric#l #bout it.8 hus! # huge #re# o) #rt! n#'ely! 'usic! #rchitecture! #n$ %oetry! is tot#lly eAclu$e$ )ro' the theory th#t eA%l#ins #rt #s the result o) #n eAercise o) thought. We #re )orce$ not only to %l#ce these #rt )or's into # subc#tegory @ithin the #rt c#tegories! but to vie@ the' #s # s%eci#l kin$ o) cre#tivity #lien to the visu#l #rts #s @ell #s to %hiloso%hy #n$ to science! @hile st#n$ing in the s#'e rel#tion to both. :o@ever! @e )in$ it eAtre'ely $i))icult to $r#@ # %recise boun$#ry bet@een lyric#l #n$ non lyric#l #rt )or's. In other @or$s! i) @e #$'it th#t lyric#l #rt )or's re.uire the @ork o) so'ething other th#n

thought! @e 'ust #lso #$'it th#t #ny other #rt )or' h#s l#rge #re#s @here %ure thought is by no 'e#ns the only essenti#l ele'ent. We @ill )in$! )or inst#nce! th#t such @orks #s 7oetheJs Faust! or PushkinJs Mozart and alieri! !he tone "uest! or !he #ovetous $night belong to the syncretistic! or 'iAe$! )or's o) #rt! se'igr#%hic #n$ se'ilyric#l. We c#nnot %er)or' the s#'e o%er#tion on the' @hich @e h#ve trie$ to %er)or' on :ectorJs )#re@ell scene. -ccor$ing to +vsi#niko,?ulikovskiiJs te#chings there is no subst#nti#l $i))erence bet@een verse #n$ %rose! th#t is bet@een 'e#sure$ #n$ non 'e#sure$ s%eech. *onse.uently there is no sign in the eAtern#l )or' th#t @oul$ en#ble us to $istinguish the visu#l #rts )ro' the lyric#l #rts. 6 he verse is nothing but %e$#ntic %rose in @hich 'etric uni)or'ity h#s been '#int#ine$! @here#s %rose is # )ree verse in @hich i#'bi! trochees! etc! #ltern#te )reely #n$ #rbitr#rily! #n$ $o not %revent cert#in %rose F urgenevJs! )or inst#nceG )ro' being 'ore h#r'onious th#n so'e verse.8 We h#ve #lso seen th#t in :ectorJs )#re@ell scene our e'otions #re o) t@o $istinct kin$s: those c#use$ by the sub=ect '#tter Fn#'ely! the e'otions @hich @oul$ not $is#%%e#r even i) the scene @ere n#rr#te$ by Pise'skiiG! #n$ those gener#te$ by :o'erJs heA#'eters Fn#'ely! e'otions @hich @oul$ h#ve been lost or @oul$ not h#ve even #risen h#$ the scene been @ritten by Pise'skiiG. 4ut is there #ny @ork o) #rt in @hich these #$$ition#l e'otions! c#use$ by the )or'! #re l#ckingK In other @or$s! c#n @e i'#gine # @ork o) #rt @hich! i) retol$ by Pise'skii! Fso th#t only the content is ret#ine$! the eAtern#l )or' v#nishing co'%letelyG! @oul$ not lose #ny o) its intrinsic .u#litiesK -n#lysis #n$ every$#y observ#tion sho@! on the contr#ry! th#t in the visu#l #rts the in$issolubility o) the )or' coinci$es @ith the in$issolubility o) the )or' o) #ny lyric#l %oe'. +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii #ttributes olstoyJs -nn# ?#renin# to the c#tegory o) %urely e%ic #rt. 4ut here is @h#t olstoy hi'sel) @rote #bout his novel! #n$! in %#rticul#r! #bout its )or': I) I @#nte$ to %ut into other @or$s @h#t I inten$e$ to eA%ress by the novel! I @oul$ h#ve to @rite eA#ctly the s#'e novel #ll over #g#in. ... -n$ i) the critics #lre#$y h#ve un$erstoo$ #n$ #re #ble to eA%ress #n$ %#r#%hr#se @h#t I @#nte$ to s#y! then I 'ust @holehe#rte$ly congr#tul#te the' #n$ bol$ly #))ir' %u&ils en savent plus long %ue mot ... Fth#t they kno@ 'ore #bout it th#n I ...G. I) the ne#rsighte$ critics think I @#nte$ to $escribe only @h#t %le#se$ 'e! ho@ +bionsky $ines! #n$ @h#t be#uti)ul shoul$ers ?#renin# h#s! they #re @rong ... In ne#rly everything I @rote I @#s gui$e$ by the nee$ o) g#thering thoughts #n$ connecting the' to eA%ress 'ysel)! but e#ch thought eA%resse$ se%#r#tely loses its 'e#ning #n$ beco'es insigni)ic#nt i) t#ken out o) the conteAt to @hich it belongs. he conteAt itsel) is not '#$e u% o) thoughts FI thinkG but o) so'ething else! #n$ it is i'%ossible to eA%ress in %recise @or$s the b#sis o) this co'bin#tion. 4ut it c#n be $one in$irectly! using @or$s to $escribe i'#ges! #ctions! #n$ situ#tions. :ere olstoy re)ers .uite eA%licitly to the subor$in#tion o) thought in # @ork o) #rt #n$ sho@s @hy it is i'%ossible to %er)or' on 'nna $arenina the o%er#tion suggeste$ by +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii )or :ectorJs )#re@ell scene. It 'ight see' th#t i) 'nna $arenina @ere re,n#rr#te$ in our o@n @or$s or in Pise'skiiJs! #ll o) its intellectu#l )e#tures @oul$ be %reserve$. Since the novel is not @ritten in heA#'eters! it is not entitle$ to #$$ition#l lyric#l e'otions! #n$ thus it @oul$ su))er no $#'#ge )ro' such #n o%er#tion. We $iscover! ho@ever! th#t to viol#te the co'bin#tion o) thoughts #n$ @or$s! th#t is! to $estroy its )or'! is t#nt#'ount to $estroying the novel! in the s#'e @#y th#t tr#nscribing # lyric#l %oe' in Pise'skiiJs style is e.uiv#lent to $estroying its lyricis'. +ther @orks 'entione$ by +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii! such #s PushkinJs !he #aptain&s (aughter! or olstoyJs )ar and Peace #re #lso unlikely to @ithst#n$ this o%er#tion. It 'ust be s#i$ th#t the b#sic o%er#tion o) %sychologic#l #n#lysis consists in this , re#l or i'#gin#ry , $estruction o) the )or'. he $istinction bet@een the e))ect o) the 'ost %recise re,n#rr#tion #n$ th#t o) the origin#l @ork is the st#rting %oint )or the #n#lysis o) the s%eci#l e'otion o) )or'. he r#tion#lity o) this syste' cle#rly reve#ls # co'%lete l#ck o) un$erst#n$ing o) the %sychology o) )or' in # @ork o) #rt. &either Potebni# nor his %u%ils h#ve ever been #ble to eA%l#in the

s%eci#l #n$ .uite s%eci)ic e))ect gener#te$ by #rtistic )or'. his is @h#t Potebni# h#s to s#y on the sub=ect: 6&o '#tter @h#t the %#rticul#r solution o) the %roble' o) @hy %oetic thinking Fin its less co'%leA )or'sG! 'ore th#n %ros#ic thinking! is closely rel#te$ to the 'usic#lity o) soun$s! n#'ely! te'%o! rhyth'! h#r'ony! #n$ #ssoci#tion @ith 'elo$y! it c#nnot re)ute the %osition #ccor$ing to @hich %oetic thinking c#n $o @ithout 'e#sures #n$ 'eters! @hile %rose c#n #rti)ici#lly Fthough @ith so'e h#r' to itG be given the )or' o) verse.8 It is obvious th#t 'eters or verses #re not essenti#l to # %oetic @ork o) #rt. It is e.u#lly obvious th#t # rule o) '#the'#tics or gr#''#r eA%resse$ in verses is not # @ork o) %oetry. he belie) th#t %oetic thinking c#n be co'%letely in$e%en$ent o) #ny eAtern#l )or'! #s Potebni# #sserts in the lines cite$ #bove! is # co'%lete contr#$iction o) the )irst #Aio' o) the %sychology o) #rtistic )or'! @hich st#tes th#t # @ork o) #rt eAerts its %sychologic#l e))ect only in its given )or'. Intellectu#l %rocesses #re only %#rts #n$ co'%onents! or tools! in those co'bin#tions o) @or$s #n$ thoughts @hich #re the #ctu#l @ork o) #rt. 4ut this co'bin#tion! the )or' o) # @ork o) #rt! is! #s olstoy s#ys! '#$e u% not o) thoughts but o) so'ething else. In other @or$s! the %sychology o) #rt $oes involve thought! but it is not! #s # @hole! the result o) the l#bor o) thought. he unusu#l %sychologic#l %o@er o) the #rtistic )or' @#s correctly un$erstoo$ by olstoy! @ho %ointe$ out th#t #ny viol#tion o) th#t )or'! even i) it is 'ini'#l! i''e$i#tely @i%es out the #rtistic e))ect: 6I h#ve #lre#$y cite$ so'e@here the %ro)oun$ st#te'ent on #rt o) the 1ussi#n %#inter 4riullov! but I c#nnot but re%e#t it once 'ore bec#use this st#te'ent! better th#n #nything else! sho@s @h#t c#n #n$ @h#t c#nnot be t#ught #t school. -s he @#s correcting the sketch o) # %u%il! 4riullov g#ve it # )e@ touches here #n$ there! #n$ the $ull! $r#b sketch su$$enly c#'e to li)e. L4ut youJve sc#rcely touche$ it! #n$ everything h#s ch#nge$QJ s#i$ one o) the %u%ils. L-rt begins @here sc#rcely st#rts!J re%lie$ 4riullov! eA%ressing the 'ost ch#r#cteristic tr#it o) #rt. his re'#rk is true )or #ll the #rts! but its re'#rk#ble correctness c#n be best seen in the eAecution o) 'usic. ... Let us t#ke the three '#in con$itions! the %itch! $ur#tion! #n$ intensity o) # soun$. he eAecution or inter%ret#tion @ill only be #rtistic @hen the tone is no higher or lo@er th#n it shoul$ be! @hen the note is hit #t its in)initely s'#ll center! @hen it is hel$ eA#ctly )or the ti'e re.uire$! #n$ @hen the intensity o) the soun$ is eA#ctly the one re.uire$! neither @e#ker nor stronger. he slightest $evi#tion in %itch o) the note! the slightest incre#se or $ecre#se in its $ur#tion! the slightest incre#se or $ecre#se in intensity! #n$ the inter%ret#tion is gone. he eAecution o) the %iece is no longer c#%tiv#ting. hus! the LintoAic#tionJ @ith the #rt o) 'usic @hich see's to be so e#sily in$uce$! occurs only @hen the %er)or'er succee$s in )in$ing those in)initely s'#ll inst#nts necess#ry )or # %er)ect inter%ret#tion. he s#'e #%%lies to #ll the #rts: in %#inting! sc#rcely lighter or $#rker! sc#rcely higher or lo@er! slightly 'ore to the le)t or right; in $r#'#! the slightest incre#se or $ecre#se o) stress! or # 'inute #cceler#tion or $el#y; in Poetry! the slightest un$erst#te'ent! overst#te'ent! or eA#gger#tion #n$ there is no LintoAic#tion.J It occurs to the $egree #n$ eAtent in @hich the #rtist )in$s those in)initesi'#l ele'ents @hich '#ke u% his @ork. here is no @#y to te#ch by eAtern#l 'e#ns ho@ to $iscover #n$ )in$ these ele'ents! since they c#n be )oun$ only @hen # %erson #b#n$ons hi'sel) entirely to )eeling. &o tr#ining or instruction c#n '#ke # $#ncer kee% in ste% @ith the 'usic! # violinist or singer hit th#t 'inuscule but correct %ortion o) # note! # %#inter $r#@ the only %ro%er line o) #ll the %ossible ones! or the %oet )in$ the only correct co'bin#tion o) @or$s. -ll this c#n be #chieve$ only by )eeling.8 he $i))erence bet@een # gre#t con$uctor #n$ #n #ver#ge one beco'es obvious only in the %er)or'#nce o) the s#'e %iece o) 'usic; the $i))erence bet@een # gre#t %#inter #n$ #n i'it#tor is to be sought in those in)initely s'#ll ele'ents o) the #rt th#t belong to the c#tegory o) )or'#l ele'ents. 6-rt begins @here sc#rcely st#rts8 is t#nt#'ount to s#ying th#t #rt begins @here )or' begins. hus! since )or' is ch#r#cteristic o) #ny @ork o) #rt! @hether lyric#l or gr#%hic! the %#rticul#r e'otion

o) # )or' beco'es # necess#ry con$ition )or #rtistic eA%ression. his eli'in#tes +vsi#niko, ?ulikovskiiJs $istinction! #ccor$ing to @hich in so'e #rts the #esthetic en=oy'ent outco'es 'ore #s the result o) # %rocess! #s so'e sort o) re@#r$ )or the cre#tivity o) the #rtist! #n$ )or un$erst#n$ing #n$ re%e#ting so'eone elseJs cre#tivity )or #nyone @ho %erceives the @ork o) #rt. It is $i))erent @ith #rchitecture #n$ lyrics! @here these )eelings #%%e#r %ri'#rily #s # )un$#'ent#l e'otion#l )e#ture in @hich the gr#vit#tion#l center o) the @ork o) #rt is concentr#te$! r#ther th#n #s LresultsJ or Lre@#r$s.J hese #rts '#y be c#lle$ e'otion#l! to $istinguish the' )ro' the others @hich @e 'ight c#ll intellectu#l or Lgr#%hicJ. ... In the l#tter the e'otion#l %rocess is governe$ by the )or'ul#: )ro' i'#ge to i$e#! #n$ )ro' i$e# to e'otion. 2or the )or'er! the )or'ul# is $i))erent: )ro' the e'otion gener#te$ by eAtern#l )or' to #nother! stronger e'otion! @hich #rises bec#use the eAtern#l )or' h#s beco'e the sy'bol o) the i$e# o) the sub=ect. 4oth )or'ul#s #re co'%letely )#ll#cious. -s # '#tter o) )#ct! it @oul$ be 'ore correct to s#y th#t $uring the %erce%tion o) gr#%hic #n$ lyric#l #rt the e'otion#l %rocess evolves by the )or'ul#: )ro' the e'otion o) )or' to so'ething )ollo@ing it. In #ny event! the st#rting %oint! @ithout @hich the un$erst#n$ing o) #rt is i'%ossible! is the e'otion o) )or'. his is best illustr#te$ by the %sychologic#l o%er#tion %er)or'e$ by the #uthor on :o'er. his o%er#tion #lso $is%roves the #ssertion #ccor$ing to @hich #rt is br#in@ork. he e'otion o) #rt c#nnot be e.u#te$ to the e'otion #cco'%#nying 6#ny #ct o) %re$ic#tion! es%eci#lly gr#''#tic#l %re$ic#tion. he #ns@er to the .uestion h#s been given! the %re$ic#te h#s been )oun$! #n$ the sub=ect eA%eriences # )or' o) 'ent#l s#tis)#ction. -n i$e# h#s been $iscovere$! #n i'#ge h#s been cre#te$! #n$ the sub=ect eA%eriences # %eculi#r intellectu#l %le#sure.8 his! #s @e h#ve #lre#$y sho@n! $oes #@#y @ith #ny %sychologic#l $i))erence bet@een the intellectu#l %le#sure $erive$ )ro' solving # '#the'#tic#l %roble' #n$ th#t $erive$ )ro' listening to # concert. :orn)el$ is .uite right @hen he st#tes th#t 6in this entirely %erce%tive theory the e'otion#l ele'ents o) #rt #re by%#sse$. his is the shortco'ing o) Potebni#Js theory! # shortco'ing o) @hich he @#s #@#re #n$ @hich he @oul$ h#ve correcte$ h#$ he continue$ his @ork. We $o not kno@ @h#t Potebni# @oul$ h#ve $one! h#$ he continue$ his @ork; but @e $o kno@ @h#t bec#'e o) his theory! @hich @#s subse.uently $evelo%e$ by his %u%ils. It eAclu$e$ )ro' his )or'ul# # gre#t nu'ber o) the #rts! #n$ contr#$icte$ the 'ost evi$ent )#cts @hen #tte'%ts @ere $e to #%%ly it to the re'#ining ones. he intellectu#l o%er#tions #n$ thinking %rocesses in @hich @orks o) #rt involve us $o not belong to the %sychology o) #rt in the n#rro@er sense o) the @or$. hey #re the result! conse.uence! conclusion! or e))ect o) # @ork o) #rt! #n$ they c#n occur only #s # result o) the )un$#'ent#l e))ect gener#te$ by the @ork o) #rt. he theory @hich st#rts out )ro' this %osition beh#ves! #s Shkiovskii re'#rke$ .uite @ittily! like # horse'#n @ho @#nts to get on his horse but =u'%s over it. he theory 'isses the t#rget #n$ $oes not eA%l#in the %sychology o) #rt #s such. he )ollo@ing si'%le eA#'%les illustr#te our %oint. V#lerii 4riusov #$o%te$ this theory #n$ cl#i'e$ th#t #ny @ork o) #rt! by so'e s%eci#l 'etho$! le#$s to the s#'e %erce%tion #s $oes the course o) # scienti)ic %roo). 2or inst#nce! @h#t @e eA%erience in re#$ing PushkinJs %oe' !he Prophet c#n #lso be $escribe$ by scienti)ic 'etho$s. 6Pushkin %roves the s#'e i$e# using %oetic 'e#ns! n#'ely by synthesi(ing conce%ts. 4ut since the conclusion is @rong! there 'ust be 'ist#kes in the %roo)s. In$ee$! @e c#nnot #cce%t the i'#ge o) the ser#%hi'! nor c#n @e #cce%t the substitution o) the he#rt by co#l! #n$ so on. -ll the 'erits o) PushkinJs %oe' not@ithst#n$ing ... @e c#n #cce%t it only i) @e sh#re the %oetJs vie@%oint. PushkinJs !he Prophet is # historic )#ct! #s is! )or inst#nce! the te#ching o) the in$ivisibility o) the #to'.8 he intellectu#l theory is %ushe$ to #bsur$ eAtre'es here; hence! its %sychologic#l o$$ities #n$ %eculi#rities #re es%eci#lly evi$ent. It @oul$ #%%e#r th#t i) # @ork o) #rt contr#$icts scienti)ic truths! it h#s the s#'e v#lue )or us #s the te#ching o) the in$ivisibility o) the #to'! th#t is! o) #n incorrect #n$ there)ore #b#n$one$ scienti)ic theory. 4ut then! #bout 99 %ercent o) #ll the @orl$Js @orks o) #rt shoul$ be $isc#r$e$ #s '#teri#l h#ving only historic#l v#lue. +ne o) PushkinJs gre#t %oe's begins @ith the @or$s:

he e#rth is 'otionless: he#venJs $o'e Is hel$ by hee! *re#tor! so th#t It @ill not )#ll on l#n$ #n$ @#ter -n$ crush us. Ivery )irst,gr#$er kno@s th#t the e#rth is not 'otionless but revolves. hus these st#n(#s h#ve no serious 'e#ning )or # civili(e$ %erson. Why! then! $o %oets resort to obviously untrue #n$ incorrect i$e#sK M#rA %oints out th#t the 'ost i'%ort#nt %roble' in #rt is to eA%l#in @hy the 7reek e%ics #n$ the Sh#kes%e#re#n tr#ge$ies ret#in the signi)ic#nce o) # st#n$#r$ #n$ un#tt#in#ble 'o$el to this $#y! $es%ite the )#ct th#t the circu'st#nces )ro' @hich their i$e#s #n$ conce%ts $evelo%e$ h#ve long since $is#%%e#re$. 7reek #rt @#s #ble to evolve only )ro' 7reek 'ythology! but it continues to stir #n$ eAcite us! even though 7reek 'ythology h#s lost #ll re#l 'e#ning )or us! #%#rt )ro' # historic#l one. he best %roo) th#t in #rt this theory o%er#tes essenti#lly @ith #n eAtr# #esthetic 'o'ent is %rovi$e$ by the )#te th#t be)ell 1ussi#n sy'bolis'! the theoretic#l %re'ises o) @hich )ully coinci$e @ith the theory un$er investig#tion. Vi#chesl#v Iv#nov cryst#lli(e$ the conclusions re#che$ by the 1ussi#n sy'bolists in the )or'ul#: 6Sy'bolis' lies beyon$ the #esthetic c#tegories.8 It is #s though the %rocesses o) thinking #n$ theory #re #ll beyon$ the #esthetic c#tegories #n$ %sychologic#l eA%eriences o) #rt. 2#r )ro' eA%l#ining to us the %sychology o) #rt! these %rocesses re.uire #n eA%l#n#tion @hich c#n be given only on the b#sis o) its scienti)ic $evelo%'ent. - theory is best ev#lu#te$ by 'e#ns o) those eAtre'e conclusions! concerne$ @ith #n entirely $i))erent )iel$! @hich '#ke it %ossible to veri)y its l#@s by using )#cts o) # co'%letely $i))erent c#tegory. It is interesting to )ollo@ the conclusions o) the theory @hich @e #re stu$ying #n$ to #%%ly the' to the history o) i$eologies. -t )irst sight the history o) i$eologies #%%e#rs to be in %er)ect h#r'ony @ith th#t o) the const#nt ch#nge o) soci#l i$eology c#use$ by ch#nges in %ro$uction techni.ues. It #%%#rently eA%l#ins ho@ #n$ @hy ch#nges in the %sychologic#l i'%ression gener#te$ by the s#'e @ork o) #rt occur! $es%ite the )#ct th#t the )or' o) the @ork re'#ins the s#'e. +nce @e est#blish th#t the cruA o) the '#tter! so to s%e#k! is not the content %l#nne$ by the #uthor but th#t #ttribute$ to it by the re#$er! it beco'es obvious th#t the content o) this @ork o) #rt is # $e%en$ent #n$ v#ri#ble .u#ntity! # )unction o) the %syche o) soci#l '#n. he #rtistJs #chieve'ent is not )oun$ in the 'ini'u' content th#t he inten$e$ to give his @ork. 1#ther! it is 'irrore$ in the )leAibility o) the i'#ge! in the c#%#city o) the intern#l )or' to ins%ire $i))erent contents. - si'%le ri$$le Fin @hich )ro' # %l#y on 1ussi# @or$s @e h#ve # @in$o@! # $oor! #n$ # he#%G c#n evoke the i$e# o) the rel#tionshi%s bet@een the $i))erent str#t# o) # %eo%le to the )lo@ering %olitic#l! 'or#l! #n$ scienti)ic i$e#s. Such #n inter%ret#tion o) the ri$$le @ill be @rong only i) @e %reten$ th#t it is b#se$ on its ob=ective 'e#ning r#ther th#n on the %erson#l )eeling it brought #bout in us. here is # story #bout # %oor )ello@ @ho @#nte$ to get @#ter )ro' the river S#v# to $ilute so'e 'ilk in # cu%. -s he @#s )illing his cu%! # @#ve )ro' the river @#she$ #@#y the 'ilk! @hereu%on he eAcl#i'e$! LS#v#! S#v#! you h#venJt %ro)ite$ by this! but h#ve only '#$e 'e s#$QJ So'eone '#y see in this t#le the ineAor#ble! c#t#clys'ic! #n$ $estructive e))ect o) @orl$ events! the b#$ luck #n$ ill )#te striking out #t in$ivi$u#ls! the cry th#t issues )ro' the he#rt o) # %erson stricken by #n irre%#r#ble! #n$! )ro' his sub=ective vie@%oint! un$eserve$ loss. Mist#kes #re e#sily '#$e by i'%osing on # %eo%le one un$erst#n$ing or #nother! but it is obvious th#t stories like this live on )or centuries! not bec#use their liter#l 'e#ning but on #ccount o) the signi)ic#nce #tt#che$ the'. his eA%l#ins @hy the @orks o) ignor#nt %eo%le #n$ o) $#rk #ges c#n ret#in their #rtistic v#lue even in #$v#nce$! so%histic#te$ ti'es. #lso eA%l#ins @hy! $es%ite the #llege$ i''ort#lity o) #rt! there co'es ti'e @hen! @ith rising $i))iculties in un$erst#n$ing #n$ @ith the inner )or' )orgotten! @orks o) #rt lose their v#lue. his c#n #ccount )or the ch#nge#bility o) #rt in history. 6 olstoy co'%#re$ the e))ect o) # @ork o) #rt

@ith cont#gion; this co'%#rison is %#rticul#rly suit#ble in this c#se: I c#ught ty%hus )ro' Iv#n! but IJ' su))ering )ro' 'y o@n ty%hus! not Iv#nJs. I h#ve 'y o@n :#'let! not Sh#kes%e#reJs. y%hus is nothing but #n #bstr#ction necess#ry to theoretic#l thought #n$ cre#te$ by it. I#ch gener#tion! e#ch re#$er h#s its o@n :#'let.8 his #%%e#rs to eA%l#in the $e%en$ence o) #rt on history .uite @ell but # co'%#rison @ith olstoyJs )or'ul# co'%letely eA%oses the )#ll#cy o) this eA%l#n#tion. It is true th#t! )or olstoy! #rt ce#ses to eAist @hen one o) its s'#llest co'%onents is viol#te$. It is #lso true th#t )or hi' @ork o) #rt is # co'%lete )or'#l t#utony'y. In its )or' it is #l@#ys e.u#l to itsel). 6I h#ve s#i$ @h#t I h#ve s#i$8 , this is #n #rtistJs o@n #ns@er to the .uestion o) @h#t he @#nte$ to s#y @ith his @ork. he only @#y to recon)ir' hi'sel) is to re%e#t the entire novel @ith the s#'e @or$s he use$ in the )irst %l#ce. Potebni# cl#i's th#t # @ork o) #rt is #l@#ys #llegoric#l. 6I $i$nJt s#y @h#t I s#i$! but so'ething else!8 his )or'ul# )or # @ork o) #rt. It is obvious th#t this theory $oes not eA%l#in the ch#nge in the %sychology o) #rt %er se! but the ch#nge in the use o) the @ork o) #rt. I#ch gener#tion! e#ch er# uses the @ork o) #rt in its o@n @#y. o be use$! # @ork o) #rt h#s to be )elt in the )irst %l#ce. 4ut ho@ it is )elt by $i))erent gener#tions #n$ $i))erent er#s the theory eA%l#ins in # @#y th#t is not eA#ctly historic#l. +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii %oints out th#t %sychology o) lyrics '#kes )eeling # '#tter o) @ork r#ther th#n o) 'in$ #n$ est#blishes the )ollo@ing %oints: he %sychology o) lyrics is ch#r#cteri(e$ by cert#in s%eci#l sy'%to's @hich $istinguish it .uite sh#r%ly )ro' the %sychology o) other )or's o) cre#tivity. ... he $istinctive )e#tures o) lyrics 'ust be recogni(e$ #s etern#l; they reve#l the'selves in the e#rliest st#ges o) lyricis' #ccessible to investig#tion #n$ run through its entire history. -ll the ch#nges to @hich they #re sub=ecte$ in the course o) evolution not only $o not viol#te their %sychologic#l n#ture! but contribute to '#king lyric#l eA%ression )uller #n$ 'ore co'%lete. his sho@s .uite cle#rly th#t since @e t#lk #bout the %sychology o) #rt! in the %ro%er #cce%t#nce o) the @or$! it #%%e#rs to be etern#l. ;es%ite #ll the ch#nges! it eA%resses its n#ture 'ore )ully #n$ see's to be not sub=ect to the gener#l l#@ o) historic#l evolution! #t le#st in its subst#nti#l %#rts. I) @e re'in$ ourselves o) the )#ct th#t )or our #uthor lyric#l e'otion is gener#l #rtistic e'otion! i.e.! e'otion o) )or'! @e see th#t the %sychology o) #rt! in so )#r #s it is the %sychology o) )or'! re'#ins i''ut#ble #n$ etern#l. Wh#t ch#nges #n$ evolves )ro' gener#tion to gener#tion is the @#y it is use$ #n$ #%%lie$. he 'onstrous str#in on our thought! @hich beco'es evi$ent! even cons%icuous @hen @e )ollo@ Potebni# #n$ try to intro$uce so'e 'e#ning into # 'o$est #n$ un#ssu'ing ri$$le! is # $irect conse.uence o) the )#ct th#t the stu$y is con, $ucte$ in the #re# o) the use #n$ #%%lic#tion o) the ri$$le r#ther th#n in th#t o) its #ctu#l 'e#ning #n$ n#ture. Virtu#lly #nything c#n be '#$e 'e#ning)ul. :orn)el$ gives '#ny eA#'%les o) so'e nonsense or #bsur$ity to @hich @e give # 'e#ning. he inks%ot tests con$ucte$ by 1ohrsch#ch sho@ .uite un'ist#k#bly th#t @e give 'e#ning! structure! #n$ eA%ression to the 'ost #bsur$! r#n$o'! #n$ senseless #ccu'ul#tions o) )or's. In other @or$s! # @ork o) #rt by itsel) c#nnot be res%onsible )or the thoughts #n$ i$e#s it ins%ires. he thought or i$e# o) %olitic#l evolution! #n$ o) # v#rying #%%ro#ch to it )ro' $i))erent .u#rters #n$ vie@%oints is cert#inly not cont#ine$ in the 'o$est ri$$le. I) @e re%l#ce its liter#l 'e#ning F@in$o@! $oor! #n$ he#%G @ith #n #llegoric#l one! the ri$$le @ill sto% )unctioning #s # @ork o) #rt. here @oul$ be! in )#ct! no $i))erence bet@een # ri$$le! # )#ble! #n$ #n eAtre'ely co'%leA @ork i) #ny #n$ e#ch o) the' coul$ cont#in the gre#test #n$ 'ost v#lu#ble thoughts #n$ i$e#s. he $i))iculty $oes not consist in the )#ct th#t the use o) # @ork o) #rt in # s%eci)ic er# h#s its o@n! s%eci)ic ch#r#cter! th#t the (ivina #ommedia h#s # $i))erent soci#l %ur%ose in our ti'e th#n in ;#nteJs; r#ther! the $i))iculty consists in sho@ing th#t the re#$er! @ho is un$er the in)luence o) the s#'e convention#l e'otions #s #ny conte'%or#ry o) ;#nteJs! uses the s#'e %sychologic#l 'ech#nis's in # $i))erent @#y #n$ eA%eriences the #ommedia in # $i))erent @#y. In other @or$s! @e h#ve to sho@ th#t not only $o @e inter%ret @orks o) #rt $i))erently! but @e #lso

eA%erience #n$ )eel the' $i))erently. his is @hy :orn)el$ entitle$ his %#%er on the sub=ectivity #n$ ch#nge#bility o) un$erst#n$ing! 6+n Inter%reting Works o) -rt.8 It is i'%ort#nt to sho@ th#t the 'ost ob=ective #n$! it @oul$ see'! the %urest visu#l #rt is , #s 7uy#u sho@e$ )or l#n$sc#%ing , in the )in#l #n#lysis the s#'e lyric#l e'otion! th#t is! the s%eci)ic e'otion o) the #rtistic )or'! 6 he @orl$ o) ' portsman&s *otebook!8 s#ys 7ershen(on! 6is # )#ith)ul re%resent#tion o) the %e#s#ntry o) +rlov %rovince in the 190<s; but i) @e t#ke # closer look @e $iscover th#t this @orl$ is # '#s.uer#$e: the i'#ges o) urgenevJs st#te o) 'in$ #re $isguise$ in the )lesh! li)e! #n$ %sychology o) +rlov %e#s#nts! #n$ even in the l#n$sc#%e o) +rlov %rovince.8 -n$ )in#lly! the 'ost i'%ort#nt o) #ll: he sub=ectivity o) un$erst#n$ing! the 'e#ning intro$uce$ by us! is $e)initely not # s%eci)ic %eculi#rity o) %oetry. It is the sign o) #ny un$erst#n$ing. -s :u'bol$t .uite rightly %ut it! #ny un$erst#n$ing is # non,un$erst#n$ing; th#t is to s#y! the thoughts instille$ in us by so'eoneJs s%eech never coinci$e entirely @ith the thought in the 'in$ o) the s%e#ker. -nyone listening to # s%eech #n$ un$erst#n$ing it #%%erceives the @or$s #n$ their 'e#ning in his o@n @#y! #n$ the 'e#ning o) the s%eech @ill be # sub=ective one every ti'e! no 'ore #n$ no less th#n the 'e#ning o) # @ork o) #rt. 4riusov! )ollo@ing Potcbni#! sees the %eculi#rity o) %oetry in th#t it uses synthetic vie@s r#ther th#n #n#lytic o%inions #s $oes science. 6I) the o%inion! L'#n is 'ort#lJ! is b#sic#lly #n#lytic#l > #lthough @e h#ve #rrive$ #t it by in$uction! by observing th#t #ll %eo%le $ie > the %oetJs F yutchevG eA%ression! Lthe soun$ )ell #slee%J! is # synthetic st#te'ent. &o '#tter ho@ 'uch one #n#ly(es the ter' soun$! the conce%t o) slee% @ill not be )oun$ in it. So'ething )ro' outsi$e 'ust be #$$e$! th#t is! synthesi(e$ into it! to obt#in the conce%t o) Lthe soun$ )ell #slee%.8 he trouble is! ho@ever! th#t our every$#y l#ngu#ge! our business #n$ =ourn#listic %rose! is liter#lly cr#''e$ @ith such synthetic st#te'ents. With the #i$ o) such st#te'ents @e sh#ll never be #ble to )in$ # s%eci)ic in$ic#tion o) the %sychology o) #rt th#t $istinguishes it )ro' #ny other )or' o) e'otion. - ne@s%#%er st#te'ent to the e))ect th#t 6the govern'ent )ell8 cont#ins! in this conteAt! #s 'uch synthesis #s the eA%ression 6the soun$ )ell #slee%.8 *onversely! in %oetry @e )in$ '#ny such st#te'ents th#t c#nnot be recogni(e$ #s being synthetic in the sense eA%oun$e$. When Pushkin s#ys 6Love sub=ug#tes #ll #ges!8 he '#kes # st#te'ent th#t is not #t #ll synthetic! #lthough it is .uite %oetic. We see th#t i) @e $@ell on the intellectu#l %rocesses initi#te$ by # @ork o) #rt! @e #re likely to lose the %recise sy'%to' or sign @hich $istinguishes the' )ro' #ll other intellectu#l %rocesses. -nother '#ni)est#tion o) %oetic e'otion #$$uce$ by this theory #s # s%eci)ic ch#r#cteristic o) %oetry is the %ictures.ueness! or the e'otion#l 'e#ning)ulness! o) # conce%t. -ccor$ing to this theory! # @ork o) #rt is #ll the 'ore %oetic! the 'ore %ictures.ue! gr#%hic! obvious! #n$ incisive the e'otion#l i'#ge evoke$ in the 'in$ o) the re#$er. 6I)! )or inst#nce! in i'#gining # horse I t#ke the ti'e to think o) # bl#ck horse g#llo%ing #long! its '#ne @#ving! etc.! 'y thought is boun$ to be #rtistic , it @ill %er)or' # 'inor #ct o) #rtistic cre#tivity.8 hus it @oul$ see' th#t #ny i'#ge,be#ring conce%t is #t the s#'e ti'e # %oetic conce%t. :ere @e see # 'ost obvious connection bet@een Potebni#5s theory #n$ the #ssoci#tive #n$ sensu#listic tren$s in %sychology on @hich #ll the te#chings o) this school #re b#se$. - tre'en$ous u%he#v#l h#s occurre$ in %sychology since the 'erciless criticis' o) both these tren$s! #s #%%lie$ to the higher %rocesses o) thought #n$ i'#gin#tion! r#(e$ to the groun$ the ol$ %sychologic#l syste'! #n$ @ith it Potebni#5s st#te'ents #n$ the #ssertions b#se$ on it. he ne@ %sychology h#s sho@n .uite correctly th#t the %rocess o) thinking! in its higher )or's! occurs @ithout the hel% o) gr#%hic conce%ts or i'#ges. he tr#$ition#l $octrine! #ccor$ing to @hich thought is nothing but #n #ssoci#tion o) i'#ges or conce%ts! #%%e#rs to h#ve been co'%letely #b#n$one$ #)ter the )un$#'ent#l investig#tions o) 4Dhler! Messer! -ch! W#tt! #n$ other %sychologists o) the WDr(burg school. he #bsence o) gr#%hic conce%ts in other thinking %rocesses '#y be reg#r$e$ #s .uite #n #chieve'ent o) the ne@ %sychology; ?Dl%e tries to re#ch eAtre'ely i'%ort#nt conclusions )or #esthetics #s @ell. :e %oints out th#t the tr#$ition#l i$e# o)

the gr#%hic ch#r#cter o) # %oetic i'#ge coll#%ses un$er the ne@ $iscoveries. 6-ll @e h#ve to $o is to t#ke the observ#tions o) re#$ers #n$ listeners. 2re.uently @e kno@ @h#t it is #bout; @e un$erst#n$ the situ#tion! the beh#vior! #n$ the %erson#lity o) the ch#r#cters; but @e think o) the corres%on$ing or gr#%hic conce%t only #cci$ent#lly.8 Scho%enh#uer s#ys! 6Were @e to tr#nsl#te the s%eech @e he#r into i'#ges o) )#nt#sy rushing %#st us! i'#ges th#t gr#%%le #n$ intert@ine #s the @or$s #n$ their gr#''#r )lo@ by! @h#t # con)usion @oul$ sei(e our 'in$s #s @e listen to so'eone! or re#$ # book. In #ny event! this $oes not h#%%en.8 In$ee$! @e @oul$ be #%%#lle$ to think o) the ugly $istortion is the close #%%roAi'#tion o) the i'#ge to our un$erst#n$ing! #n$ since @ithout this #ll gr#%hic#lness beco'es 'e#ningless! the i'#ge 'ust be better kno@n to us th#n th#t @hich it eA%l#ins.8 :e #$$s! 6 his L$utyJ is not )ul)ille$ by yutchev5s co'%#rison o) boun$#ries @ith $e#) #n$ $u'b $e'ons! or by 7ogol5s co'%#rison o) the sky @ith 7o$5s ch#suble! or by Sh#kes%e#re5s si'iles @hich #stonish us bec#use they #re so str#ine$.8 Let us st#te once 'ore th#t #ny ri$$le #l@#ys goes )ro' the si'i%ler to the 'ore co'%lic#te$ i'#ge! #n$ not vice vers#. - ri$$le th#t #sks 6Iron boils in the 'e#t %ot , @h#t is itK8 #n$ #ns@ers! 6the horse5s bit!8 gives #n i'#ge th#t strikes us @ith its co'%leAity #s co'%#re$ @ith the si'%licity o) the solution. his is #l@#ys the c#se. When 7ogol in his !errible Vengeance gives his )#'ous $escri%tion o) the ;nie%er! he $oes not contribute to the ob=ective re%resent#tion o) th#t river but cre#tes # )#nt#stic i'#ge o) # '#rvellous stre#' th#t h#s nothing to $o @ith the re#l ;nie%er. :e #sserts th#t no river in the @orl$ e.u#ls the ;nie%er! @hile in )#ct it is not #'ong the @orl$5s l#rgest rivers. :e cl#i's th#t only 6#n occ#sion#l bir$ re#ches the 'i$$le o) the ;nie%er!8 @hile in )#ct #ny bir$ c#n )ly )ro' one b#nk to the other sever#l ti'es @ithout e))ort. hus! not only $oes he t#ke us to the #ctu#l i'#ge o) the river! but he t#kes us #@#y )ro' it in #ccor$#nce @ith the %ur%oses #n$ intentions o) his i'#gin#tive #n$ ro'#ntic story. In the %lot! the ;nie%er is in$ee$ #n unusu#l #n$ )#nt#stic river. his eA#'%le )ro' 7ogol5s @ork is )re.uently use$ in teAtbooks to sho@ the $i))erence bet@een %oetic #n$ %ros#ic $escri%tions. he #uthors cl#i'! in )ull #gree'ent @ith Potebni#5s theory! th#t 7ogol5s $escri%tion $i))ers )ro' the one )oun$ in # geogr#%hy book only in th#t he gives #n i'#gin#tive #n$ $escri%tive %icture o) the river! @here#s the geogr#%hy book gives # b#re! '#tter,o),)#ct #ccount o) it. si'%le #n#lysis! ho@ever! reve#ls th#t the h#r'onic )or' o) this rhyth'ic )r#g'ent #n$ its hy%erbolic! #l'ost inconceiv#ble! %l#sticity #re 'e#nt to cre#te # tot#lly ne@ 'e#ning @hich is # re.uisite )or the short story o) @hich this )r#g'ent )or's # %#rt. -ll this beco'es .uite evi$ent @hen @e consi$er th#t @or$s! @hich #re the b#sic '#teri#l o) #ny %oetic @ork o) #rt! #re not necess#rily gr#%hic; so th#t the )un$#'ent#l %sychologic#l error Fusu#lly '#$e by sensu#listic %sychologistsG consists in substituting @or$s )or gr#%hic or $escri%tive i'#ges. 6 he '#teri#l o) %oetry is '#$e u% o) @or$s! not o) i'#ges or e'otions!8 s#ys Rhir'unskii. he sens#tions #n$ i'#ges evoke$ by @or$s '#y not eAist #t #ll. -t #ny r#te they #re only # sub=ective #$$ition '#$e by the re#$er to the 'e#ning #n$ signi)ic#nce o) the @or$s he re#$s. 6 o buil$ #n #rt @ith these i'#ges is i'%ossible. -rt re.uires co'%leteness #n$ %recision; hence it c#nnot be le)t to the 'ercy o) the re#$er5s i'#gin#tion. he @ork o) #rt is cre#te$ by the %oet! not the re#$er. Wor$s! by their very %sychologic#l n#ture! ne#rly #l@#ys eAclu$e gr#%hic i'#ges. When # %oet s%e#ks o) # horse! the @or$ $oes not i'%ly # )lying '#ne! g#llo%ing! etc. -ny such #$$ition#l 'e#ning is brought in F#n$ usu#lly .uite #rbitr#rilyG by the re#$er. 4y #%%lying to these re#$ers5 #$$itions olstoy5s )#'ous sc#rcely! @e c#n see ho@ unlikely such #rbitr#ry! v#gue! #n$ i'%recise ele'ents c#n be sub=ects o) #rt. It is s#i$ th#t the re#$er or s%ect#tor co'%letes @ith his i'#gin#tion the %icture or i'#ge cre#te$ by the #rtist. *hristi#nsen! ho@ever! h#s convincingly sho@n th#t this t#kes %l#ce only @hen the #rtist re'#ins the '#ster o) the stirrings o) our )#ncy! #n$ @hen the )or'e$ ele'ents %re$eter'ine$ .uite %recisely the @ork o) our i'#gin#tion. his h#%%ens @ith %#intings re%resenting $e%th or $ist#nce. 4ut the #rtist 'ust never #llo@ our )#ncy or i'#gin#tion to %er)or' #n #rbitr#ry #$$ition or co'%letion.

6-n engr#ving sho@s #ll ob=ects in bl#ck #n$ @hite! but @hen @e #ctu#lly look #t the'! they see' $i))erent. We $o not %erceive the' #s bl#ck #n$ @hite ob=ects. We $o not see the trees #s being bl#ck! the 'e#$o@s gr#y! #n$ the sky @hite. Is this $ue to our i'#gin#tion )illing in the true colors o) the l#n$sc#%e! %utting )orth # color)ul i'#ge @ith green trees #n$ 'e#$o@s! g#y )lo@ers #n$ blue skies inste#$ o) @h#t the engr#ving #ctu#lly sho@sK he #rtist! I su%%ose! 'ight s#y 5 h#nks so 'uch )or #$$ing the @ork o) ignor#'uses #n$ l#y'en to 'y cre#tion.5 - $ish#r'ony #'ong the #$$e$ colors '#y very @ell $estroy his $esign. 4ut sto% to think )or #n inst#nt. ;o @e re#lly see the colorsK +) course! @e h#ve the i'%ression o) # %er)ectly nor'#l l#n$sc#%e @ith n#tur#l colors! but @e $o not #ctu#lly see it. he i'%ression re'#ins outsi$e the i'#ge.8 In # thorough investig#tion @hich i''e$i#tely #c.uire$ gre#t #ccl#i'! Meyer h#s eAh#ustively sho@n th#t the very '#teri#l use$ by %oetry eAclu$es # gr#%hic #n$ %ictori#l re%resent#tion o) the sub=ect '#tter. :e $e)ine$ %oetry #s 6the #rt o) non %ictori#l %hilologic#l re%resent#tion.8 -s he #n#ly(es #ll the )or's o) %hilologic#l re%resent#tion #n$ the origin o) conce%ts! he conclu$es th#t i'#gery #n$ sensori#l obviousness #re not the %sychologic#l %ro%erty o) %oetic eA%erience #n$ e'otion! #n$ th#t the content o) #ny %oetic $escri%tion is )un$#'ent#lly eAtr# i'#gin#tive. he s#'e @#s sho@n by *hristi#nsen by 'e#ns o) eAtre'ely #stute observ#tions #n$ criti.ue. :e est#blishe$ th#t 6the %ur%ose o) re%resenting ob=ects in #rt is to sho@ the )e#tureless i'%ression o) the ob=ect! not its sensori#l i'#ge.8 It is to *hristi#nsen5s 'erit to h#ve %rove$ this %oint #lso )or the gr#%hic #rts! @here obviously this theory runs into he#vy contr#$ictions. 6It is the est#blishe$ o%inion th#t the visu#l #rts #i' #t the eyes! in or$er to enh#nce the visu#l %ro%erty o) things.8 Is it %ossible th#t here #rt #lso strives to@#r$ so'ething i'#geless! r#ther th#n to@#r$ the sensori#l i'#ge o) #n ob=ect! consi$ering th#t it cre#tes L%icturesJ #n$ is c#lle$ visu#lK -n #n#lysis $oes sho@! ho@ever! th#t in the visu#l #rts #s @ell #s in %oetry the i'#geless i'%ression is the )in#l #i' o) re%resenting #n ob=ect. hus! #t every %oint @e @ere )orce$ to contr#$ict the $og'# #ccor$ing to @hich #rt5s en$ in itsel) is its e'otion#l content. o entert#in our )eelings is not the )in#l %ur%ose o) #n #rtistic $esign or %lot. he 'ost i'%ort#nt %#rt in 'usic is th#t @hich @e c#nnot he#r! in scul%ture! th#t @hich @e c#nnot see or touch. Wherever #n i'#ge #%%e#rs! intention#l or not! it is never # sign o) %oeticity. S%e#king o) Potebni#5s theory! Shklovskii re'#rks! 6 his construction is b#se$ on the e.u#tion: i'#ge e.u#ls %oetry.8 In #ctu#l )#ct! ho@ever! there is no such e.u#lity. 2or it to eAist one @oul$ h#ve to #ssu'e th#t #ny sy'bolic use o) # @or$ is necess#rily %oetic! be it only )or one brie) inst#nt @hen the sy'bol is cre#te$. :o@ever! @e c#n conceive o) using # @or$ in its in$irect connot#tion @ithout cre#ting # %oetic i'#ge. +n the other h#n$! @or$s use$ in their $irect 'e#ning #n$ %ut together in sentences th#t $o not evoke i'#ges '#y be @orks o) %oetry #s! )or inst#nce! Pushkin5s %oe' LI love$ you once! %erh#%s this love.J I'#gery or sy'bolis' $oes not $istinguish %oetic l#ngu#ge )ro' %rose. 2in#lly! $uring the %#st ten ye#rs the 'ost serious #n$ sh#ttering criticis' h#s been levele$ #g#inst the tr#$ition#l theory o) i'#gin#tion #s # co'bin#tion o) i'#ges. Meinong5s school F#s @ell #s the schools o) other rese#rchersG sho@e$ @ith su))icient thoroughness th#t i'#gin#tion #n$ )#nt#sy 'ust be reg#r$e$ #s )unctions servicing our e'otion#l s%here! #n$ @hen they $iscover so'e eAterior #n$ su%er)ici#l si'il#rity @ith 'ent#l %rocesses! the re#soning is #l@#ys b#se$ on e'otion. :einrich Meyer $iscovere$ #n eAtre'ely i'%ort#nt %ro%erty o) this e'otion#l thinking. :e )oun$ th#t the b#sic ten$ency o) the )#cts o) e'otion#l thinking is subst#nti#lly $i))erent )ro' th#t o) $iscursive thinking. he %rocess o) %erce%tion is %ushe$ to the b#ckgroun$ #n$ not recogni(e$. *onsciousness %er)or's eine Vorstellungsgestaltung+ nicht 'uffassung Fre%resent#tion o) #n i'#ge! not conce%tionG. he )un$#'ent#l %ur%ose o) the %rocess is co'%letely $i))erent! #lthough the eAterior )or's '#y occ#sion#lly coinci$e. he #ctivity o) i'#gin#tion consists o) #n or$er o) #))ects! like )eelings @hich '#ni)est the'selves in eA%ressive 'ove'ents. here eAist t@o o%inions #'ong %sychologists #s to @hether e'otions incre#se or $ecre#se un$er the e))ect o) #))ective conce%ts: Wun$t '#int#ine$ th#t

e'otions $ecre#se! but Leh'#n hel$ the o%%osite vie@. I) @e #%%ly to this .uestion the %rinci%le o) single,%ole energy out%ut #s intro$uce$ by ?ornilov in inter%reting r#tion#l %rocesses! @e @ill see th#t in e'otions #s @ell #s in thoughts #n incre#se o) the ch#rge #t the center le#$s to # @e#kening o) the ch#rge in the %eri%her#l org#ns. :ere #n$ there the centr#l #n$ %eri%her#l ch#rges #re in #n inverse r#tio to one #nother; conse.uently #ny incre#se )ro' #))ective conce%ts re%resents b#sic#lly #n #ct o) e'otion! si'il#r to #cts co'%lic#ting the re#ction! by #$$ing to it intellectu#l ele'ents o) choice! $istinction! #n$ so on. Since the intellect is nothing but inhibite$ @ill! @e 'ight %ossibly think o) i'#gin#tion #s inhibite$ )eeling. In #ny event! the obvious rese'bl#nce @ith r#tion#l %rocesses c#nnot oversh#$o@ the )un$#'ent#l $i))erences @hich eAist here. Iven strictly %erce%tive o%inions @hich re)er to # @ork o) #rt #n$ #re Versi$n$ni5s ,rteile F=u$g'ents o) co'%rehensionG #re not o%inions but e'otion#lly #))ective #cts o) thought. hus @hen looking #t Leon#r$o $# Vinci5s -ast upper! the thought #rises th#t 6this is Pu$#s. :e is obviously u%set #n$ h#s overturne$ the s#lt.8 Meyer eA%l#ins this in the )ollo@ing @#y: LI recogni(e Pu$#s only on the strength o) the #))ective e'otion#l @#y o) re%resent#tion.J his sho@s th#t the theory o) gr#%hic re%resent#tion #s @ell #s the #ssertion concerning the r#tion#l ch#r#cter o) #esthetic re#ction runs into consi$er#ble o%%osition )ro' %sychologists. Where gr#%hic#lness is the result o) the #ctivity o) the i'#gin#tion! it obeys l#@s co'%letely $i))erent )ro' those o) the usu#l cre#tive i'#gin#tion #n$ the usu#l logic#l,$iscursive thinking. -rt is the @ork o) the intellect #n$ o) very s%eci#l e'otion#l thinking! but even #)ter h#ving intro$uce$ these corrections @e h#ve still to solve the %roble' con)ronting us. &ot only $o @e h#ve to est#blish @ith '#Ai'u' %recision ho@ the l#@s o) e'otion#l thinking $i))er )ro' other )or's o) this %roble'; @e #lso h#ve to sho@ ho@ the %sychology o) #rt $i))ers )ro' other )or's o) th#t s#'e e'otion#l thinking. &othing reve#ls the i'%otence o) the intellectu#l theory better #n$ 'ore )ully th#n the %r#ctic#l results to @hich it h#s le$. -ny theory! in the )in#l #n#lysis! is by %re)erence checke$ #g#inst the %r#ctic#l results issuing )ro' it. he best evi$ence o) @hether # theory correctly recogni(es #n$ un$erst#n$s the %heno'en# @ith @hich it is concerne$ is given by the eAtent to @hich it controls these %heno'en#. -%%ro#ching the %roble' )ro' # %r#ctic#l #ngle @e see th#t this theory is tot#lly inc#%#ble o) '#stering the )#cts o) #rt. &either in liter#ture nor in the te#ching o) liter#ture! in soci#l criti.ue! nor in the theory #n$ %sychology o) cre#tivity! h#s this theory given #nything th#t coul$ in$uce us to believe th#t it gr#s%s one or the other l#@ o) the %sychology o) #rt. Inste#$ o) # history o) liter#ture! it h#s cre#te$ # history o) the 1ussi#n intelligentsi# F+vsi#niko,?ulikovskiiG! # history o) soci#l thought FIv#nov, 1#(u'nikG! #n$ # history o) soci#l 'ove'ents FPy%inG. In these su%er)ici#l #n$ 'etho$ologic#lly in#ccur#te @orks the theory $istorte$ the liter#ture! @hich it use$ #s '#teri#l! #n$ the soci#l history @hich it trie$ to un$erst#n$ @ith the #i$ o) liter#ry %heno'en# #n$ events. When #n #tte'%t @#s '#$e to b#se #n un$erst#n$ing o) the intelligentsi# o) the 192<5s u%on Iugene +negin! #n e.u#lly $istorte$ #n$ incorrect vie@ o) the intelligentsi# #n$ o) Iugene +negin resulte$. It is true th#t so'e tr#its o) the intelligentsi# o) the 192<5s c#n be )oun$ in Iugene +negin! but these tr#its #re so ch#nge$! tr#ns)or'e$! co'%oun$e$ @ith others! #n$ brought into # co'%letely $i))erent connection @ith the %lot! th#t on their b#sis it is #s i'%ossible to )or' # correct i$e# o) this grou% in the 192<5s #s it is i'%ossible to @rite # gr#''#r o) the 1ussi#n l#ngu#ge on the b#sis o) Pushkin5s %oetic l#ngu#ge. &o serious schol#r or investig#tor coul$ ever conclu$e! %rocee$ing )ro' the #ssu'%tion th#t Iugene +negin 6re)lects the 1ussi#n l#ngu#ge!8 th#t the @or$s in the 1ussi#n l#ngu#ge $istribute the'selves in the )or' o) i#'bic tetr#'eters! #n$ rhy'e in the @#y they rhy'e in Pushkin5s %oe'. -ny #tte'%t #t %erceiving #nything through # @ork o) #rt @ill )#il #s long #s @e h#ve not le#rne$ to $istinguish the #uAili#ry #rtistic techni.ues use$ by the %oet to %rocess the '#teri#l he h#s t#ken )ro' li)e. here re'#ins one l#st %oint to '#ke. he gener#l %re'ise o) this %r#ctic#l #%%lic#tion o) the theory! the ty%ic#lness o) the @ork o) #rt! 'ust be t#ken @ith # goo$ $e#l o) circu's%ection #n$ sub=ecte$ to very #ccur#te scrutiny. he #rtist $oes not give # collective %hotogr#%h o) li)e; hence! ty%ic#lness is by no 'e#ns the )e#ture he %ursues. hus! #nyone en$e#voring to investig#te the history o) the 1ussi#n

intelligentsi# on the b#sis o) the *h#tskiis #n$ Pechorins risks re'#ining @ith co'%letely )#ll#cious i$e#s #n$ un$erst#n$ings o) the %heno'en# un$er stu$y. With such # br#n$ o) scienti)ic investig#tion @e '#y hit the t#rget no 'ore th#n once in # thous#n$ ti'es. his! 'ore th#n #ny theoretic#l consi$er#tions! testi)ies to the groun$lessness #n$ su%er)ici#l, ity o) the theory @hose )ine %oints @e h#ve =ust $iscusse$. he Psychology o) -rt. Vygotsky 1925

Chapter 8: The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmar

he 1i$$le o) :#'let. 6Sub=ective8 #n$ 6+b=ective8 Solutions. he Proble' o) :#'letJ# *h#r#cter. Structure o) the r#ge$y. 2#ble #n$ Sub=ect. I$enti)ic#tion o) the :ero. *#t#stro%he. he tr#ge$y o) .amlet is gener#lly consi$ere$ #n enig'#. It $i))ers )ro' Sh#kes%e#reJs other tr#ge$ies #s @ell #s )ro' the @orks o) others in th#t its course o) #ction never )#ils to sur%rise #n$ be@il$er the s%ect#tor. his is @hy the ess#ys #n$ critic#l stu$ies on the %l#y #re 'ore like co''ent#ries. hey h#ve one tr#it in co''on: #ll try to solve the ri$$le set by Sh#kes%e#re. -)ter his )irst encounter @ith the ghost! :#'let is eA%ecte$ to kill the kingS@hy is he un#ble to $o thisK -n$ @hy $oes the %l#y re)lect nothing but his )#ilure to #ctK Sh#kes%e#re $oes not eA%l#in the re#sons )or :#'letJs inerti#! #n$ thus the critics #%%ro#ch the ri$$le )ro' t@o $i))erent #ngles: the )irst! )ro' the ch#r#cter #n$ %erson#l eA%eriences o) :#'let! #n$ the secon$! )ro' the environ'ent#l obst#cles in his %#th. -ccor$ing to one vie@%oint! the %roble' lies in :#'letJs %erson#lity. *ritics o) this %ersu#sion #tte'%t to sho@ th#t the re#son )or :#'letJs $el#y in t#king revenge is th#t his )eelings rebel #g#inst #n #ct o) violence! th#t he is irresolute #n$ @e#k @ille$! or th#t! #s 7oethe cl#i'e$! too he#vy # t#sk @#s %l#ce$ on his @e#k shoul$ers. Since none o) these inter%ret#tions #llo@s )or #n eAh#ustive eA%l#n#tion o) the tr#ge$y! @e c#n %ositively s#y th#t they #re $evoi$ o) #ny scienti)ic signi)ic#nce! )or eA#ctly o%%osite vie@s '#y eAist =ust #s right)ully. +ther critics eA%l#in :#'letJs lingering #s # '#ni)est#tion o) his st#te o) 'in$! #s i) he @ere # re#l %erson. hese critics usu#lly #rgue )ro' true,li)e eA%erience #n$ hu'#n n#ture! not )ro' the #rtistic structure o) the %l#y. hey go so )#r #s to s#y th#t Sh#kes%e#re inten$e$ to sho@ the tr#ge$y o) the @e#k,@ille$ %erson c#lle$ u%on to %er)or' # t#sk )or @hich he is not %ro%erly e.ui%%e$. hey reg#r$ .amlet #s # tr#ge$y o) @e#kness #n$ the #bsence o) @ill! $es%ite the scenes in @hich the hero eAhibits =ust the o%%osite ch#r#cter tr#its #n$ #%%e#rs #s # '#n o) eAtr#or$in#ry $eter'in#tion! cour#ge! v#lor! #n$ i'%l#c#bility in the )#ce o) 'or#l consi$er#tions. -nother school o) critics seeks to eA%l#in :#'letJs %rocr#stin#tion by the ob=ective obst#cles th#t lie on the %#th to his go#l. he king #n$ his courtiers eAert o%%osition #g#inst :#'let! @ho $oes not kill the king #t once! bec#use it is i'%ossible )or hi' to $o so. hese critics! @ho )ollo@ Wer$erJs vie@! cl#i' th#t :#'letJs t#sk is not to kill the king but to eA%ose his guilt #n$ ch#stise hi'. We c#n! o) course! )in$ #s '#ny #rgu'ents in )#vor o) this vie@ #s o%%ose$ to it. hese critics #re b#$ly 'ist#ken! bec#use they 'iss t@o )un$#'ent#l %oints. 2irst! no@here in the tr#ge$y $oes Sh#kes%e#re )or'ul#te such # t#sk )or :#'let! either $irectly or by i'%lic#tion. he critics! there)ore! #re #tte'%ting to @rite )or Sh#kes%e#re by inventing ne@! co'%lic#te$ t#sks! #g#in %rocee$ing )ro' co''on sense #n$ li)e eA%erience r#ther th#n )ro' the #esthetics o) tr#ge$y. -lso! they #re shutting their eyes #n$ e#rs to '#ny scenes #n$ 'onologues in @hich :#'let! #@#re o) the sub=ective ch#r#cter o) his %rocr#stin#tion but un#ble to un$erst#n$ the re#sons )or it! #tte'%ts so'e eA%l#n#tions! none o) @hich su))ices )ully to su%%ort his #ctions. 4oth grou%s o) critics #gree ho@ever! th#t the tr#ge$y is highly enig'#tic; this #$'ission t#kes 'ost o) the subst#nce out o) their #rgu'ents. In$ee$! i) their consi$er#tions @ere correct! the tr#ge$y @oul$ h#ve no ri$$le. :o@ coul$ the %l#y be 'ysteriously enig'#tic i) Sh#kes%e#re inten$e$ 'erely to %ortr#y # @e#k #n$ un$eci$e$ %ersonK It @oul$ be cle#r )ro' the outset th#t the heroJs %rocr#stin#tion

is $ue to his irresolution. - %l#y #bout # @e#k,@ille$ ch#r#cter @oul$ be # b#$ one i) his @e#kness @ere conce#le$ in # ri$$le. I) the critics o) the secon$ grou%! those @ho cl#i' th#t the '#in $i))iculties #rise )ro' eAtern#l c#uses! @ere correct! then .amlet @oul$ )#il bec#use Sh#kes%e#re! un#ble to re%resent @ith cl#rity the re#l 'e#ning o) the tr#ge$y Fthis very struggle @ith eAtern#l obst#clesG! @oul$ $isguise it! too! @ith # ri$$le. he critics #re trying to solve :#'letJs 'ystery @ith #rgu'ents irrelev#nt to the tr#ge$y itsel). hey #%%ro#ch it #s i) it @ere # c#se )ro' #ctu#l li)e! @hich 'ust be eA%l#ine$ #n$ un$erstoo$ on the b#sis o) co''on sense. -ccor$ing to 4ernMJs very %ertinent re'#rk! # veil h#s been thro@n over the %icture! but in trying to li)t it in or$er to eA#'ine the %icture bene#th @e $iscover th#t the veil is %#inte$ into the %icture itsel). his observ#tion is .uite #ccur#te! )or it is e#sy to sho@ th#t the ri$$le h#s been intention#lly built into the tr#ge$y. he tr#ge$y is structure$ #s # ri$$le! @hich c#nnot be eA%l#ine$ nor solve$ by strictly logic#l 'e#ns. 4y $e%riving the tr#ge$y o) its ri$$le! the critics $e%rive the %l#y o) its 'ost essenti#l ele'ent. Let us no@ consi$er the enig'# o) the %l#y. ;es%ite $i))erences in #%%ro#ch! critics un#ni'ously note the obscurity #n$ #'biguity o) the %l#y. :essner s%e#ks o) .amlet #s # tr#ge$y,'#sk. -ccor$ing to ?uno 2ischer! @e st#n$ be)ore :#'let #n$ his tr#ge$y #s i) @e @ere st#n$ing be)ore # curt#in. We eA%ect the curt#in to rise #n$ reve#l the i'#ge! but @e $iscover th#t the i'#ge conce#le$ is none other th#n the curt#in itsel). 4ernM s#ys th#t .amlet is #n #bsur$ity! @orse th#n the $e#th o) one th#t h#s not yet been born. 7oethe re)ers to so'e so'ber 'ystery #ssoci#te$ @ith the tr#ge$y. Schlegel co'%#res it to #n irr#tion#l e.u#tion. 4#u'g#r$t 'entions the co'%leAity o) # )#ble th#t cont#ins # long series o) $iverse #n$ uneA%ecte$ events. 6 he tr#ge$y :#'let in$ee$ rese'bles # l#byrinth!8 @rites ?uno 2ischer. 6.amlet!8 s#ys 4r#n$es! 6is not %er'e#te$ by # Lgener#l 'e#ningJ or by the i$e# o) unity. *ert#inty #n$ $e)inition @ere not the i$e#ls @hich Sh#kes%e#re @#s striving to re#ch ... he %l#y is l#$en @ith ri$$les #n$ contr#$ictions! but its ch#r' #n$ #ttr#ctiveness #re $ue 'ostly to its obscurity. S%e#king o) 6obscure8 books 4r#n$es cl#i's th#t .amlet is one such: 6-t ti'es # gul) o%ens bet@een the #ction th#t envelo%s the %l#y like # '#ntle! #n$ the core o) the %l#y.8 6:#'let re'#ins # 'ystery!8 s#ys * + 4rink! 6but #n in)initely #ttr#ctive one! bec#use @e kno@ th#t it is not #rti)ici#lly construe$ but $r#@s its origin )ro' n#tureJs @is$o'.8 64ut Sh#kes%e#re cre#te$ # 'ystery!8 to .uote ;o@$en! 6@hich re'#ins # .uestion! )orever eAciting! but never )ully eA%l#ine$. here)ore one c#nnot #ssu'e th#t #n i$e# or # '#gic#l )or'ul# c#n solve the $i))iculties %resente$ by the $r#'# or su$$enly she$ light u%on #ll. +bscurity is ch#r#cteristic o) # @ork o) #rt concerne$! not @ith # s%eci)ic %roble'! but @ith li)e; #n$ in th#t li)e! in the story o) # soul th#t tre#$s the sh#$y boun$#ry bet@een $#rk night #n$ bright $#y there #re '#ny things th#t $e)y or con)use investig#tion.8 We coul$ continue )orever @ith these eAcer%ts #n$ .uot#tions! since #l'ost #ll critics $@ell on this sub=ect. Iven such $e%rec#tors o) Sh#kes%e#re #s olstoy #n$ Volt#ire st#te essenti#lly the s#'e vie@. Volt#ire! )or eA#'%le! in the intro$uction to his tr#ge$y emiramis st#tes th#t 6the course o) events in the tr#ge$y .amlet is # huge 'ess.8 1D'elin $escribes the %l#y #s # @hole #s 6inco'%rehensible.8 -ll these critics see in the obscurity # '#ntle th#t conce#ls # center! # curt#in th#t hi$es #n i'#ge! or # veil th#t %revents our eyes )ro' seeing the %icture un$erne#th. 4ut i) :#'let is @h#t the critics cl#i' it to be! @hy is it shrou$e$ in so 'uch 'ystery #n$ obscurityK 2re.uently the 'ystery is gre#tly eA#gger#te$! #n$ even 'ore )re.uently it is b#se$ on utter 'isun$erst#n$ing. Such 'isun$erst#n$ing un$erlies Mere(hkovskiiJs vie@ th#t 6the ghost #%%e#rs to :#'let in #n #t'os%here o) sole'nity #n$ ro'#nticis'! @ith cl#%s o) thun$er #n$ e#rth.u#kesT he ghost tells :#'let o) the secrets o) the $e#$! o) 7o$! bloo$! #n$ venge#nce.8 his 'ight be re#$ in o%er#tic libretto! but cert#inly not in the #ctu#l .amlet/ We c#n there)ore $isreg#r$ #ll criticis'! @hich tries to se%#r#te the enig'# )ro' the tr#ge$y #n$ t#ke the veil )ro' the %icture. :o@ever! it '#y be o) so'e interest to see ho@ this criticis' $e#ls @ith the inscrut#bility o) :#'letJs ch#r#cter #n$ beh#vior. 4ernM s#ys th#t 6Sh#kes%e#re is # king @ho $oes not

obey l#@s. Were he like #nyone else! @e coul$ s#y th#t :#'let is # lyric#l ch#r#cter @ho $e)ines $r#'#tic %rocessing.8 4r#n$es #lso notes this incongruity: 6We 'ust not )orget th#t this $r#'#tic %heno'enonS#n in#ctive heroSis re.uire$ to so'e eAtent by the techni.ue o) the %l#y. I) :#'let @ere to kill the king i''e$i#tely u%on receiving the ghostJs 'ess#ge! the %l#y @oul$ h#ve to be restricte$ to one #ct. :ence! it beco'es i'%er#tive to )in$ $el#ying t#ctics.8 4ut this nee$ to $el#y @oul$ i'%ly th#t the sub=ect is not suite$ to tr#ge$y! th#t Sh#kes%e#re #rti)ici#lly $el#ys #n #ction th#t coul$ be co'%lete$ inst#ntly! #n$ intro$uces )our su%er)luous #cts into # %l#y c#%#ble o) being resolve$ in # single #ct. Mont#gue notices this! too! #n$ %rovi$es #n eAcellent )or'ul#: 6In#ction is the #ction o) the )irst three #cts.8 4eck co'es to # si'il#r inter%ret#tion. :e eA%l#ins everything by the contr#$iction bet@een the %lot o) the %l#y #n$ the ch#r#cter o) the %rot#gonist. he %lot belongs to the chronicle into @hich Sh#kes%e#re h#s @oven his sub=ect! #n$ :#'letJs ch#r#cter belongs to Sh#kes%e#re hi'sel). 4et@een the t@o there is #n irreconcil#ble contr#$iction. 6Sh#kes%e#re @#s not )ully the '#ster o) his o@n %l#y #n$ @#s not co'%letely )ree to use #ll its co'%onent %#rts!8 # $e)iciency @hich c#n be #ttribute$ to the chronicle. his vie@! ho@ever! is so si'%le #n$ sel),evi$ent th#t it is %ointless to look else@here )or solutions or eA%l#n#tions. hus @e turn to # ne@ grou% o) critics @ho seek the solution to :#'let either in the re.uire'ents o) $r#'#tic techni.ue F#s 'entione$ by 4r#n$esG or in the historic #n$ liter#ry roots o) the tr#ge$y. In this c#se! ho@ever! it is obvious th#t the #uthorJs t#lent is $e)e#te$ by the rigi$ rules o) techni.ue! or th#t the historic b#ckgroun$ o) the sub=ect eAcee$s the %ossibilities o) #rtistic tre#t'ent. In either c#se @e 'ust reg#r$ .amlet #s # )#ilure bec#use Sh#kes%e#re @#s un#ble to select # suit#ble sub=ect )or his tr#ge$y. hen Rhukovskii @oul$ be correct in s#ying th#t 6Sh#kes%e#reJs '#ster%iece! .amlet+ looks like # 'onstrosity to 'e. I $onJt un$erst#n$ its 'e#ning. hose @ho )in$ so 'uch in :#'let eAhibit the @e#lth o) their o@n thought #n$ i'#gin#tion r#ther th#n %rove the su%eriority o) the %l#y. I c#nJt believe th#t Sh#kes%e#re! @hen co'%osing this tr#ge$y! thought in eA#ctly the s#'e @#y #s Schlegel #n$ ieck $i$! @hen they re#$ into its incongruities #ll the unsolve$ ri$$les o) hu'#n li)e ... I #ske$ hi' to re#$ :#'let to 'e #n$ then tell 'e in $et#il his thoughts on this monstrosity/0 7onch#rov hol$s the s#'e vie@. :e cl#i's th#t :#'let c#nnot be %l#ye$ on st#ge. 6:#'let is not # ty%ic#l role. &o one c#n %l#y it; there h#s never been #n #ctor @ho coul$ %l#y it ... :e @oul$ lose hi'sel) in it #s i) he @ere the W#n$ering Pe@ ...:#'letJs ch#r#cter is # %heno'enon @hich #nyone in # nor'#l st#te o) 'in$ si'%ly c#nnot co'%rehen$.8 &ot #ll the liter#ry critics @ho seek to eA%l#in :#'letJs @#vering by technic#l or historic#l 'e#ns think th#t Sh#kes%e#re h#s @ritten # b#$ %l#y. M#ny o) the' %oint to the %ositive #esthetic #s%ects o) :#'letJs %rocr#stin#tion. Volkenshteyn! )or inst#nce! hol$s # $i))erent vie@! @hich is the o%%osite o) :eineJs! 4ernMJs! urgenevJs! #n$ '#ny others! @ho believe th#t :#'let hi'sel) is @e#k @ille$ #n$ s%ineless. he o%inions o) this grou% #re re)lecte$ in :ebbelJs @or$s: 6:#'let is # cor%se! long be)ore the curt#in rises. Wh#t @e see #re the roses #n$ thorns @hich s%rung )ro' his cor%se.8 Volkenshteyn )eels th#t the true essence o) # $r#'#! %#rticul#rly # tr#ge$y! is the tension #n$ stress o) %#ssions; he #lso )eels th#t # tr#ge$y is #l@#ys su%%orte$ by the heroJs inner strength. his is @hy he believes th#t the vie@ o) :#'let #s # @e#k, @ille$ #n$ s%ineless %erson 6is b#se$ on the blin$ trust in se'#ntics @hich ch#r#cteri(es so'e o) the 'ost %ro)oun$ liter#ry criticis'. 6... - $r#'#tic hero c#nnot be t#ken )or @h#t he s#ys he is. :e 'ust be =u$ge$ )or his acts/ :#'letJs #cts #re energetic. :e #lone c#rries on # long #n$ bloo$y )ight @ith the king #n$ the entire ;#nish court. In his tr#gic striving )or the restor#tion o) =ustice! he #tt#cks the king three ti'es: the )irst ti'e he kills Polonius by 'ist#ke; the secon$ ti'e he s%#res the king bec#use the l#tter is %r#ying; #n$ the thir$ ti'e! #t the en$ o) the %l#y! he succee$s. With su%erb ingenuity he sets # tr#% to corrobor#te the st#te'ents o) the ghost. :e $e)tly eli'in#tes 1osencr#nt( #n$ 7uil$enstern )ro' his %#th. In$ee$! he con$ucts # tit#nic struggle... :#'letJs vers#tile! strong ch#r#cter corres%on$s to his %hysic#l )itness: L#ertes is the best )encer in 2r#nce! yet :#'let $e)e#ts hi' bec#use he turns out to be 'ore #$roit Fho@

this contr#$icts urgenevJs #ssertion o) :#'letJs %hysic#l @e#knessQG. he %rot#gonist o) the tr#ge$y sho@s # maximum o) @ill. ... We @oul$ not )eel the tr#ge$y in .amlet i) its hero @ere irresolute #n$ @e#k.8 here is nothing ne@ in outlining those tr#its in :#'let @hich $enote his strength #n$ cour#ge. his h#s been $one '#ny ti'es be)ore #s h#s the $e'onstr#tion o) the obst#cles )#cing :#'let. Wh#t is ne@ is the tre#t'ent o) the '#teri#l @hich $e#ls @ith :#'letJs irresolution #n$ @e#kness. -ccor$ing to Volkenshteyn #ll the 'onologues in @hich :#'let re%ro#ches hi'sel) )or his l#ck o) resolution #re but instru'ents to @hi% u% his @ill; they $o not illustr#te @e#kness! but r#ther his strength. hus! #ccor$ing to Volkenshteyn! :#'letJs sel),#ccus#tions #re yet #nother evi$ence o) his eAtr#or$in#ry strength o) ch#r#cter. :is tit#nic struggle re.uires # '#Ai'u' o) e))ort #n$ )ortitu$e! but he is not s#tis)ie$ @ith hi'sel) #n$ he $e'#n$s still 'ore o) hi'sel). his inter%ret#tion %roves th#t the contr#$ictions #re not #cci$ent#l but h#ve been intro$uce$ intention#lly #n$ th#t! 'oreover! they #re only see'ingly )ortuitous. -ny 'ention o) @e#kness #n$ irresolution is evi$ence o) eA#ctly the o%%ositeS:#'letJs )or'i$#ble @ill. 4ut even this #tte'%t to solve :#'letJs %roble' is not entirely success)ul. -s # '#tter o) )#ct! it re%e#ts! only in slightly $i))erent ter's! the e#rlier vie@ o) :#'letJs ch#r#cter! @ithout eA%l#ining @hy he %rocr#stin#tes! @hy he $oes not kill the king in the )irst #ct! i''e$i#tely #)ter the revel#tions o) the ghost F#s suggeste$ by 4r#n$esG! or @hy the tr#ge$y $oes not en$ @ith the )irst #ct. We #re thus )orce$ to si$e @ith Wer$er! @ho cl#i's th#t the eAterior obst#cles re%resent the true c#use o) :#'letJs %rocr#stin#tion. his vie@! ho@ever! is in co'%lete contr#$iction @ith the 'e#ning o) the %l#y. We '#y #gree! though! @ith the )#ct th#t :#'let is con$ucting # tit#nic struggle! i) @e %rocee$ )ro' :#'letJs o@n ch#r#cter. Let us #ssu'e th#t tre'en$ous )orces #re concentr#te$ @ithin hi'. 4ut @ith @ho' $oes he con$uct his struggle! #g#inst @ho' is it $irecte$! #n$ ho@ $oes it eA%ress itsel)K &o sooner #re these .uestions #ske$ th#n it beco'es obvious th#t :#'letJs o%%onents #re nonentities #n$ the )orces %reventing hi' )ro' 'ur$er #re insigni)ic#nt; he hi'sel) blin$ly gives in to the '#chin#tions $irecte$ #g#inst hi'. he critic c#nnot but note th#t #lthough %r#yer s#ves the kingJs li)e once! there is h#r$ly #ny in$ic#tion th#t :#'let is $evout or th#t he s%#res the %r#ying king bec#use o) #ny $ee% %erson#l conviction. +n the contr#ry! this re#son cro%s u% #s i) by #cci$ent #n$ is #l'ost inco'%rehensible to the s%ect#tor. he #cci$ent#l killing o) Polonius %roves th#t :#'letJs $ecision to kill @#s '#$e i''e$i#tely #)ter the %l#yersJ %er)or'#nce be)ore the court. Why! then! $oes his s@or$ s'ite the king only #t the very en$ o) the tr#ge$yK 2in#lly! no '#tter ho@ %re'e$it#te$ or #cci$ent#l! no '#tter ho@ li'ite$ by out@#r$ circu'st#nces his struggle '#y be! 'ost o) the ti'e :#'let is %#rrying blo@s $irecte$ #g#inst hi' r#ther th#n c#rrying on his o@n #tt#ck. he 'ur$ers o) 7uil$enstern #n$ #ll the rest #re nothing but sel),$e)ense! #n$ @e c#nnot %ossibly ter' such sel),$e)ense # tit#nic struggle. We @ill sho@ th#t :#'letJs three #tte'%ts to kill the king! to @hich Volkenshteyn re)ers! #re evi$ence o) eA#ctly the o%%osite o) @h#t th#t critic sees in the'. I.u#lly %oor inter%ret#tion @#s the st#ging o) .amlet by the Secon$ Mosco@ -rt he#tre! # %ro$uction @hich )ollo@e$ VolkenshteynJs line closely. he $irectors %rocee$e$ )ro' the cl#sh o) t@o $istinct #s%ects o) hu'#n n#ture. 6+ne is %rotesting! heroic! )ighting to #ssert its o@n sense o) li)e. his is our :#'let. In or$er to e'%h#si(e this #s%ect o) our hero @e hi$ to shorten the teAt o) the tr#ge$y consi$er#bly #n$ eli'in#te )ro' it #ll th#t coul$ %ossibly inter)ere @ith the @hirl o) events. ...-s e#rly #s the 'i$$le o) the secon$ #ct :#'let t#kes his s@or$ in his h#n$ #n$ $oes not let it go until the en$ o) the tr#ge$y. We h#ve #lso un$erscore$ :#'letJs #ctivity by con$ensing #ll the obst#cles @hich he encounters in his %#th. his @#s our gui$eline in the tre#t'ent o) the king #n$ the other ch#r#cters. ?ing *l#u$ius %ersoni)ies everything th#t #tte'%ts to th@#rt the heroic :#'let...-n$ our :#'let $@ells continuously in #n i'%#ssione$ st#te o) struggle #g#inst #ll th#t is %ersoni)ie$ by the king ... o e'%h#si(e the sh#$es #n$ colors in the %l#y @e )oun$ it necess#ry to tr#ns)er the #ction to the Mi$$le -ges.8 hus s%oke the $irectors o) the %l#y in their #nnounce'ent o) %l#ns )or the st#ging o) .amlet/ hey #$'it .uite o%enly th#t )or st#ge re.uire'ents #n$ )or better un$erst#n$ing o) the tr#ge$y they h#$ to %er)or' the )ollo@ing three o%er#tions on the %l#y: to $isc#r$ )ro' it everything th#t %revents

such #n un$erst#n$ing; to con$ense the obst#cles th#t lie in :#'letJs @#y; #n$ to #ccentu#te the sh#$es #n$ colors in the %l#y! @hile tr#ns)erring the #ction to the Mi$$le -ges F$es%ite the )#ct th#t the %l#y is usu#lly seen #s t#king %l#ce $uring the 1en#iss#nceG. -)ter three such o%er#tions it is obvious th#t #ny #n$ #ll inter%ret#tions o) the $r#'# #re %ossible. It is #lso obvious th#t these three o%er#tions tr#ns)or' the tr#ge$y into so'ething $i#'etric#lly o%%ose$ to the #uthorJs intent. he )#ct th#t such r#$ic#l surgery @#s re.uire$ to %ro$uce # %#rticul#r inter%ret#tion o) Sh#kes%e#reJs @ork is the best evi$ence o) the i''ense $iscre%#ncy bet@een the true 'e#ning o) :#'letJs story #n$ the 'e#ning #ttribute$ to it by the critics. o illustr#te the #l'ost coloss#l contr#$ictions @hich beset this st#ge$ version o) .amlet+ it su))ices to 'ention th#t the king! @ho h#s # )#irly 'o$est role in the origin#l %l#y! su$$enly beco'es the heroic counter%#rt to :#'let . I) :#'let! #s the )oc#l %oint o) heroic! enlightene$ @ill! is one o) the tr#ge$yJs %oles! then the king! #s the )oc#l %oint o) the #ntiheroic! $#rk %o@er! is its other %ole. 4ut to re$uce the role o) the king to he %ersoni)ic#tion o) #ll the neg#tive %rinci%les o) li)e @oul$ re.uire the @riting o) # ne@ tr#ge$y @ith # %ur%ose $i))erent )ro' th#t %ursue$ by Sh#kes%e#re. Much closer to the truth #re those eA%l#n#tions o) :#'letJs irresolution @hich! @hile #lso %rocee$ing )ro' )or'#l consi$er#tions! try to solve the ri$$le @ithout %er)or'ing '#=or surgic#l o%er#tions on the origin#l teAt. +ne such #tte'%t is #n eA%l#n#tion o) so'e o) the %eculi#rities o) :#'let b#se$ on the techni.ue #n$ $esign o) the Sh#kes%e#re#n st#ge . Its i'%ort#nce! c#nnot be $enie$; in$ee$ stu$y o) the sub=ect is vit#l to # %ro%er un$erst#n$ing o) the tr#ge$y. In this reg#r$! signi)ic#nce is #c.uire$ by PrelsJ l#@ o) te'%or#l continuity in the Sh#kes%e#re#n $r#'# @hich re.uires )ro' both #u$ience #n$ #uthor # conce%t o) st#ging tot#lly $i))erent )ro' th#t o) our 'o$ern the#ters. We $ivi$e # %l#y into #cts! e#ch involving only the brie) ti'e interv#l $uring @hich the events re%resente$ in it occur. I'%ort#nt events! #n$ their e))ects! t#ke %l#ce bet@een #cts! #n$ the #u$ience le#rns #bout the' subse.uently. -cts '#y be se%#r#te$ by interv#ls o) sever#l ye#rs. -ll this re.uires s%eci)ic stylistic techni.ues. hings @ere tot#lly $i))erent in Sh#kes%e#reJs $#y: the #ction @#s continuous! # %l#y #%%#rently @#s not $ivi$e$ into #cts! the %er)or'#nce @#s not interru%te$ by inter'issions! #n$ everything h#%%ene$ be)ore the eyes o) the #u$ience. his i'%ort#nt #esthetic convention @#s boun$ to h#ve # consi$er#ble be#ring u%on the co'%osition #n$ the structure o) #ny %l#y. M#ny things beco'e cle#r once @e #c.u#int ourselves @ith the techni.ue #n$ #esthetics o) the st#ge o) Sh#kes%e#reJs ti'e. 4ut i) @e overste% the boun$#ry #n$ #ssu'e th#t by est#blishing the necessity o) so'e technic#l 'e#sure @e h#ve solve$ the %roble' o) the %l#y! @e co''it # gr#ve error. We 'ust be #ble to $iscern the eAtent to @hich e#ch $evice is re#lly $ue to the st#ge techni.ue o) th#t ti'e. his! ho@ever! is not su))icient! )or @e 'ust #lso sho@ the %sychologic#l signi)ic#nce o) the $evice. We 'ust eA%l#in @hy )ro' #'ong '#ny such $evices Sh#kes%e#re chose this one! since to #$'it th#t # $evice c#n be eA%l#ine$ only by its technic#l in$is%ens#bility is t#nt#'ount to # $ecl#r#tion o) the su%re'#cy o) b#re techni.ue over #rt. here is no $oubt th#t the structure o) # %l#y gre#tly $e%en$s u%on its techni.ue! but it is #lso true th#t e#ch #n$ every technic#l $evice #c.uires its o@n #esthetic signi)ic#nce :ere is # si'%le eA#'%le. Silvers@#n s#ys: 6 he %oet @#s gre#tly h#'%ere$ by # s%eci)ic st#ge #rr#nge'ent. -'ong the c#ses th#t sho@ the inevit#bility o) the eAit o) the #ctors )ro' the st#ge! or the i'%ossibility o) h#ving the %l#y or scene en$ @ith # grou% o) %ersons on st#ge! @e h#ve those in @hich there #re cor%ses on st#ge. hey c#nnot be '#$e to rise #n$ @#lk out. 4ut in .amlet+ )or inst#nce! 2ortinbr#s #%%e#rs #t the en$ Fhe is other@ise tot#lly su%er)luousG! @ith '#ny other %eo%le! )or the sole %ur%ose o) eAcl#i'ing: #ke u% the bo$ies: such # sight #s this 4eco'es the )iel$! but here sho@s 'uch #'iss. 7o! bi$ the sol$iers shoot. IAeunt #ll! be#ring o)) the $e#$ bo$ies. he re#$er c#n )in$ # gre#t nu'ber o) such inst#nces i) he re#$s Sh#kes%e#reJs %l#ys c#re)ully. :ere @e h#ve #n eA#'%le o) #n inter%ret#tion o) the )in#l scene o) .amlet b#se$ solely u%on technic#l

consi$er#tions. It is obvious th#t @ithout # curt#in! @ith the #ction un)ol$ing be)ore the #u$ience on #n o%en st#ge! the %l#y@right 'ust en$ his %l#y in such # @#y #s to #llo@ so'eone to c#rry #@#y the cor%ses. So'eone h#s to re'ove the bo$ies in the )in#l scene o) :#'let; ho@ever! this coul$ be $one in sever#l $i))erent @#ys. he bo$ies coul$ be t#ken by the courtiers! or si'%ly by the ;#nish gu#r$. hus! even )ro' this strictly technic#l necessity! @e shoul$ never conclu$e th#t 2ortinbr#s #%%e#rs only )or the %ur%ose o) re'oving the cor%ses! th#t he is other@ise tot#lly su%er)luous. Let us look #t ?uno 2ischerJs inter%ret#tion o) the tr#ge$y. :e sees the the'e o) revenge e'bo$ie$ in three $i))erent ch#r#cters: :#'let! L#ertes! #n$ 2ortinbr#s! #ll #vengers o) their res%ective )#thers. hus! it beco'es i''e$i#tely evi$ent th#t 2ortinbr#sJ )in#l #%%e#r#nce #c.uires # $ee% #rtistic signi)ic#nce! since the revenge the'e re#ches its )in#l resolution. he %rocession o) the victorious 2ortinbr#s be)ore the bo$ies o) the other t@o #vengers! @ho h#ve been const#ntly =uAt#%ose$ to hi'! is highly signi)ic#nt. :ere # strictly technic#l $evice #c.uires #n #esthetic 'e#ning. We sh#ll be )orce$ 'ore th#n once to resort to such #n #n#lysis! #n$ the rule est#blishe$ by Prels @ill %rove very hel%)ul in eA%l#ining :#'letJs %rocr#stin#tion. his! ho@ever! only the beginning o) the investig#tion. he %rinci%#l t#sk consists in #rriving #t #n un$erst#n$ing o) the #esthetic eA%e$iency o) # $evice once its technic#l necessity on st#ge h#s been est#blishe$. +ther@ise @e sh#ll h#ve to conclu$e! @ith 4r#n$es! th#t techni.ue @holly $o'in#tes the %oet! not vice vers#! #n$ th#t :#'let %rocr#stin#tes $uring )our #cts 'erely bec#use Ili(#beth#n %l#ys @ere @ritten in )ive #cts r#ther th#n one. We sh#ll never un$erst#n$ @hy the s#'e techni.ue th#t con)ines #n$ restricts Sh#kes%e#re eA#ctly #s it $oes other #uthors cre#tes one #esthetic in Sh#kes%e#reJs @ork #n$ #nother in the tr#ge$ies o) his conte'%or#ries; or 'oreover! @hy the s#'e techni.ue co'%els Sh#kes%e#re to @rite 1thello+ $ing -ear+ Macbeth+ #n$ .amlet in co'%letely $i))erent @#ys. +bviously! @ithin the li'its #llo@e$ the %oet by his techni.ue! he ret#ins )ree$o' o) cre#tion #n$ co'%osition. he s#'e in#$e.u#cy is )oun$ in #tte'%ts to eA%l#in .amlet entirely )ro' )or'#l re.uire'ents! @hich est#blish %er)ectly correct rules th#t '#y hel% to un$erst#n$ the tr#ge$y but #re tot#lly in#$e.u#te )or its eA%l#n#tion. his is ho@ Iichenb#u' c#su#lly s%e#ks #bout :#'let: 6-s # '#tter o) )#ct! it is not bec#use the #ction in the tr#ge$y is $el#ye$ th#t Schiller h#s to #n#ly(e the %sychology o) %rocr#stin#tion; .uite the contr#ry! W#llenstein None o) SchillerJs tr#gic heroesO %rocr#stin#tes bec#use #ction in the tr#ge$y 'ust be hel$ b#ck! #n$ the $el#y 'ust be conce#le$. he s#'e h#%%ens @ith :#'let. It is not in v#in th#t there eAist $irectly contr#$ictory inter%ret#tions o) :#'let #s # %erson#lity. -ll o) these #re correct in their o@n @#y! bec#use #ll o) the' #re e.u#lly 'ist#ken. 4oth :#'let #n$ W#llenstein re%resent t@o #s%ects in$is%ens#ble )or the tre#t'ent o) tr#gic )or's: # $riving )orce #n$ # $el#ying )orce. Inste#$ o) # si'%le 'ove'ent )or@#r$ on the %#th o) the sub=ect! or %lot! @e h#ve so'ething like # $#nce @ith co'%leA 'ove'ents. 2ro' # %sychologic#l %oint o) vie@ @e run into contr#$ictions. his is inevit#ble! bec#use %sychology serves only #s # 'otiv#tion: the hero only see's to be # %erson#lity; in re#lity he is # '#sk. Sh#kes%e#re intro$uces the ghost into his tr#ge$y #n$ '#kes # %hiloso%her out o) :#'let! thus 'otiv#ting both 'ove'ent #n$ %rocr#stin#tion. Schiller )orces W#llenstein to beco'e # tr#itor #l'ost #g#inst his @ill in or$er to cre#te 'ove'ent in the tr#ge$y; then he intro$uces #strology #s # )#ctor to bring #bout %rocr#stin#tion. :ere # nu'ber o) %er%leAing .uestions #rise. Let us #gree @ith Ichenb#u' th#t )or the %ro%er tre#t'ent o) #rt )or's! the %rot#gonist 'ust si'ult#neously $evelo% #n$ $el#y the #ction. *#n this insight eA%l#in .amlet2 &o 'ore th#n the nee$ to re'ove the cor%ses #t the en$ o) the %l#y c#n eA%l#in the #%%e#r#nce o) 2ortinbr#s. his is true )or both Sh#kes%e#re #n$ Schiller. Why! then! h#s one @ritten .amlet+ #n$ the other )allenstein2 Why h#ve #n i$entic#l st#ge techni.ue #n$ i$entic#l )or'#l re.uire'ents le$ once to the cre#tion o) Macbeth #n$ #nother ti'e to .amlet+ t@o %l#ys @hich #re co'%letely o%%ose$ in their co'%ositionK Let us #ssu'e th#t the %rot#gonistJs %sychology is nothing but the #u$ienceJs illusion #n$ is intro$uce$ by the #uthor only #s # 'otiv#tion. 4ut then! is the 'otiv#tion chosen by the #uthor o) #ny signi)ic#nce to the tr#ge$yK -re the 'otiv#tion #n$ its selection

#rbitr#ryK ;oes 'otiv#tion 'e#n #nything in itsel)! or is the e))ect o) the rules o) tr#ge$y i$entic#l no '#tter @h#t the 'otiv#tion or the concrete )or' o) its '#ni)est#tion! =ust #s the correctness o) #n #lgebr#ic )or'ul# re'#ins const#nt! no '#tter @h#t #rith'etic v#lues #re substitute$ in itK hus! )or'#lis'! @hich beg#n @ith # he#lthy res%ect )or concrete )or'! $egener#tes to the %oint o) re$ucing cert#in in$ivi$u#l )or's to #lgebr#ic )or'ul#e. &o one @ill contr#$ict Schiller @hen he s#ys th#t # tr#gic %oet 6'ust $r#g out the tor'ent o) )eelings8! but @e c#nnot un$erst#n$ @hy this tor'ent is $r#gge$ out in Macbeth @here the #ction $evelo%s #t # bre#th,t#king %#ce! #n$ #g#in in :#'let! @here the #ction is very slo@. Iichenb#u' believes th#t his )or'ul# eA%l#ins :#'let co'%letely. S h#kes%e#re intro$uces the ghost #s # 'otiv#tion )or 'ove'ent. :e '#kes :#'let into # %hiloso%her in or$er to bring #bout $el#y. Schiller uses other 'otiv#tionsS#strology in %l#ce o) %hiloso%hy #n$ tre#son in %l#ce o) # ghost. Why! then! $o @e h#ve t@o co'%letely $i))erent conse.uences )ro' one #n$ the s#'e c#useK +r 'ust @e #$'it th#t the c#use given here '#y not be the true one or th#t it '#y not eA%l#in everything su))icientlyK In$ee$! it '#y not even eA%l#in the 'ost su%er)ici#l events. :ere is #n eA#'%le: 62or so'e re#son!8 s#ys Iichenb#u'! 6@e love L%sychologiesJ #n$ Lch#r#cteristics.J We n#ively believe th#t # @riter @#nts to LeA%ressJ or Lre%resentJ # %sychology or # ch#r#cter. We r#ck our br#ins #bout .amlet3did Sh#kes%e#re re#lly want to eA%ress %rocr#stin#tion! or $i$ he want to eA%ress so'ething elseK In %oint o) )#ct! ho@ever! the #rtist $oes not re%resent or eA%ress #ny such thing! )or he is not concerne$ @ith %sychology. &or $o @e go to see .amlet to stu$y %sychology.8 L -ll this is true! o) course! but $oes it )ollo@ th#t the choice o) the ch#r#cter or the %sychology o) the %rot#gonist '#kes no $i))erence to the #uthorK It is true th#t @e $o not see .amlet in or$er to stu$y the %sychology o) %rocr#stin#tion! but it is e.u#lly true th#t @ere @e to ch#nge :#'letJs ch#r#cter! the %l#y @oul$ lose its entire e))ect. +) course the #uthor h#s not @ritten the tr#ge$y )or the %ur%ose o) giving # tre#tise on %sychology or hu'#n ch#r#cter. &evertheless! the heroJs %sychology #n$ ch#r#cter #re neither 'e#ningless! r#n$o'! nor #rbitr#ry ele'ents they #re eAtre'ely i'%ort#nt #esthetic#lly! #n$ to eA%l#in :#'let in one sentence the @#y Iichenb#u' $oes is not s#tis)#ctory. I) @e cl#i' th#t #ction is $el#ye$ in .amlet bec#use the hero is # %hiloso%her! then @e 'ust #cce%t #n$ re%e#t the o%inion o) the $ull books #n$ #rticles Iichenb#u' tries to $is%rove. In$ee$ the tr#$ition#l #%%ro#ch %sychology #n$ the stu$y o) ch#r#cter #sserts th#t :#'let )#ils to kill the king bec#use he is # %hiloso%her. he s#'e sh#llo@ #%%ro#ch cl#i's th#t the ghost is intro$uce$ in or$er to )orce :#'let into #ction. :o@ever! :#'let coul$ h#ve gotten the in)or'#tion )ro' other sources. -ll @e h#ve to $o is turn to the tr#ge$y itsel) to re#li(e th#t #ction is not $el#ye$ by :#'letJs %hiloso%hy but by so'ething else. hose @ho @#nt to stu$y .amlet #s # %sychologic#l %roble' 'ust #b#n$on criticis'. We h#ve trie$ to sho@ ho@ little gui$#nce it gives the schol#r! #n$ ho@ it c#n occ#sion#lly le#$ investig#tors #str#y. he )irst ste% to@#r$ # %sychologic#l stu$y o) :#'let is to $isc#r$ the 11!<<< volu'es o) co''ent#ry th#t h#ve crushe$ the hero un$er their @eight! #n$ o) @hich olstoy s%e#ks @ith horror. he tr#ge$y 'ust be t#ken #s it st#n$s i) @e #re to un$erst#n$ @h#t it reve#ls! not to the so%histic#te$ co''ent#tor but to the honest behol$er; it h#s to be t#ken in its uneA%lic#te$ )or' #n$ looke$ #t #s it is. +ther@ise @e run the risk o) inter%reting # $re#' r#ther th#n stu$ying the %l#y. +nly one such #tte'%t to look #t :#'let @ith unso%histic#te$ si'%licity is kno@n to us. It @#s '#$e by olstoy @ho! @ith ingenious bol$ness! @rote # brilli#nt #rticle on Sh#kes%e#re @hich! )or so'e un)#tho'#ble re#son! is gener#lly consi$ere$ stu%i$ #n$ uninteresting. his is @h#t he @rites: &one o) Sh#kes%e#reJs ch#r#cters sho@s! in such # striking )#shion! the %l#y@rightJs , I $onJt @#nt to s#y in#bilitySco'%lete $isreg#r$ )or %ro%er ch#r#cteri(#tion #s $oes :#'let. &one o) his other %l#ys reve#ls #s 'uch #s .amlet the blin$ @orshi% o) Sh#kes%e#re! the unre#soning hy%nosis @hich $oes not even #$'it the thought th#t # @ork o) Sh#kes%e#reJs c#n be #nything but brilli#nt or th#t one o) his '#in ch#r#cters c#n be #nything but the eA%ression o) so'e ne@! $ee%ly involve$ i$e#. Sh#kes%e#re t#kes # re#son#bly goo$ story or $r#'# @ritten so'e 15 ye#rs e#rlier! @rites his o@n %l#y

)ro' it! %utting into the 'outh o) the %rinci%#l ch#r#cter! .uite ino%%ortunely F#s he #l@#ys $oesG! #ll those i$e#s o) his o@n @hich he thinks @orthy o) consi$er#tion. 4ut! in $oing so ... he is tot#lly unconcerne$ #bout @hen #n$ un$er @h#t circu'st#nces these i$e#s #re uttere$. hus the ch#r#cter @ho eA%resses #ll these i$e#s beco'es Sh#kes%e#reJs 'outh%iece #n$ loses his o@n essence to the eAtent th#t his $ee$s $o not corres%on$ to his @or$s. :#'letJs %erson#lity is .uite un$erst#n$#ble in the story )ro' @hich Sh#kes%e#re $re@ his %l#y. :e is outr#ge$ by his uncleJs #n$ 'otherJs $ee$! @#nts to t#ke venge#nce on the'! but is #)r#i$ his uncle 'ight kill hi' #s he $i$ his )#ther! #n$ there)ore )eigns ins#nity. ... -ll this is cle#r! #n$ it )ollo@s )ro' :#'letJs ch#r#cter #n$ %osition. 4ut by %utting into :#'letJs 'outh those i$e#s @hich Sh#kes%e#re @#nts to tell the @orl$! #n$ by )orcing hi' to %er)or' those #ctions @hich Sh#kes%e#re nee$s )or %re%#ring the 'ost e))ective scenes! the #uthor $estroys the ch#r#cter o) the :#'let o) the legen$. 2or the entire $ur#tion o) the %l#y :#'let $oes not #ct the @#y he 'ight @#nt or 'ight like to! but the @#y the #uthor re.uires hi' to #ct: #t one ti'e he is terrori(e$ by his )#therJs ghost! #n$ #nother ti'e he ch#))s #t hi'! c#lling hi' #n ol$ 'ole; )irst he loves +%heli#! l#ter he te#ses her cruelly! #n$ so )orth. It is i'%ossible to )in$ #n eA%l#n#tion )or :#'letJs #ctions or @or$s! #n$ it is there)ore i'%ossible to #ssign to hi' #ny ch#r#cter #t #ll. 4ut since it is gener#lly #cce%te$ th#t the gre#t Sh#kes%e#re coul$ not %ossibly @rite #nything b#$! schol#rs #n$ critics h#ve r#cke$! #n$ #re r#cking their br#ins to $iscover so'e unusu#l be#uty in #n obvious $e)ect! @hich is %#rticul#rly evi$ent #n$ .uite irrit#ting in .amlet+ @here the %rot#gonist h#s no ch#r#cter. he @ise critics no@ %rocl#i' th#t :#'let eA%resses! @ith eAtr#or$in#ry %o@er! # co'%letely ne@ #n$ %ro)oun$ ch#r#cter! @hose $istinguishing )e#ture is the #bsence o) ch#r#cter! #n$ th#t only the genius o) # Sh#kes%e#re coul$ cre#te such # %ro)oun$ ch#r#cterless ch#r#cter. :#ving est#blishe$ this! the schol#rly critics %rocee$ to @rite volu'e u%on volu'e to %r#ise #n$ eA%l#in the gre#tness #n$ signi)ic#nce o) the ch#r#cteri(#tion o) # %erson @ithout ch#r#cter. It is true th#t so'e o) the critics occ#sion#lly %ro$uce ti'i$ re'#rks th#t there 'ight be so'ething o$$ #bout th#t ch#r#cter! th#t :#'let is #n unsolv#ble ri$$le; but no one )in$s the cour#ge to s#y th#t the e'%eror is n#ke$! th#t it is %er)ectly %l#in th#t Sh#kes%e#re @#s either un#ble or un@illing to give :#'let # s%eci)ic ch#r#cter. &or $i$ he un$erst#n$ th#t it @#s #t #ll necess#ry. -n$ so the schol#rly critics continue to stu$y! investig#te! #n$ eAtol this 'ysterious liter#ry %ro$uction. ... We $e)er to olstoyJs o%inion! not bec#use @e believe his conclusions to be correct or #bsolutely trust@orthy. he re#$er @ill un$erst#n$ th#t olstoyJs )in#l =u$g'ent o) Sh#kes%e#re issues )ro' non, #rtistic 'otiv#tions; the $ecisive )#ctor in his 'or#l con$e'n#tion o) Sh#kes%e#re is the )#ct th#t he reg#r$s the l#tterJs 'or#ls #s irreconcil#ble @ith his o@n 'or#l i$e#ls. We 'ust be#r in 'in$ th#t this 'or#listic #%%ro#ch h#s le$ olstoy to $is#%%rove not only o) Sh#kes%e#re but o) '#ny other #uthors #n$ their @orks. o@#r$ the en$ o) his li)e he consi$ere$ even his o@n @ritings h#r')ul #n$ un@orthy! %roving th#t this 'or#listic vie@ re#ches beyon$ the boun$#ries o) #rt! is too bro#$ #n$ univers#l to t#ke #ccount o) $et#ils! #n$ c#nnot be #%%lie$ in the %sychologic#l investig#tion o) #rt. :o@ever! olstoy su%%orts his 'or#listic conclusions @ith %urely #esthetic #rgu'ents; these #%%e#r to be so convincing #s to $estroy th#t unre#soning #n$ unre#son#ble hy%nosis @hich surroun$s Sh#kes%e#re #n$ his o%us. olstoy looks #t :#'let @ith the eyes o) the chil$ in -n$ersenJs )#iry t#le o) the e'%erorJs ne@ clothes; he is the )irst @ho h#s the cour#ge to s#y th#t the e'%eror is n#ke$! i.e.! th#t #ll the 'erits! such #s %ro)un$ity! %recision o) ch#r#cter! %enetr#tion o) the $e%ths o) the hu'#n %syche! #n$ so )orth! eAist only in the s%ect#torJs i'#gin#tion. olstoyJs gre#test 'erit lies in his st#te'ent th#t the e'%eror is n#ke$! @ith @hich he eA%oses not %ri'#rily Sh#kes%e#re but the %re%osterous #n$ )#lse conce%t o) the 4#r$! @ith @hich he co'%#res his o@n o%inion @hich he consi$ers $i#'etric#lly o%%ose$ to the one #cce%te$ by the entire civili(e$ @orl$. hus! %ursuing # 'or#listic #i'! olstoy $estroys one o) the 'ost #bsur$ %re=u$ices in the history o) liter#ture. :e @#s the )irst to eA%ress bol$ly @h#t no@ h#s been

con)ir'e$ by '#ny! n#'ely! th#t Sh#kes%e#re )#ils to give convincing %sychologic#l 'otiv#tion to .uite # )e@ o) the intrigues #n$ #ctions in his %l#ys! th#t his ch#r#cters #re o)ten i'%l#usible! #n$ th#t )re.uently there #re serious incongruities! un#cce%t#ble to co''on sense! bet@een the %rot#gonistJs ch#r#cter #n$ his #ctions. Stoll! )or inst#nce! bluntly #sserts th#t in .amlet Sh#kes%e#re is 'ore intereste$ in the situ#tion th#n in the heroJs ch#r#cter! th#t :#'let shoul$ be vie@e$ #s # tr#ge$y o) intrigue in @hich the $ecisive role is %l#ye$ by the se.uence o) events #n$ not by the $isclosure o) the heroJs ch#r#cter. 1ugg hol$s the s#'e vie@. :e s%ecul#tes th#t Sh#kes%e#re $oes not ent#ngle the #ction in or$er to co'%lic#te :#'letJs ch#r#cter! but th#t he co'%lic#tes the ch#r#cter to '#ke the hero )it 'ore e#sily into the tr#$ition#l $r#'#tic conce%t o) the )#ble. Such co''ent#ries #re by no 'e#ns uni.ue! nor $o they st#n$ #lone #'ong other con)licting o%inions. In other Sh#kes%e#re#n %l#ys! .uite # )e@ )#cts h#ve been )oun$ @hich %rove incontest#bly th#t olstoyJs #ssertion is b#sic#lly correct. We @ill sho@ ho@ olstoyJs o%inion c#n be %ro%erly #%%lie$ to such tr#ge$ies #s 1thello+ #n$ $ing -ear+ ho@ convincing he h#s rove$ the irrelev#nce o) ch#r#cter in Sh#kes%e#reJs @orks #n$ ho@ %recisely he h#s un$erstoo$ the #esthetic signi)ic#nce o) Sh#kes%e#reJs l#ngu#ge. We t#ke! #s the st#rting %oint )or our $iscussion! the obvious vie@! #ccor$ing to @hich no s%eci)ic ch#r#cter c#n be #ssigne$ to :#'let! )or he is '#$e u% o) contr#$ictory tr#its! #n$ it is i'%ossible to )in$ # cre$ible eA%l#n#tion )or his @or$s #n$ #ctions. :o@ever! @e @ill $is%ute olstoyJs vie@s on Sh#kes%e#reJs co'%lete in#bility to re%resent the #rtistic %rogress o) the #ction. olstoy )#ils to un$erst#n$! or %erh#%s $oes not @#nt to #cce%t! Sh#kes%e#reJs #esthetics. 4y n#rr#ting the l#tterJs #rtistic $evices in %l#in l#ngu#ge! he tr#ns%oses the #uthorJs %oetic l#ngu#ge into # l#ngu#ge o) %rose! re'oves the $evices )ro' the #esthetic )unctions @hich they %er)or' in the $r#'#S#n$ re#ches # nonsensic#l conclusion. his! o) course! is boun$ to h#%%en i) @e %er)or' # si'il#r o%er#tion on the @ork o) #ny other %oet #n$ $e%rive his teAt o) its %ro%er sense by n#rr#ting the story in %l#in l#ngu#ge. olstoy %rocee$s to recount $ing -ear+ scene by scene! to sho@ the %re%osterousness o) their conc#ten#tion. Were @e to $o the s#'e to his 'nna $arenina+ @e @oul$ re$uce th#t novel to # si'il#r bun$le o) #bsur$ nonsense. Wh#t olstoy s#ys #bout 'nna $arenina c#n #lso be #%%lie$ to $ing -ear/ It is i'%ossible to retell the )#cts o) # novel or # tr#ge$y #n$ eA%ress its 'e#ning! bec#use 'e#ning c#n only be )oun$ in the co'bin#tion o) i$e#s. olstoy cl#i's th#t this co'bin#tion is not '#$e u% o) thoughts but o) 6so'ething else8 @hich c#nnot be eA%resse$ in @or$s but only through i'#ges! scenes! situ#tions! #n$ so )orth. o retell $ing -ear in oneJs o@n @or$s is #s i'%ossible #s %utting 'usic into @or$s. his is @hy n#rr#tion is the le#st convincing 'etho$ o) #rtistic criti.ue. :is b#sic 'ist#ke! ho@ever! $i$ not %revent olstoy )ro' '#king # nu'ber o) brilli#nt $iscoveries @hich @ill su%%ly stu$ents o) Sh#kes%e#re @ith '#ny interesting %roble's )or ye#rs to co'e #n$ @hich o) course @ill be inter%rete$ in # @#y $i))erent )ro' olstoyJs. While @e #gree @ith olstoy th#t :#'let h#s no ch#r#cter! @e %ersevere in our #rgu'ent: *oul$ this l#ck o) ch#r#cter be #n #rtistic intention o) the #uthor r#ther th#n =ust # 'ist#keK +) course olstoy is right @hen he %oints out the #bsur$ity o) those #rgu'ents th#t '#int#in th#t the $e%th o) Sh#kes%e#reJs ch#r#cter lies in this #bsence o) ch#r#cter. We c#nnot $is'iss the i$e#! ho@ever! th#t in this tr#ge$y! Sh#kes%e#re h#$ no intention o) reve#ling! $escribing or stu$ying # ch#r#cter %er se! #n$ th#t he '#y intention#lly h#ve use$ # ch#r#cter tot#lly un)it )or the %#rticul#r events o) the %l#y in or$er to obt#in # s%eci)ic #rtistic e))ect )ro' the %#r#$oA. We sh#ll sho@ the )#ll#cy o) the i$e# th#t Sh#kes%e#reJs .amlet is # tr#ge$y o) ch#r#cter. -t this %oint! ho@ever! @e sh#ll 'erely #ssu'e th#t the l#ck o) ch#r#cter is the #uthorJs intention! #n$ th#t he uses it #s # $evice )or s%eci)ic #rtistic %ur%oses. We sh#ll begin by #n#ly(ing the structure o) the tr#ge$y. We c#n %rocee$ @ith our #n#lysis in three $i))erent @#ys: 2irst! @e h#ve the sources use$ by Sh#kes%e#re! the origin#l tre#t'ent o) the '#teri#l; then! the %lot o) the tr#ge$y; #n$! )in#lly! # ne@ #n$ 'ore co'%leA #rtistic )e#tureSthe $r#'#tis %erson#e. We sh#ll no@ try to $eter'ine the interrel#tionshi% bet@een these three ele'ents.

olstoy rightly begins his investig#tion by co'%#ring the origin#l s#g# o) :#'let @ith Sh#kes%e#reJs tr#ge$y. In the s#g# everything is cle#r #n$ un$erst#n$#ble. he 'otives behin$ the %rinceJs #cts #re obvious. he #ction is @ell coor$in#te$! #n$ e#ch ste% is =usti)ie$ both %sychologic#lly #n$ logic#lly. M#ny o) the e#rlier stu$ies o) the %l#y h#ve el#bor#te$ this %oint su))iciently. he ri$$le o) :#'let coul$ h#r$ly h#ve s%rung u% i) the story h#$ been con)ine$ to the ol$ sources! or #t le#st to its ol$er %re,Sh#kes%e#re#n $r#'#tic )or's! since there is #bsolutely nothing 'ysterious or obscure in the'. his )#ct en#bles us to $r#@ # conclusion $i#'etric#lly o%%ose$ to olstoyJs vie@ th#t #ll is cle#r #n$ obvious in the legen$ but 'u$$le$ #n$ unre#son#ble in .amlet #n$ th#t conse.uently Sh#kes%e#re h#s s%oile$ the legen$. It is 'ore correct to )ollo@ #n o%%osite tren$ o) thought: since everything is logic#l #n$ un$erst#n$#ble in the s#g#! Sh#kes%e#re h#$ #v#il#ble to hi' re#$y,'#$e logic#l #n$ %sychologic#l 'otives. I) he chose to %rocess this '#teri#l so #s to ignore #ll the obvious ties @hich hol$ the origin#l s#g# together! he 'ust h#ve h#$ # s%eci#l intention. We #re incline$ to believe th#t Sh#kes%e#re cre#te$ :#'letJs enig'# )or stylistic re#sons #n$ th#t it is not the result o) the #uthorJs in#bility. We there)ore choose to #%%ro#ch the %roble' )ro' # $i))erent #ngle. -s # '#tter o) )#ct! @e no longer consi$er it to be #n unsolve$ ri$$le or # $i))iculty to be overco'e; @e consi$er it #n intention#l #rtistic $evice th#t @e 'ust try to un$erst#n$. he .uestion @e #sk is! 6Why $oes Sh#kes%e#re '#ke :#'let $el#y!8 r#ther th#n! 6Why $oes :#'let $el#yK8 -ny #rtistic 'etho$! or $evice! c#n be gr#s%e$ 'uch 'ore e#sily )ro' its teleologic#l tren$ Fthe %sychologic#l )unction it %er)or'sG th#n )ro' its c#us#l 'otiv#tion! @hich '#y eA%l#in # liter#ry )#ct but never #n #esthetic one. o )in$ #n #ns@er to the .uestion o) @hy Sh#kes%e#re '#kes :#'let $el#y! @e 'ust co'%#re the :#'let legen$ @ith the %lot o) the tr#ge$y. We h#ve #lre#$y 'entione$ th#t the tre#t'ent o) the %lot )ollo@s the l#@ o) $r#'#tic co'%osition! %rev#lent in Sh#kes%e#reJs ti'e! kno@n #s the l#@ o) te'%or#l continuity. -ction on st#ge @#s consi$ere$ continuous! #n$ conse.uently the %l#y %rocee$e$ #ccor$ing to # ti'e conce%t co'%letely $i))erent )ro' th#t o) conte'%or#ry %l#ys. he st#ge @#s never e'%ty! not even )or #n inst#nt. While # $i#logue took %l#ce on st#ge! so'e lengthy events o) %erh#%s sever#l $#ysJ $ur#tion occurre$ b#ckst#ge! #s the #u$ience le#rne$ sever#l scenes l#ter. he s%ect#tor thus $i$ not %erceive the %#ssing o) re#l ti'e! )or the %l#y@right o%er#te$ @ith # )ictitious st#ge ti'e o) tot#lly $i))erent %ro%ortions. *onse.uently! there )igures # tre'en$ous $istortion o) the conce%t o) ti'e in the Sh#kes%e#re#n tr#ge$y. he $ur#tion o) events! every$#y occurrences! #n$ #ctions #re $istorte$ to )it the re.uire'ent o) st#ge ti'e. :o@ #bsur$ then it is to t#lk o) :#'letJs te'%ori(ing in ter's o) re#l ti'eQ 4y @h#t re#l ti'e units coul$ @e 'e#sure his %rocr#stin#tionK he re#l ti'e %erio$s #re in const#nt contr#$iction in the tr#ge$y #n$ there is no @#y o) $eter'ining the true $ur#tion o) events in the tr#ge$y. We #re un#ble to esti'#te ho@ 'uch ti'e el#%ses bet@een the )irst #%%#rition o) the ghost #n$ the killing o) the king. Is it # $#y! # 'onth! # ye#rK It is there)ore evi$ent th#t the %roble' o) :#'letJs %rocr#stin#tion c#nnot be solve$ %sychologic#lly. I) he kills the king only # )e@ $#ys #)ter the )irst #%%e#r#nce o) the ghost! then there is no $el#y! no %rocr#stin#tion! in ter's o) the course o) our every$#y li)e. 4ut i) it t#kes hi' longer! @e 'ust seek $i))erent %sychologic#l eA%l#n#tions )or $i))erent %erio$s o) ti'e; th#t is! there is one eA%l#n#tion i) it t#kes hi' # 'onth #n$ #nother i) it t#kes hi' # ye#r to kill his uncle. In the tr#ge$y! :#'let is not in #ny @#y boun$ by these units o) re#l ti'e! since #ll the events o) the %l#y #re 'e#sure$ #n$ rel#te$ to one #nother in ter's o) convention#l st#ge ti'e units. ;oes this 'e#n th#t the .uestion o) :#'letJs $el#ying no longer #risesK *oul$ it be th#t the #uthor #lloc#te$ to the #ction eA#ctly the #'ount o) ti'e it re.uires on st#ge #n$ th#t there)ore everything h#%%ens on sche$uleK We sh#ll see th#t this is not the c#se. In$ee$! #ll @e h#ve to $o is re'in$ ourselves o) the 'onologues in @hich :#'let re%ro#ches hi'sel) )or %rocr#stin#ting. he tr#ge$y #%%#rently e'%h#si(es the te'%ori(ing o) its hero #n$! sur%risingly enough! gives sever#l .uite $i))erent eA%l#n#tions )or this %rocr#stin#tion. Let us )ollo@ the '#in %lot o) the tr#ge$y. I''e$i#tely u%on the revel#tion o) the ghostJs secret! @hen :#'let le#rns th#t he h#s been ch#rge$ @ith the $uty o) revenge! he s#ys th#t he @ill )ly to revenge on

@ings #s s@i)t #s loveJs $esire. 2ro' the %#ges o) 'e'ory he $eletes #ll the thoughts! )eelings! #n$ $re#'s o) his entire li)e! to $evote hi'sel) entirely to the secret behest. -lre#$y #t the en$ o) this scene he sighs un$er the unbe#r#ble bur$en o) the $iscovery th#t h#s be)#llen hi'. :e be'o#ns the )#ct th#t he @#s born to %er)or' # )#te)ul eA%loit. -)ter his t#lk @ith the #ctors! :#'let re%ro#ches hi'sel) )or the )irst ti'e )or his in#ction. It #stonishes hi' th#t #n #ctor is c#rrie$ #@#y by %#ssion #n$ in)l#'e$ by # 'e#ningless %lot! @hile he hi'sel) re'#ins silent #n$ in#ctive in the )#ce o) the cri'e @hich h#s $estroye$ the li)e #n$ the reign o) # gre#t sovereignShis )#ther. he re'#rk#ble thing in this )#'ous 'onologue is :#'letJs in#bility to un$erst#n$ the re#son )or his $el#y. :e re%ro#ches hi'sel) by s%e#king o) sh#'e #n$ $ishonor! but he #lone kno@s th#t he is no co@#r$. :ere @e #re given the )irst 'otive )or $el#ying the $e#th o) the king: %erh#%s the @or$s o) the ghost #re not to be believe$. In$ee$! the #ccus#tions 'ust be thoroughly veri)ie$. So! :#'let sets his )#'ous 6'ousetr#%!8 #n$ only #)ter it sn#%s #re #ll his $oubts gone. Since the king h#s given hi'sel) #@#y! :#'let no longer $oubts the ver#city o) the ghost. When :#'letJs 'other c#lls hi'! he convinces hi'sel) not to li)t his s@or$ #g#inst her: J is no@ the very @itching ti'e o) night! When churchy#r$s y#@n #n$ hell itsel) bre#thes out cont#gion to this @orl$: no@ coul$ I $rink hot bloo$! -n$ $o such bitter business #s the $#y Woul$ .u#ke to look on. So)tQ &o@ to 'y 'other. + he#rt! lose not thy n#ture; let not ever he soul o) &ero enter this )ir' boso': Let 'e be cruel! not unn#tur#l; I @ill s%e#k $#ggers to her! but use none; My tongue #n$ soul in this be hy%ocrites; :o@ in 'y @or$s soever she be shent! o give the' se#ls never! 'y soul! consentQ FIII! 2G :#'let no@ is re#$y to kill! #n$ he )e#rs th#t he 'ight even h#r' his o@n 'other. +$$ly enough! this re#li(#tion is )ollo@e$ by the %r#yer scene. :#'let enters! t#kes his s@or$! #n$ %l#ces hi'sel) behin$ the king @ho' he coul$ kill on the s%ot. We h#ve le)t :#'let re#$y to #venge! re#$y to kill! @e h#ve le)t hi' #s he @#s convincing hi'sel) not to r#ise #r's #g#inst his 'other; no@ @e eA%ect hi' to %er)or' his #ct. 4ut inste#$ @e he#r &o@ 'ight I $o it %#t! no@ he is %r#ying; -n$ no@ IJll $oJt: #n$ so he goes to he#ven ... FIII! /G - )e@ verses l#ter :#'let she#thes his s@or$ #n$ gives # co'%letely ne@ re#son )or his %rocr#stin#tion: he $oes not @#nt to kill the king @hile the l#tter is %r#ying or #toning. C%! s@or$; #n$ kno@ thou # 'ore horri$ hent: When he is $runk #slee%! or in his r#ge! +r in the incestuous %le#sure o) his be$! -t g#ining! s@e#ring! or #bout so'e #ct h#t h#s no relish o) s#lv#tion inJt! hen tri% hi'! th#t his heels '#y kick #t he#ven! -n$ th#t his soul '#y be #s $#'nJ$ #n$ bl#ck -s hell! @hereto he goes. My 'other st#ys: his %hysic but %rolongs thy sickly $#ys. FIII! /G In the neAt scene :#'let kills Polonius! @ho is hi$ing behin$ # t#%estry! by uneA%ecte$ly '#king # %#ss @ith his s@or$ through the #rr#s #n$ c#lling out 6- r#tQ8 2ro' this! #n$ )ro' his @or$s to the $e#$

Polonius it is obvious th#t he inten$e$ to kill the king! @ho is %recisely the r#t c#ught in the 'ousetr#%; it is the king to @ho' :#'let re)ers #s 6thy better8 #n$ )or @ho' he 'istook Polonius. he 'otives th#t h#ve sto%%e$ :#'let in the %rece$ing scene h#ve $is#%%e#re$! so 'uch so th#t it #%%e#rs irrelev#nt. +ne o) the t@o scenes 'ust inclu$e #n obvious contr#$iction i) the other is correct. ?uno 2ischer s#ys th#t 'ost critics consi$er the scene o) PoloniusJ killing to be %roo) o) :#'letJs un%l#nne$! thoughtless #ctions. M#ny %ro$uctions! #n$ .uite # )e@ critics! o'it the %r#yer scene bec#use they )#il to un$erst#n$ ho@ it is %ossible to intro$uce # ne@ 'otive )or %rocr#stin#tion @ithout %rior %re%#r#tion. &o@here in the tr#ge$y! either e#rlier or l#ter! $oes this ne@ con$ition )or killing the king Fto kill hi' @hile he is sinning in or$er to $estroy his soul #)ter $e#thG #%%e#r. ;uring :#'letJs scene @ith his 'other the ghost #%%e#rs #g#in! #n$ :#'let thinks th#t he h#s co'e to re%ro#ch hi' )or %utting o)) the revenge. :#'let $oes not resist being eAile$ to Ingl#n$; in the 'onologue #)ter the scene @ith 2ortinbr#s he co'%#res hi'sel) to th#t cour#geous le#$er! #n$ once #g#in re%ro#ches hi'sel) )or his @e#k @ill #n$ in#ctivity. :e )eels th#t his %rocr#stin#tion is # $isgr#ce! #n$ )inishes his 'onologue resolutely: +! )ro' this ti'e )orth My thoughts be bloo$y! or be nothing @orthQ FIV! 0G L#ter @hen @e )in$ :#'let in the gr#vey#r$! or #g#in t#lking to :or#tio! or )in#lly $uring the $uel! there is no 'ention o) revenge. &ot until the very en$ o) the %l#y is :#'letJs %ro'ise th#t he @ill think only #bout bloo$ ke%t. 4e)ore the $uel he is )ull o) %re'onitions: &ot # @hit! @e $e)y #ugury; thereJs # s%eci#l %rovi$ence in the )#ll o) # s%#rro@. I) it be no@! Jtis not to co'e; i) it be not to co'e! it @ill be no@; i) it be not no@! yet it @ill co'e: the re#$iness is #ll: since no '#n h#s #ught o) @h#t he le#ves! @h#t isJt to le#ve beti'esK FV! 2G :e )eels th#t his $e#th is #%%ro#ching! #n$ so $oes the #u$ience. &ot until the very en$ o) the $uel $oes he think #bout revenge. he )in#l c#t#stro%he see's to be contrive$ )or co'%letely $i))erent re#sons. :#'let $oes not kill the king to )ul)ill his %ro'ise to the ghost. he s%ect#tor le#rns th#t :#'let is virtu#lly $e#$ bec#use the %oison is #lre#$y in his bloo$ #n$ he h#s less th#n h#l) #n hour to live. +nly no@! @ith one )oot in the gr#ve! $oes he kill the king. he )in#l scene le#ves #bsolutely no $oubt th#t :#'let kills the king )or his l#test cri'e: the %oisoning o) the .ueen! #n$ the killing o) L#ertes #n$ :#'let hi'sel). &ot # @or$ is s#i$ #bout :#'letJs )#ther! #n$ the #u$ience h#s co'%letely )orgotten #bout hi'. he $enoue'ent is #stonishing #n$ ineA%lic#ble Sne#rly #ll the critics #gree th#t the killing o) the king le#ves us @ith the )eeling o) $uty un)ul)ille$! or! #t best! )ul)ille$ by $e)#ult. he %l#y! it @oul$ #%%e#r! @#s obscure #n$ enig'#tic bec#use :#'let h#$ not kille$ the king. &o@ th#t he h#s %er)or'e$ the killing! the enig'# shoul$ v#nish; inste#$ it h#s re#lly only no@ beco'e #%%#rent. Me(ieres .uite correctly st#tes: 6In$ee$! everything in the l#st scene sur%rises us4 everything )ro' the beginning to the en$ is uneA%ecte$. hroughout the %l#y @e h#ve been @#iting )or :#'let to kill the king. 2in#lly he strikesSbut no sooner $oes he %er)or' the $ee$ th#n @e #re #g#in #stonishe$ #n$ be@il$ere$.8 S#ys Sokolovskii! 6 he l#st scene o) the tr#ge$y is b#se$ on # collision o) #cci$ent#l circu'st#nces th#t h#%%en so uneA%ecte$ly #n$ so su$$enly th#t so'e co''ent#tors @ith ol$, )#shione$ vie@s h#ve #ccuse$ Sh#kes%e#re o) blun$ering. he intervention o) #n eAtern#l )orce h#$ to be invente$. ... It is %urely #cci$ent#l! #n$ in the h#n$s o) :#'let it )unctions like those sh#r% @e#%ons @hich @e occ#sion#lly #llo@ chil$ren to h#n$le but #ll the @hile gui$e their gri% on the hilt.8 4ernM is correct in s#ying th#t in killing the king :#'let #venges not only his )#ther but his 'other #n$ hi'sel) #s @ell. Pohnson re%ro#ches Sh#kes%e#re )or h#ving the king kille$ not #ccor$ing to # %re'e$it#te$ %l#n but #s # tot#lly uneA%ecte$ #cci$ent. -l)onso st#tes! 6 he killing o) the king is $ue to events tot#lly beyon$ :#'letJs control; it is not the result o) # @ell,%re%#re$ %l#n. :#$ it been le)t

entirely to :#'let! the king @oul$ never h#ve been kille$.8 I) @e t#ke # closer look #t this ne@ line o) %lot! @e see th#t Sh#kes%e#re #t ti'es e'%h#si(es :#'letJs %rocr#stin#tion #n$ #t other ti'es conce#ls it. :e co'%oses sever#l scenes in # ro@ @ithout ever 'entioning the t#sk set be)ore the %rince! #n$ then he h#s :#'let reve#l his @e#kness once 'ore in st#te'ents #n$ 'onologues. he #u$ience is re'in$e$ o) :#'letJs %rocr#stin#tion in su$$en! eA%losion like s%urts! r#ther th#n being #%%rise$ o) it in # continuous! uni)or' )#shion. -)ter the su$$en eA%losion o) # 'onologue! the s%ect#tor looks b#ck #n$ vivi$ly re#li(es the eAistence o) %rocr#stin#tion. 4ut the #uthor r#%i$ly covers it u% until the neAt eA%losion! #n$ so on. In the s%ect#torJs 'in$ #re co'bine$ t@o )un$#'ent#lly inco'%#tible i$e#s. +n the one h#n$! :#'let 'ust #venge his )#ther #n$ let no intern#l or eAtern#l c#uses %revent hi' )ro' going into #ction. he #uthor even %l#ys @ith the #u$ienceJs i'%#tience #n$ '#kes it see :#'let $r#@ his s@or$ but then! .uite uneA%ecte$ly! not strike. +n the other h#n$! the #u$ience re#li(es th#t :#'let is $el#ying! but )#ils to un$erst#n$ @hy. It observes the $r#'# o) :#'let evolve! torn by contr#$ictions! ev#$ing the cle#rly set t#sk #n$ const#ntly str#ying )ro' the %#th @hich is so cle#rly outline$. 7iven such tre#t'ent o) the sub=ect! @e '#y %lot our inter%ret#tion#l curve o) the tr#ge$y. he %lot o) our story runs in # str#ight line! #n$ i) :#'let h#$ kille$ the king i''e$i#tely #)ter he#ring the ghostJs revel#tions! he @oul$ cover the $ist#nce bet@een these t@o events in the shortest %ossible @#y. he #uthor! ho@ever! %rocee$s in # $i))erent )#shion. 4ec#use #t #ll ti'es he lets us see! )eel! #n$ be #@#re o) the str#ight line @hich the #ction shoul$ )ollo@! @e #re even 'ore keenly conscious o) the $igressions #n$ loo%s it $escribes in #ctu#l )#ct. It #%%e#rs #s i) Sh#kes%e#re h#$ set hi'sel) the t#sk o) %ushing the %lot )ro' its str#ight %#th onto # $evious #n$ t@iste$ one. It is .uite %ossible to )in$ in these the series o) events #n$ )#cts in$is%ens#ble )or the tr#ge$y! on #ccount o) @hich the %l#y $escribes its obli.ue orbit. We 'ust resort to synthesis! to the %hysiology o) the tr#ge$y! in or$er to un$erst#n$ this )ully. We 'ust try to guess the )unction #ssigne$ to this curve )ro' the signi)ic#nce o) the @hole. We 'ust try to )in$ out @hy the #uthor! @ith such eAce%tion#l #n$ in '#ny res%ects uni.ue bol$ness! )orces the tr#ge$y to $evi#te )ro' its str#ight %#th. Let us consi$er the en$ o) the tr#ge$y. @o things i''e$i#tely strike the criticJs eye. 2irst o) #ll! the '#in line o) $evelo%'ent o) the tr#ge$y is )u((y #n$ obscure$. he king is kille$ in the course o) # 'elee; he is but one o) )our victi's! @hose $e#ths occur #s su$$enly #s # bolt )ro' the blue. he #u$ience is c#ught by sur%rise! )or it $oes not eA%ect events to %rocee$ in this )#shion. he 'otives )or the kingJs $e#th #re so obviously i'%licit in the )in#l scene th#t the #u$ience )orgets th#t it h#s )in#lly re#che$ the %oint to @hich the tr#ge$y h#$ been le#$ing @ithout #ctu#lly re#$ing it. -s soon #s :#'let sees the .ueen $ie! he shouts: + vill#nyQ :oQ let the $oor be lockJ$: re#cheryQ Seek it out. L#ertes reve#ls to :#'let th#t these %lots #re #ll the kingJs. :#'let then eAcl#i's: he %oint enveno'J$ tooQ hen! veno'! to thy @ork. 2in#lly! #s he gives the king the %oisone$ goblet! :ere! thou incestuous! 'ur$erous! $#'ne$ ;#ne! ;rink o)) this %otion. Is thy union hereK 2ollo@ 'y 'other. &o@here is there #ny 'ention o) :#'letJs )#ther! #n$ #ll the 'otiv#tions #re b#se$ on the events o) the l#st scene. hus the tr#ge$y re#ches its c#t#stro%he! but it is conce#le$ )ro' the s%ect#tor th#t this is %recisely the %oint to @hich the %lot $evelo%'ent h#s been $irecte$. Bet! in #$$ition to this $irect

c#'ou)l#ge #nother! eA#ctly o%%osing one! reve#ls itsel)! #n$ @e c#n e#sily sho@ th#t the scene o) the killing o) the king is tre#te$ on t@o $i#'etric#lly o%%ose$ %sychologic#l %l#nes: +n the one h#n$! the kingJs $e#th is oversh#$o@e$ by # series o) i''e$i#te c#uses! #s @ell #s other $e#ths; on the other h#n$! it is $istinguishe$ )ro' the series o) killings in # @#y th#t h#s no co'%#rison in #ny other tr#ge$y. -ll the other $e#ths co'e to %#ss #l'ost unnotice$. he .ueen $ies! #n$ no one see's to t#ke note. +nly :#'let bi$s her )#re@ell 6Wretche$ .ueen! #$ieuQ8 Iven :#'letJs o@n $e#th see's to be blurre$ #n$ oversh#$o@e$. +nce $e#$! nothing is s#i$ #bout hi' #ny 'ore. L#ertes $ies incons%icuously #n$! signi)ic#ntly! he eAch#nges )orgiveness @ith :#'let be)ore his li)e le#ves hi'. :e )orgives :#'let PoloniusJ $e#th #n$ his o@n! #n$ begs :#'let to )orgive hi' )or h#ving kille$ hi'. his su$$en #n$ .uite unn#tur#l ch#nge in L#ertesJ ch#r#cter h#s no 'otiv#tion in the tr#ge$y. It is necess#ry only to c#l' the #u$ienceJs re#ction to these $e#ths #n$ '#ke the kingJs $e#th st#n$ out 'ore cle#rly #g#inst this $i''e$ b#ckgroun$. -s 'entione$ e#rlier the kingJs $e#th is '#$e to st#n$ out by 'e#ns o) # highly eAce%tion#l $evice th#t h#s no e.u#l in #ny other tr#ge$y. Wh#t is so unusu#l #bout this scene is the )#ct th#t )or so'e uneA%l#ine$ re#son :#'let kills the king t@ice! )irst @ith the t#inte$ s@or$! then @ith the %oisone$ %otion. WhyK he #ction $oes not c#ll )or it. 4oth L#ertes #n$ :#'let $ie )ro' the e))ect o) one %oison only! th#t on the s@or$. It @oul$ #%%e#r th#t the killing o) the king h#s been s%lit into t@o se%#r#te #ctions! to e'%h#si(e it #n$ to i'%ress u%on the #u$ience the )#ct th#t the tr#ge$y h#s re#che$ its conclusion. We c#n e#sily )in$ # re#son )or this $ouble killing o) the king! @hich @oul$ #%%e#r to be #bsur$ )ro' # 'etho$ologic#l vie@%oint #n$ )utile )ro' # %sychologic#l vie@%oint. he 'e#ning o) the tr#ge$y is in its c#t#stro%he! the killing o) the king! @hich @e h#ve been eA%ecting )ro' the )irst #ct on! but @hich @e re#ch by # tot#lly $i))erent! uneA%ecte$ %#th. In )#ct! the c#t#stro%he co'es #s # result o) # ne@ %lot! #n$ @hen @e re#ch th#t %oint @e $o not i''e$i#tely re#li(e th#t it is the %oint to @hich the tr#ge$y h#s been c#rrying us #ll #long. It no@ beco'es cle#r th#t #t this %oint Fthe kingJs $ouble $e#thG converge t@o $istinct lines o) #ction! e#ch o) @hich @e h#ve seen go its o@n @#y! #n$ e#ch o) @hich 'ust en$ in its o@n! se%#r#te $e#th. 4ut no sooner $oes the $ouble killing h#%%en then the %oet begins to blur this $evice o) short,circuiting the t@o lines o) the c#t#stro%he. In the brie) e%ilogue in @hich :or#tio! in the '#nner o) #ll Sh#kes%e#re#n n#rr#tor,%l#yers! brie)ly retells @h#t h#s h#%%ene$ in the %l#y! the kingJs $e#th is once #g#in obscure$: -n$ let 'e s%e#k to the yet unkno@ing @orl$ :o@ these things c#'e #bout: so sh#ll you he#r +) c#rn#l! bloo$y! #n$ unn#tur#l #cts! +) #cci$ent#l =u$g'ents! c#su#l sl#ughters! +) $e#ths %ut on by cunning #n$ )orcJ$ c#use! -n$! in this u%shot! %ur%oses 'istook 2#llJn on the inventorsJ he#$s: #ll this c#n I ruly $eliver. In this gener#l '#ss o) 6bloo$y #cts #n$ c#su#l sl#ughters8 the c#t#stro%he o) the tr#ge$y is once #g#in $ilute$ to the %oint o) obliter#tion. In this cli'#ctic scene @e co'e to re#li(e the tre'en$ous %o@er o) the #rtistic tre#t'ent o) the sub=ect! #n$ @itness the e))ects th#t Sh#kes%e#re '#n#ges to $r#@ )ro' it. - closer look into the se.uence o) these $e#ths reve#ls th#t Sh#kes%e#re %erverts their n#tur#l or$er to obt#in # s#tis)#ctory #rtistic e))ect. he $e#ths )or' # 'elo$y! #s i) they @ere in$ivi$u#l notes. In #ctu#l )#ct the king $ies be)ore :#'let! but in the #rtistic#lly tre#te$ %lot @e $o not he#r #bout the kingJs $e#th. -ll @e $o kno@ is th#t :#'let is $ying #n$ th#t he @ill not live )or #nother h#l) hour. hough @e kno@ th#t he is virtu#lly $e#$ #n$ th#t he receive$ his @oun$ be)ore #nyone else! he outlives the rest o) the victi's. -ll these grou%ings #n$ regrou%ings o) the b#sic events serve to s#tis)y one re.uire'ent! th#t o) the %sychologic#l e))ect. When @e le#rn o) :#'letJs i''inent $e#th @e lose! once #n$ )or #ll! #ny ho%e th#t the tr#ge$y @ill ever re#ch the %oint to@#r$ @hich it h#s been $evelo%e$. We

#re convince$! in$ee$! th#t #ll events #re running in the o%%osite $irection. 4ut #t th#t very inst#nt! @hen @e le#st eA%ect it! #n$ #re %erson#lly convince$ th#t it is i'%ossible! the c#t#stro%he $oes )in#lly co'e to %#ss. :#'let! in his l#st @or$s! %oints to so'e 'ysterious hi$$en 'e#ning in #ll the %rece$ing events. :e #sks :or#tio to recount ho@ everything h#%%ene$! #n$ @hy! #n$ #sks hi' to give #n i'%#rti#l $escri%tion o) the events! the one th#t the #u$ience 'ight #lso re'e'ber! #n$ conclu$es! 6 he rest is silence.8 -n$ it is in$ee$ silence )or the #u$ience! since the rest h#%%ens in the uneA%resse$ se.uels th#t #rise )ro' this eAtr#or$in#rily constructe$ %l#y. More recent investig#tors .uite @illingly un$erscore th#t etern#l co'%leAity o) the %l#y @hich e#rlier critics neglecte$ to notice. 6We see here sever#l %lots running %#r#llel: the story o) the 'ur$er o) :#'letJs )#ther #n$ :#'letJs venge#nce! the story o) PoloniusJ $e#th #n$ L#ertesJ venge#nce! +%heli#Js story! 2ortinbr#sJ story! the e%iso$es @ith the #ctors! :#'letJs tri% to Ingl#n$! #n$ so on. he #ction ch#nges loc#tion no less th#n t@enty ti'es. In e#ch in$ivi$u#l scene @e @itness r#%i$ ch#nges o) the'e! ch#r#cter #n$ loc#tion. -n ele'ent o) #rbitr#riness %rev#ils ... here is 'uch t#lk #bout intrigue ... #n$ '#ny e%iso$es th#t interru%t! or ch#nge! the course o) #ction.8 :o@ever! o'#shevskii 'isses the %oint by cl#i'ing th#t these su$$en ch#nges #re only # '#tter o) the v#riety #n$ $iversity o) the sub=ect. he e%iso$es th#t interru%t or ch#nge the course o) #ction #re closely connecte$ @ith the b#sic %lot. hey inclu$e the e%iso$es @ith the #ctors #n$ @ith the gr#ve$iggers @ho in # gri'ly =ocul#r @#y re,n#rr#te +%heli#Js $e#th! the killing o) Polonius! #n$ #ll the rest. he %lot o) the tr#ge$y! in its )in#l )or'! un)ol$s be)ore us in the )ollo@ing @#y: the story on @hich the tr#ge$y is b#se$ is conserve$. 2ro' the very beginning! the #u$ience h#s # cle#r vie@ o) the outline o) the #ction #n$ o) the %#th #long @hich it shoul$ $evelo%. he #ction! ho@ever! const#ntly str#ys )ro' the %#th set by the %lot #n$ 'e#n$ers in .uite co'%leA curves. -t so'e =unctures! such #s in :#'letJs 'onologues! the #u$ience is in)or'e$! in s%urts! th#t the tr#ge$y h#s le)t the %reset tr#ck. hese 'onologues! in @hich :#'let bitterly re%ro#ches hi'sel) )or %rocr#stin#ting! #re %ri'#rily 'e#nt to '#ke us re#li(e th#t things #re not evolving the @#y they shoul$ #n$ to kee% us #@#re o) the )in#l %oint to@#r$ @hich #ll #ction is $irecte$. -)ter e#ch 'onologue! @e ho%e th#t the #ction @ill right itsel) #n$ )#ll b#ck into the %reset %#th! until # ne@ 'onologue reve#ls to us th#t the #ction h#s once 'ore gone #str#y. -s # '#tter o) )#ct! the structure o) the tr#ge$y c#n be eA%resse$ by t@o very si'%le )or'ul#s. he )or'ul# o) the story is th#t :#'let kills the king to #venge the $e#th o) his )#ther; th#t o) the %lot is th#t he $oes not kill the king. I) the '#teri#l o) the tr#ge$y tells us ho@ :#'let kills the king to #venge the $e#th o) his )#ther! then! the %lot o) the tr#ge$y sho@s us ho@ he )#ils to kill hi' #n$! @hen he )in#lly $oes! th#t it is )or re#sons other th#n venge#nce. he $u#lity o) the story #n$ the %lot #ccounts )or the #ction t#king its course on t@o $i))erent %l#nes. *onst#nt #@#reness o) the %reset %#th! the $evi#tions )ro' it! #n$ the intern#l contr#$ictions! #re #n intrinsic %#rt o) this %l#y. Sh#kes%e#re #%%#rently chose the 'ost suit#ble events to eA%ress @h#t he @#nte$ to s#y. :e chose '#teri#l th#t $e)initely rushe$ to@#r$ # cli'#A! but #t the s#'e ti'e )orce$ hi' to $evi#te )ro' it. Sh#kes%e#re use$ # %sychologic#l 'etho$ .uite #%%ro%ri#tely c#lle$ the 6'etho$ o) te#sing the e'otions8 by Petr#(hitskii! @ho @#nte$ to intro$uce it #s #n eA%eri'ent#l 'etho$. In )#ct! the tr#ge$y $oes nothing but te#se our )eelings. It %ro'ises the )ul)ill'ent o) the t#sk set )ro' the very beginning! but $evi#tes #g#in #n$ #g#in )ro' this go#l! thus str#ining our eA%ect#tions to the ut'ost #n$ '#king us .uite %#in)ully )eel every ste% th#t le#$s #@#y )ro' the '#in %#th. When the t#rget is re#che$ #t l#st! it turns out th#t @e h#ve been brought to it )ro' # co'%letely $i))erent $irection; @e #lso $iscover th#t the t@o %#ths @hich le$ #@#y )ro' e#ch other in #%%#rent con)lict su$$enly converge #t one %oint $uring the )in#l scene F@hen the king is kille$ t@iceG. he s#'e 'otives th#t %revent the killing o) the king )in#lly le#$ us to his $e#th. he c#t#stro%he re#ches # %oint o) eAtre'e contr#$iction! # short,circuiting o) t@o currents )lo@ing in o%%osite $irections. -$$ to this the )#ct th#t the evolving %lot is continuously interru%te$ by co'%letely irr#tion#l events! #n$ @e c#n see th#t the e))ect o) 'ysteriousness #n$ obscurity is one o) the )un$#'ent#l 'otives o) the #uthor. We think o) +%heli#Js '#$ness! o) :#'letJs

inter'ittent ins#nity! o) his $ece%tion o) Polonius #n$ the courtiers! o) the %o'%ous #n$ r#ther senseless $ecl#'#tion o) the #ctor! o) the cynic#l convers#tion bet@een :#'let #n$ +%heli#! o) the clo@nish scene o) the gr#ve$iggersS#n$ @e $iscover th#t #ll this '#teri#l re@orks the s#'e events th#t occurre$ e#rlier in the %l#y but eA#gger#tes the' to so'e eAtent #n$ e'%h#si(es their #bsur$ity! #s in # $re#'. Su$$enly! @e un$erst#n$ the true 'e#ning o) these events. We '#y liken the' to lightning ro$s o) #bsur$ity ingeniously %l#ce$ by the %l#y@right #t the 'ost $#ngerous %oints o) his tr#ge$y! in or$er to bring the #))#ir so'eho@ to #n en$ #n$ '#ke the #bsur$ity o) :#'letJs tr#ge$y %l#usible. :o@ever! the t#sk o) #rt! like th#t o) tr#ge$y! is to )orce us to eA%erience the incre$ible #n$ #bsur$ in or$er to %er)or' so'e kin$ o) eAtr#or$in#ry o%er#tion @ith our e'otions. Poets use t@o $evices )or this %ur%ose. 2irst! there #re the 6lightning ro$s o) #bsur$ity!8 #s @e c#lle$ #ll the irr#tion#l #n$ #bsur$ %#rts o) .amlet/ he #ction evolves in such #n incre$ible @#y th#t it thre#tens to beco'e #bsur$. he intern#l contr#$ictions #re eAtre'e. he $ivergence bet@een the t@o lines o) #ction re#ches its #%ogee #n$ they see' to burst #sun$er! te#ring #%#rt the entire tr#ge$y. It is #t this st#ge th#t the #ction su$$enly t#kes on the )or's o) %#r#$oA! %o'%ous $ecl#'#tion! cynicis'! recurrent '#$ness! o%en bu))oonery. -g#inst this b#ckgroun$ o) outs%oken ins#nity the %l#yJs #bsur$ity slo@ly beco'es less '#rke$ #n$ 'ore cre$ible. M#$ness #n$ ins#nity #re intro$uce$ in '#ssive $oses to s#ve the %l#yJs 'e#ning. Ivery ti'e #bsur$ity thre#tens to $estroy the %l#yJs #ction! it is $iverte$ by the 6lightning ro$8 @hich solves the c#t#stro%he th#t is boun$ to h#%%en #t #ny 'o'ent. he other $evice use$ by Sh#kes%e#re to )orce us to %ut our )eelings into the %#r#$oA o) the tr#ge$y is the )ollo@ing: Sh#kes%e#re o%er#tes @ith # $ouble set o) conventions st#n$ u% #g#inst #ctors! %resents one #n$ the s#'e event t@ice Fonce #s the re#l event #n$ then #s one %l#ye$ by the #ctorsG! s%lits #ctions in t@o #n$ @ith the )ictitious %#rt! the secon$ convention! obliter#tes #n$ conce#ls the #bsur$ity o) the )irst 6re#l8 %#rt. Let us t#ke #n eA#'%le. he #ctor recites the %#thetic 'onologue o) Pyrrhus! beco'es e'otion#l! #n$ @ee%s. :#'let %oints out i''e$i#tely th#t the te#rs #re only #n #ct! th#t the #ctor @ee%s )or :ecub# F#bout @ho' he $oes not c#reG! but th#t #ll the e'otion #n$ %#ssion #re )ictitious. 4ut @hen :#'let =uAt#%oses these )ictitious )eelings to his o@n! @e su$$enly re#li(e th#t :#'letJs e'otions #re true! #n$ @e #n #l'ost violently t#ken by the'. Sh#kes%e#re uses the s#'e $evice o) intro$ucing # )ictitious #ction in the )#'ous scene o) the 6Mousetr#%.8 he %l#yer king #n$ .ueen %l#y the )ictitious 'ur$er scene! @hile the re#l king #n$ .ueen sit horri)ie$ by the re%resent#tion. his =uAt#%osition o) #ctors #n$ s%ect#tors on t@o $i))erent %l#nes o) #ction '#kes us vivi$ly re#li(e th#t the kingJs $isco')iture is .uite re#l. he %#r#$oA on @hich the tr#ge$y is b#se$ re'#ins int#ct! bec#use it is %rotecte$ by t@o reli#ble gu#r$i#ns: outright lun#cy on the one h#n$! co'%#re$ to @hich the tr#ge$y #c.uires #n obvious sense #n$ signi)ic#nce! #n$ outright )ictitiousness on the other; this is the secon$ convention! neAt to @hich the #ctions occurring on the )irst %l#ne #%%e#r re#l. It is #s i) #nother %icture @ere su%eri'%ose$ on the )irst. In #$$ition to this contr#$iction! there is #nother one in the tr#ge$y @hich is o) e.u#l i'%ort#nce )or the #rtistic e))ect o) the %l#y. he $r#'#tis %erson#e chosen by Sh#kes%e#re so'eho@ $o not .uite )it the #ction; 'oreover! Sh#kes%e#re convincingly $is%roves the @i$es%re#$ belie) th#t the in$ivi$u#l ch#r#cters o) the $r#'#tis %erson#e 'ust $eter'ine their o@n #ctions. It @oul$ #%%e#r! ho@ever! th#t i) Sh#kes%e#re @#nte$ to re%resent # killing th#t is so'eho@ never c#rrie$ out! he 'ust either )ollo@ Wer$erJs reco''en$#tionSto surroun$ the eAecution o) the t#sk @ith #s '#ny co'%lic#te$ obst#cles #s %ossible in or$er to block the %rot#gonistJs @#y! or he 'ust )ollo@ 7oetheJs %rescri%tionSsho@ th#t the t#sk #ssigne$ the hero eAcee$s his strength #n$ re.uires o) hi' # tit#nic %er)or'#nce! irreconcil#ble @ith hu'#n n#ture. 4ut Sh#kes%e#re h#$ # thir$ @#y out. :e coul$ h#ve )ollo@e$ 4ernMJs )or'ul# #n$ '#$e :#'let # co@#r$. :o@ever! not only $i$ he choose none o) the three %ossibilities #bove! but he o%er#te$ in the eA#ctly o%%osite $irection. :e thoroughly re'ove$ #ll ob=ective obst#cles )ro' the heroJs %#th th#t there is no in$ic#tion in the tr#ge$y o) @h#t %revents :#'let )ro' killing the king i''e$i#tely #)ter the ghostJs revel#tions. 2urther'ore! he g#ve :#'let #

)ully )e#sible ob=ective Fsince in the course o) the %l#y! inci$ent#l uni'%ort#nt scenes! :#'let kills three ti'esG. 2in#lly! he %ortr#ye$ :#'let #s # '#n o) eAce%tion#l energy #n$ tre'en$ous strength! '#king hi' into # ch#r#cter o%%osite to the one #ctu#lly re.uire$ by the %lot. o s#ve the situ#tion! the critics h#$ to intro$uce the corrections 'entione$ e#rlier! #n$ either #$#%t the %lot to the hero or #$#%t the hero to the %lot! )or they %rocee$e$ )ro' the incorrect #ssu'%tion o) # $irect rel#tion bet@een the hero #n$ the %lotSth#t the %lot 'ust gro@ out o) the ch#r#cters o) the %l#y! =ust #s these 'ust be un$erstoo$ )ro' the %lot. -ll this is re)ute$ by Sh#kes%e#re. :e %rocee$s )ro' the o%%osite %oint o) vie@! )ro' the inco'%#tibility bet@een %rot#gonist #n$ %lot! the )un$#'ent#l contr#$iction bet@een ch#r#cter #n$ events. 4eing )#'ili#r @ith the )#ct th#t the sub=ect @#s tre#te$ in contr#$iction to the story! @e c#n re#$ily )in$ the signi)ic#nce o) the contr#$iction th#t const#ntly #rises in the %l#y. here #rises #nother unity )ro' the structure o) the %l#y! th#t o) the $r#'#tis %erson#e! or the %rot#gonist. We sh#ll sho@ ho@ the i$e# o) the %rot#gonistJs ch#r#cter $evelo%s. -t this %oint! ho@ever! @e c#n #ssu'e th#t # %oet @ho #l@#ys %l#ys @ith the inti'#te contr#$iction bet@een the sub=ect #n$ story c#n very e#sily eA%loit this secon$ contr#$iction bet@een the ch#r#cter o) his %rot#gonist #n$ the un)ol$ing #ction. Psycho#n#lysts #re right in #sserting th#t the subst#nce o) the %sychologic#l e))ect o) # tr#ge$y consists in our i$enti)ic#tion @ith the hero. It is .uite correct th#t the #uthor )orces us to vie@ #ll the other ch#r#cters! #ctions! #n$ events )ro' the %rot#gonistJs vie@%oint. he hero beco'es the %oint u%on @hich our #ttention is )ocuse$! #n$ si'ult#neously serves #s # su%%ort )or our )eelings @hich @oul$ other@ise be lost in en$less $igressions #s @e ev#lu#te! e'%#thi(e! #n$ su))er @ith every ch#r#cter. Were @e to ev#lu#te the kingJs #n$ :#'letJs e'otions or PoloniusJ #n$ :#'letJs ho%es in the s#'e @#y! our )eelings @oul$ su))er const#nt ch#nges #n$ oscill#tions in @hich one #n$ the s#'e event @oul$ #%%e#r to us to h#ve co'%letely contr#$ictory 'e#nings. he tr#ge$y! ho@ever! %rocee$s in # $i))erent @#y. It sh#%es our )eelings into # unity #n$ )orces the' to )ollo@ the %rot#gonist #lone #n$ to %erceive everything through his eyes. It su))ices to eA#'ine #ny tr#ge$y! .amlet in %#rticul#r! to re#li(e th#t #ll its ch#r#cters #re %ortr#ye$ #s the %rot#gonist sees the'. -ll the events #re re)r#cte$ by the lens o) his soul. he #uthor #ctu#lly buil$s his tr#ge$y on t@o %l#nes: on the one h#n$! he sees everything @ith :#'letJs eyes; but then he #lso vie@s :#'let @ith his o@n > Sh#kes%e#reJs > eyes! so th#t the s%ect#tor beco'es #t the s#'e ti'e :#'let and his conte'%l#tor. his insight eA%l#ins the i'%ort#nt roles %l#ye$ by the ch#r#cters o) the tr#ge$y! in %#rticul#r :#'let. We #re $e#ling here @ith # co'%letely ne@ %sychologic#l level. In the )#ble @e $iscovere$ t@o 'e#nings @ithin one #n$ the s#'e #ction. In the short story @e $iscovere$ one level )or the story Fsub=ectG #n$ one )or the %lot F'#teri#lG. In the tr#ge$y @e uncover yet #nother level! the %syche #n$ the e'otions o) the hero. Since #ll three levels re)er in the l#st #n#lysis to the s#'e )#cts t#ken in three $i))erent conteAts! it is obvious th#t they 'ust contr#$ict one #nother! be it only to sho@ th#t they 'utu#lly $iverge. We c#n un$erst#n$ ho@ # tr#gic ch#r#cter is constructe$ i) @e use the #n#logies $evise$ by *hristi#nsen in his %sychologic#l theory o) %ortr#its. -ccor$ing to hi'! the %roble' o) # %ortr#it is %ri'#rily ho@ the %#inter %ortr#ys li)e in his %#inting! ho@ he #ni'#tes the )#ce! #n$ ho@ he obt#ins the e))ect ch#r#cteristic only o) %ortr#its Sthe re%resent#tion o) living %ersons. We @ill never )in$ # $i))erence bet@een # %ortr#iture #n$ non, %ortr#it %#inting i) @e eA#'ine the )or'#l #n$ '#teri#l #s%ects only. F- non,%ortr#it %#inting '#y o) course inclu$e )#ces =ust #s # %ortr#it '#y inclu$e # l#n$sc#%e or still li)e.G +nly i) @e b#se our se#rch on the ch#r#cteristic th#t $istinguishes the %ortr#it! th#t is! the re%resent#tion o) # living %erson! @ill @e be #ble to $eter'ine the $i))erence bet@een the t@o. *hristi#nsen %rocee$s )ro' the %re'ise th#t 6li)elessness #n$ si(e #re inter$e%en$ent. -s the si(e o) the %ortr#it gro@s! its li)e beco'es )uller #n$ 'ore $e)inite in its '#ni)est#tions; 'otion beco'es c#l'er #n$ ste#$ier. Portr#it %#inters kno@ )ro' eA%erience th#t # l#rger he#$ t#lks better.8 hus! our eyes $et#ch the'selves )ro' one s%eci)ic %oint in the %ortr#it u%on @hich they h#ve been

)ocuse$ F#n$ @hich there)ore loses its i''obile co'%osition#l centerG! #n$ begin to @#n$er #bout! 6)ro' the eyes to the 'outh! )ro' one eye to the other! #n$ observe #ll those $et#ils @hich '#ke u% the eA%ression o) the )#ce.8 -t the v#rious %oints #t @hich the eye sto%s @hile eA#'ining the %ortr#it! it t#kes in # $i))erent eA%ression o) the )#ce! # $i))erent 'oo$! # $i))erent )eeling! #n$ $iscovers the liveliness! the 'otion! the succession o) une.u#l #n$ $is%#r#te st#tes @hich #re the $istinguishing '#rk o) # %ortr#it. &on,%ortr#it %#intings re'#in #s they h#ve been origin#lly %#inte$! @hile %ortr#its ch#nge const#ntly! @hence their liveliness. *hristi#nson $evise$ the )ollo@ing )or'ul# )or the %sychologic#l li)e o) # %ortr#it: 6It is the %hysiogno'ic incongruity o) the v#rious )#ctors th#t '#kes u% the eA%ression o) # )#ce. +) course it is %ossible! #n$! s%e#king in #bstr#ct ter's! #lso 'ore n#tur#l to h#ve the corners o) the 'outh! the eyes! #n$ other %#rts o) the )#ce eA%ress the s#'e )eeling or e'otion or 'oo$. ... hen the entire %ortr#it @oul$ reson#te @ith the s#'e tune. ... 4ut then! like #ny tune! it @oul$ be $evoi$ o) li)e. his $#nger o) consistency is @hy the %#inter '#kes the eA%ression in one eye slightly $i))erent )ro' th#t in the other! #n$ '#kes the e))ect o) the corners o) the 'outh $i))erent #g#in! #n$ so )orth. :o@ever! it is not enough to %#int $i))erent 'oo$s! eA%ressions! #n$ )eelings; they 'ust #lso h#r'oni(e @ith one #nother. ... he %rinci%#l the'e is given by the rel#tionshi% bet@een the eyes #n$ 'outh: the 'outh t#lks #n$ the eyes #ns@er. IAcite'ent! @ill! #n$ tension #re concentr#te$ #roun$ the corners o) the 'outh! @hile the rel#Ae$ c#l' o) the intellect %rev#ils in the eyes... . he 'outh reve#ls the instincts #n$ the $riving )orces o) # '#n. he eye sho@s @h#t he h#s beco'e in his victory! $e)e#t! or tire$ resign#tion. ...8 *hristi#nsen inter%rets %ortr#its #s i) they @ere $r#'#s. - %ortr#it conveys not si'%ly # )#ce #n$ #n inti'#te )eeling )ro(en into it! but )#r 'ore. It tells us o) the ch#nging e'otions o) # soul; it tells us its history #n$ its %resent li)e. - s%ect#tor #%%ro#ches the %roble' o) # tr#gic ch#r#cter in # si'il#r )#shion. *h#r#cter! strictly s%e#king! c#n be eA%resse$ only in #n e%ic! =ust #s s%iritu#l li)e c#n be eA%resse$ only in # %ortr#it. In or$er to be re#lly #live! the tr#gic ch#r#cter 'ust be co'%ose$ o) contr#$ictory tr#its #n$ 'ust c#rry us )ro' one e'otion to #nother. he %hysiogno'ic incongruency #'ong the v#rious $et#ils o) the )#ci#l eA%ression in # %ortr#it is the b#sis )or our e'otion#l re#ction; #n$ the %sychologic#l non,coinci$ence o) the v#rious )#ctors eA%ressing the ch#r#cter in # tr#ge$y is the b#sis )or our tr#gic sy'%#thy. 4y )orcing our )eelings to #ltern#te continuously to the o%%osite eAtre'es o) the e'otion#l r#nge! by $eceiving the'! s%litting the' #n$ %iling obst#cles in their @#y! the tr#ge$y c#n obt#in %o@er)ul e'otion#l e))ect. When @e see .amlet+ @e )eel #s i) @e h#ve live$ the lives o) thous#n$s o) %ersons in one night; in$ee$! @e h#ve eA%erience$ 'ore th#n @e @oul$ h#ve in ye#rs o) co''on! every$#y li)e. -n$ #t the %oint @hen! together @ith the hero! @e begin to )eel th#t he no longer belongs to hi'sel) #n$ no longer $oes the things he shoul$ $o! the tr#ge$y #c.uires its strength. :#'let eA%resses this i'%uiss#nce re'#rk#bly @ell in his love letter to +%heli#! 6 hine ever'ore! 'ost $e#r l#$y! @hilst this '#chine is to hi'.8 1ussi#n tr#nsl#tors usu#lly tr#nsl#te the @or$ machine #s body bec#use they )#il to un$erst#n$ th#t the essence o) the tr#ge$y lies in this one @or$. F4oris P#stern#k! inci$ent#lly! tr#nsl#tes this correctly.G 7onch#rov @#s .uite right in s#ying th#t :#'letJs tr#ge$y is to be # '#n! not # '#chine. In$ee$! @e begin to )eel together @ith the hero like # 6'#chine o) )eelings!8 $irecte$ #n$ controlle$ by the tr#ge$y itsel). We no@ co'e to the results o) our stu$y. We c#n )or'ul#te our )in$ings #s # three)ol$ contr#$iction on @hich the tr#ge$y is b#se$: the contr#$iction involving the story! the %lot! #n$ the $r#'#tis %erson#e. I#ch o) these three )#ctors $evelo%s in its o@n @#y! #n$ it is %er)ectly cle#r th#t # ne@ ele'ent is intro$uce$ into the tr#gic genre. We #lre#$y $e#lt @ith s%lit %l#nes in the short story! @hen @e eA%erience$ events )ro' t@o o%%osite $irections! one given by the sub=ect #n$ the other #c.uire$ in the %lot. hese t@o con)licting levels re#%%e#r in the tr#ge$yS@e h#ve 'entione$ sever#l ti'es th#t .amlet c#uses our e'otions to 'ove on t@o $i))erent levels. +n the one h#n$ @e %erceive the go#l to@#r$ @hich the tr#ge$y 'oves! #n$ on the other @e %erceive its $igressions #s @ell. he ne@

contribution o) the %rot#gonist is th#t at any moment+ he unifies both contradictory planes and is the supreme and ever present embodiment of the contradiction inherent in the tragedy/ We h#ve s#i$ th#t the tr#ge$y is constructe$ )ro' the vie@%oint o) the %rot#gonist! @hich 'e#ns th#t the tr#ge$y is the )orce uniting the t@o o%%osing currents #n$ co'bining in the %rot#gonist! t@o o%%osing e'otions. hus the t@o o%%osite levels o) the tr#ge$y #re %erceive$ #s # single unit! )or they 'erge in the tr#gic hero @ith @ho' @e i$enti)y. he si'%le $u#lity @hich @e $iscovere$ in the story is re%l#ce$ in the tr#ge$y by # 'uch $ee%er #n$ 'ore serious one! bec#use o) the )#ct th#t not only $o @e vie@ the entire tr#ge$y through the %rot#gonistJs eyes! but @e in turn look #t the %rot#gonist hi'sel) through our o@n eyes. his is #s it shoul$ be; our #n#lysis o) the tr#ge$y %roves it. We sho@e$ th#t it is #t this %oint o) convergence th#t the t@o levels o) the tr#ge$y! @hich @e h#$ thought @ere le#$ing in $i#'etric#lly o%%ose$ $irections! 'eet. heir uneA%ecte$ convergence gives the tr#ge$y its s%eci#l ch#r#cter #n$ sho@s its events in #n entirely $i))erent light. he s%ect#tor is $eceive$. Wh#t he thought @ere $evi#tions )ro' the '#in thre#$ o) the tr#ge$y h#ve le$ hi' to its )in#l go#l! but @hen he )in#lly re#ches it he $oes not re#li(e th#t it is the l#st sto% on his tri%. &o@ the contr#$ictions h#ve ch#nge$ roles; they #re unite$! in the )in#l #n#lysis! in the eA%eriences o) the %rot#gonist @hich the s%ect#tor %erceives #s in # $re#'. :e is not relieve$ by the killing o) the king! he eA%eriences no rel#A#tion. I''e$i#tely #)ter the killing o) the king the #u$ienceJs #ttention is #ttr#cte$ by #nother $e#th! th#t o) the %rot#gonist! :#'let. his $e#th '#kes the s%ect#tor #t l#st #@#re o) #ll the con)licts #n$ contr#$ictions th#t besiege$ his conscious #n$ unconscious sel) $uring the %l#y. -n$ @hen in :#'letJs l#st @or$s #n$ :or#tioJs n#rr#tive the tr#ge$y #g#in $escribes its circle! the s%ect#tor is keenly #@#re o) the $u#lity u%on @hich it is built. :or#tioJs n#rr#tion returns hi' to the tr#ge$yJs eAtern#l %l#ne! to the 6@or$s! @or$s! @or$s.8 he rest! to s%e#k @ith :#'let! 6is silence.8 Psychology o) -rt. Vygotsky F1925G

Art as a Catharsis
heory o) I'otions #n$ 2#nt#sies. Princi%les o) the Icono'y o) 2orce. heory o) I'otion#l one #n$ 2eeling. he l#@ o) the 6;ouble IA%ression o) I'otion8 #n$ the l#@ o) the 61e#lity o) I'otion.8 *entr#l #n$ Peri%her#l ;isch#rge o) I'otions. -))ective *ontr#$iction #n$ the beginning o) -ntithesis. *#th#rsis. 1e=ection o) the *ontent o) 2or'. he %sychology o) #rt involves t@o! or %ossibly three! br#nches o) theoretic#l %sychology. It $e%en$s u%on )in$ings )ro' the stu$y o) %erce%tion! the stu$y o) the e'otions! #n$ the stu$y o) i'#gin#tion #n$ )#nt#sy. -rt! @hen stu$ie$ in # %sychology course! is consi$ere$ un$er one! t@o! or #ll three o) these to%ic#l u'brell#s. hese c#tegories #re o) $i))erenti#l i'%ort#nce in the stu$y o) the %sychology o) #rt. he %sychology o) %erce%tion obviously %l#ys # terti#ry role bec#use theorists long #go #b#n$one$ the n#ive sensu#lis' #ccor$ing to @hich #rt is nothing but the en=oy'ent o) be#uti)ul things. he #esthetic res%onse! #t its 'ost %ri'itive! h#s long been $istinguishe$ )ro' the %erce%tion o) # %le#s#nt t#ste! o$or! or color. -lthough the %roble' o) %erce%tion is #n i'%ort#nt consi$er#tion in the %sychology o) #rt! it is not the '#in one! bec#use it $e%en$s on %rior $ecisions #bout other .uestions @hich )or' the very he#rt o) our %roble'. he res%onse to #rt begins @ith sensory %erce%tion! but $oes not en$ @ith it. his is @hy the %sychology o) #rt 'ust begin! not @ith # ch#%ter on ele'ent#ry #esthetic eA%eriences! but @ith the other t@o %roble' #re#s > e'otion #n$ i'#gin#tion. In$ee$! #ll %sychologic#l syste's @hich #tte'%t to eA%l#in #rt #re nothing but v#rious co'bin#tions o) the theories o) i'#gin#tion #n$ e'otion. In %sychology there #re no #re#s 'ore obscure th#n these t@o. In recent ti'es they h#ve been the sub=ect o) # gre#t '#ny investig#tions! #ll o) @hich h#ve neglecte$ to %ro%ose # gener#lly #cce%t#ble syste' )or stu$y. M#tters #re even @orse in ob=ective %sychology! @here # syste' h#s been

$evelo%e$ @hich conce%tu#li(es the beh#vior#l )or's corres%on$ing to %rocesses o) the @ill Fto use the ol$ 'ent#listic ter'G! #n$ re%resents intellectu#l %rocesses! but continues to le#ve $o'#ins o) e'otion #n$ i'#gin#tion virtu#lly untouche$. 6 he %sychology o) )eeling!8 s#ys itchener! 6is to # l#rge eAtent the %sychology o) %erson#l o%inion #n$ conviction.8N1O his vie@ #%%lies #lso to i'#gin#tion! #n$! #s Renkovskii s#ys! 6%sychology here is like # b#$ =oke.8 Since little is kno@n #bout i'#gin#tion #n$ e'otion! the 'ost 'ysteriously %roble'#tic .uestion in 'o$ern %sychology is the #ssoci#tion bet@een e'otion#l )#cts #n$ i'#gin#tion. I'otions h#ve '#ny $i))erent ch#r#cteristics! the )irst o) @hich! #ccor$ing to itchener! is in$e)initeness. his in$e)initeness is @h#t $istinguishes e'otion )ro' sens#tion. 6*l#rity is not one o) the %ro%erties o) e'otion. Ple#sure #n$ $is%le#sure '#y be intense #n$ %rolonge$! but they #re never cle#r. In ter's o) n#ive %sychology! this 'e#ns th#t @e c#nnot concentr#te our #ttention on #n e'otion. he 'ore #ttention @e %#y to # sens#tion! the cle#rer it beco'es #n$ the better @e re'e'ber it. 4ut @e c#nnot concentr#te our #ttention on #n e'otion. -s soon #s @e try! %le#sure or $is%le#sure i''e$i#tely $issi%#tes! #n$ @e )in$ ourselves observing so'e irrelev#nt sens#tion or i'#ge @hich @e h#$ not inten$e$ to observe in the )irst %l#ce. I) @e @#nt to en=oy # concert or # %#inting! @e 'ust c#re)ully %erceive @h#t @e he#r or see; %le#sure! ho@ever! $is#%%e#rs #s soon #s @e try to )ocus our #ttention on It.8N2O hus! in ter's o) e'%iric#l %sychology! e'otion is beyon$ the $o'#in o) consciousness! since everything th#t c#nnot be )iAe$ @ithin the #ttention#l )ocus is %ushe$ to the eAtre'e li'its o) the conscious. M#ny %sychologists! ho@ever! e'%h#si(e # $i))erent! contr#sting ch#r#cteristic o) e'otion. hey cl#i' th#t )eeling is #l@#ys conscious #n$ th#t the conce%t o) unconscious )eeling is # contr#$iction in ter's. 2reu$! the gre#t ch#'%ion o) the unconscious! s#ys! 6 he essence o) e'otion#l )eeling is th#t it is )elt! th#t is! consciously re#li(e$. I'otions! sens#tions! #n$ #))ects c#n there)ore never be unconscious.8N/O -t the s#'e ti'e! he tries to est#blish @hether such # %#r#$oAic#l ter' #s unconscious fear is 'e#ning)ul. :e )in$s out th#t! #lthough %sycho#n#lysis s%e#ks o) unconscious #))ects! these $i))er )ro' unconscious %erce%tion! since #n unconscious #))ect corres%on$s to #n #))ective e'bryo #n$ # %ossibility o) #ction le)t un$evelo%e$. 6Strictly s%e#king ... unconscious #))ects! si'il#r to unconscious For subconsciousG conce%ts! $o not eAist.8N0O he #esthetic %sychologist +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii hol$s the s#'e vie@. :e $i))erenti#tes bet@een )eeling #n$ thought! in %#rt bec#use )eelings c#nnot be unconscious. :is solution o) the %roble' is si'il#r to P#'esJ! but very $i))erent )ro' 1ibotJs. :e #sserts th#t @e h#ve no 'e'ory )or )eeling. 62irst @e 'ust $eci$e @hether unconscious )eeling eAists! )or there eAists unconscious thought. I )eel th#t # neg#tive #ns@er to this .uestion is #l'ost #uto'#tic. I'otion#l )eeling! @ith #ll its nu#nces! re'#ins such only #s long #s it is )elt! or consciously re#li(e$. ... It see's to 'e th#t the eA%ression Lunconscious )eelingJ is # contradictio in ad5ecto+ like black whiteness 6 there is no unconscious #re# in )eeling.8N5O We see' to run into # contr#$iction here. +n the one h#n$! e'otions #re necess#rily $e%rive$ o) conscious cl#rity! but on the other h#n$ they c#nnot %ossibly be unconscious. his contr#$iction! est#blishe$ in e'%iric#l %sychology! see's to re)lect re#lity; but @e 'ust #lso #%%ly it to ob=ective %sychology #n$ #tte'%t to )in$ its true 'e#ning. We @ill try to $escribe e'otions in gener#l ter's #s nervous %rocesses #n$ s%eci)y the ob=ective ch#r#cteristics o) these %rocesses. M#ny @riters #gree th#t in ter's o) nervous 'ech#nis's! e'otions 'ust be reg#r$e$ #s #n out%ut! or $isch#rge! o) nervous energy. +rsh#nskii st#tes th#t our %sychic energy c#n be eA%en$e$ in three @#ys: 62irst! by the 'otor nerves! in the )or' o) # conce%t or # @ill sti'ulus o) 'otion! #'ounting to # higher %sychic #ctivity. Secon$! by intern#l $isch#rge. I) this t#kes the )or' o) irr#$i#tion! or the %#ss#ge o) # %sychic @#ve! it )or's the b#sis )or #n #ssoci#tion o) conce%ts. I) it #'ounts to # )urther rele#se o) live %sychic energy in $i))erent nervous @#ves! it re%resents the source o) e'otion. 2in#lly! inhibition %ushes %#rt o) the %sychic energy into the hi$$en! the subconscious ... this is @hy energy tr#ns)or'e$

by inhibition into # l#tent st#te beco'es the b#sis )or #ny )unction o) logic. hus! the three #s%ects o) %sychic energy! or @ork! corres%on$ to the three #s%ects o) nervous @ork; e'otion corres%on$s to $isch#rge! @ill corres%on$s to @orking energy! #n$ intellectu#l energy! es%eci#lly #bstr#ction! is #ssoci#te$ @ith inhibition or the econo'y o) nervous #n$ %sychic strength ... In higher 'ent#l #ctivity! the tr#ns)or'#tion o) live %sychic energy into reserve energy %rev#ils.8N3O Most #uthors #gree @ith this vie@ F#ccor$ing to @hich e'otion is the out%ut o) energyG. 2reu$ s#ys! )or inst#nce! th#t #))ects #n$ )eelings #re eA%en$itures o) energy! the )in#l eA%ression o) @hich is %erceive$ #s # sens#tion F)eelingG. 6-))ectivity is essenti#lly eA%resse$ by 'otor energy out)lo@ Fsecretory! regul#ting the c#r$iov#scul#r syste'G! th#t results in #n Fintern#lG bo$ily ch#nge unrel#te$ to the eAtern#l environ'ent; 'otor #ctivity is eA%resse$ by #ctions! the %ur%ose o) @hich is to ch#nge the eAtern#l environ'ent.8N"O his vie@ is sh#re$ by '#ny #rt %sychologists! inclu$ing +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii! @ho consi$ers the %rinci%le o) the econo'y o) energy #s the )un$#'ent#l %rinci%le o) #esthetics! even though he '#kes #n eAce%tion )or )eeling. :e s#ys! 6+ur sens#te soul c#n truly be co'%#re$ @ith the %roverbi#l c#rt o) @hich it is s#i$ L@h#tever )#lls )ro' it! is lost )orever.J +ur thinking soul! ho@ever! is like # c#rt )ro' @hich nothing c#n )#ll. Its lo#$ is @ell,%#cke$ #n$ hi$$en in the unconscious ... I) the )eelings @e eA%erience live$ #n$ @orke$ in our unconscious! continuously bre#king into our conscious F#s $oes thoughtG! our e'otion#l li)e @oul$ be such # 'iAture o) he#ven #n$ hell th#t even the strongest constitution coul$ not @ithst#n$ the continuous succession o) =oys! sorro@s! resent'ent! @r#th! love! envy! =e#lousy! )e#rs! regrets! ho%es! #n$ other e'otions. &o! )eelings $o not enter the unconscious; there is no such region in the )eeling soul. 2eelings! #s #ll conscious %sychic %rocesses! eA%en$ r#ther th#n s#ve %sychic energy. he li)e o) )eelings is the eA%en$iture o) the soul.8 N9O o corrobor#te this i$e#! +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii sho@s th#t the l#@ o) 'e'ory %rev#ils in our thinking! @hile the l#@ o) oblivion %rev#ils in our )eeling. :e b#ses his observ#tions on the strongest #n$ highest '#ni)est#tion o) )eelings > #))ects #n$ %#ssions. 6-))ects #n$ %#ssions #re #n eA%en$iture o) %sychic )orce > there is no $oubt #bout it. I) @e t#ke #ll the #))ects #n$ %#ssions in # given %erio$ o) ti'e! their eA%en$iture @ill be enor'ous. Which co'%onents o) this eA%en$iture c#n be consi$ere$ use)ul #n$ %ro$uctive is #nother .uestion; in$ee$! 'ost %#ssions #n$ so'e #))ects #re # @#ste le#$ing to b#nkru%tcy o) the %syche. hus! i) @e t#ke the higher %rocesses o) scienti)ic #n$ %hiloso%hic#l thought on the one h#n$! #n$ the strongest #))ects #n$ %#ssions on the other! @e @ill be )ully #%%rise$ o) the #nt#gonis' bet@een the thinking #n$ the )eeling %syche. We @ill re#li(e th#t these Lt@o soulsJ #re inh#r'onious! #n$ # %syche consisting o) the' is b#$ly org#ni(e$! unste#$y! #n$ )ull o) intern#l contr#$iction.8 N9O - )un$#'ent#l %roble' )or the %sychology o) #rt is @hether e'otion is only # @#ste o) %sychic energy or @hether it h#s so'e v#lue in #n in$ivi$u#lJs %sychic li)e. his %roble' is o) b#sic i'%ort#nce )or the %sychology o) e'otion. +n its solution $e%en$s the solution o) #nother b#sic %roble' o) the %sychology o) #esthetics! the %rinci%le o) the econo'y o) energy. Since S%encerJs ti'e @e h#ve b#se$ our un$erst#n$ing o) #rt on the l#@ o) the econo'y o) %sychic )orces! # l#@ @hich S%encer consi$ere$ the univers#l %rinci%le )or )unction o) the %syche. his %rinci%le @#s #$o%te$ by #rt histori#ns! #n$ in the 1ussi#n liter#ture it @#s best un$erstoo$ by Veselovskii! @ho $evise$ the @ell,kno@n rule th#t 6the 'erit o) # style @#s the )or'ul#tion o) #s '#ny thoughts #s %ossible! in #s )e@ @or$s #s %ossible.8 his vie@ is #lso hel$ by Potebni#Js school! #n$ +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii si'il#rly re$uces #rtistic )eeling F#s o%%ose$ to #esthetic )eelingG to # )eeling o) econo'y. he )or'#lists o%%ose$ this vie@ @ith # series o) .uite convincing #rgu'ents @hich contr#$ict this %rinci%le. B#kubinskii! )or inst#nce! sho@e$ th#t %oetic l#ngu#ge l#cks # rule )or the $istribution o) )lo@ing soun$; other schol#rs sho@e$ th#t %oetic l#ngu#ge is ch#r#cteri(e$ by # co'bin#tion o) soun$s $i))icult to %ronounce! th#t one o) the techni.ues use$ is th#t o) h#'%ering %erce%tion to $e%rive it o) its custo'#ry #uto'#tis'! #n$ th#t %oetic l#ngu#ge

is governe$ by -ristotleJs rule th#t it shoul$ soun$ like # )oreign l#ngu#ge. he contr#$iction th#t eAists bet@een this %rinci%le #n$ the theory th#t )eeling is #n eA%en$iture o) %sychic energy is obvious. -s # '#tter o) )#ct! it in$uce$ +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii! @ho @#nte$ to %reserve both rules in his theory! to $ivi$e #rt into t@o co'%letely $istinct #re#s! the )igur#tive #rts #n$ the lyric#l #rts. :e .uite correctly se%#r#tes #rtistic )eeling )ro' other #esthetic )eelings! but )or hi' #rtistic e'otion is e'otion $erive$ )ro' thoughts! th#t is! e'otion )ro' # %le#sure b#se$ on the econo'y o) strength. *onversely! he reg#r$s lyric#l e'otion #s #n intellectu#l e'otion! )un$#'ent#lly $istinct )ro' the )or'. he $istinction lies in the )#ct th#t lyrics #ctu#lly c#ll )orth re#l e'otions #n$ 'ust conse.uently be set #%#rt in # s%eci#l %sychologic#l grou%ing. 4ut since e'otion is #n out%ut o) energy! there #rises .uestion o) ho@ the theory o) lyric#l e'otion #ccor$s @ith the %rinci%le o) the econo'y o) energy. +vsi#niko, ?ulikovskii is correct in se%#r#ting lyric#l e'otion )ro' #ny 6#%%lie$8 e'otion c#use$ by lyrics. Cnlike Petr#(hitskii! @ho cl#i's th#t 'ilit#ry 'usic is inten$e$ to stir bellicose e'otions! #n$ church singing )unctions to #rouse religious e'otions! he %oints out th#t it is i'%ossible to 'iA these e'otions! bec#use 6i) @e #$'it the %ossibility o) such # 'iAture! @e )in$ th#t the %ur%ose o) erotic %oe's is sti'ul#tion o) the seAu#l #%%etites. he i$e# o) L he *ovetous ?nightJ is to %rove th#t #v#rice is # vice ... #n$ so on.8 N1<O I) @e #cce%t this $istinction bet@een the i''e$i#te #n$ secon$#ry! or 6#%%lie$!8 e))ect o) #rt Fits $irect result #n$ conse.uenceG! @e @ill h#ve to )or'ul#te t@o se%#r#te .uestions concerning the econo'y o) strength: $oes the econo'y o) strength Fconsi$ere$ by '#ny to be essenti#l )or eA%eriencing #n$ un$erst#n$ing #rtG occur in the secon$#ry or %ri'#ry e))ect o) #rtK +n the b#sis o) the critic#l #n$ %r#ctic#l stu$ies @e %er)or'e$ in the %rece$ing ch#%ters! the #ns@er #%%e#rs obvious. We h#ve seen th#t everything in the %ri'#ry! or $irect! e))ect o) #rt in$ic#tes $i))iculty @ith res%ect to non#rtistic #ctivity; conse.uently! the %rinci%le o) the econo'y o) strength! i) #t #ll #%%lic#ble! shoul$ be #%%lie$ to the secon$#ry e))ect o) #rt > to its conse.uences! but not to the #esthetic res%onse to # @ork o) #rt. his is the @#y 2reu$ eA%l#ins the %rinci%le o) the econo'y o) strength! #s he %oints out th#t this econo'y is .uite $i))erent )ro' S%encerJs n#ive version. It re'in$s 2reu$ o) the %etty econo'y o) the house@i)e @ho is re#$y to tr#vel )or 'iles to # $ist#nt '#rket in or$er to s#ve # )e@ %ennies on # %urch#se. 6We h#ve #b#n$one$ long #go this n#ive inter%ret#tion o) econo'y!8 s#ys 2reu$! 6#ccor$ing to @hich it re%resents the $esire to #voi$ the eA%en$iture o) %sychic energy! @ith the econo'y occurring @hen there is # '#Ai'u' li'it#tion in the use o) @or$s #n$ the construction o) #ssoci#tions o) thought. We h#ve #lre#$y s#i$ th#t # short! l#conic st#te'ent is not necess#rily # @itty one. 4revity o) @it is so'ething s%eci#l! it is L@ittyJ brevity ... @e '#y liken %sychic econo'y to # co''erci#l enter%rise. So long #s the volu'e is s'#ll! gener#l eA%enses #re s'#ll #n$ overhe#$ is lo@. hri)t c#n be #%%lie$ to the #bsolute '#gnitu$e o) eA%en$iture. 4ut #s the business eA%#n$s! the i'%ort#nce o) overhe#$ beco'es secon$#ry. &o@ it is i'%ort#nt to incre#se the volu'e #n$ the %ro)its! r#ther th#n @orry #bout the eAtent o) costs. It @oul$ be risky #n$ stu%i$ )or the enter%rise to econo'i(e on costs no@.8N11O We sh#ll sho@ th#t %oets usu#lly resort to #n econo'y $i))erent )ro' the trivi#l one %ro%ose$ by Veselovskii. In )#ct! @ere @e to retell # tr#ge$y in # short #n$ concise '#nner! #s is $one in the#ter %rogr#' notes! the econo'y o) @or$s @oul$ be even gre#ter th#n th#t %ro%ose$ by Veselovskii. he %oet! ho@ever! uses # $i))erent techni.ue! @hich is essenti#lly unecono'ic#l @ith res%ect to the $istribution o) our 'ent#l )orces. he %oet intention#lly #ttenu#tes the c#use o) the #ction! #rouses our curiosity! %l#ys @ith our ingenuity! '#kes our #ttention run to #n$ )ro; in other @or$s! he @#stes our strength #n$ energies to the eAtent re.uire$ by his @ork o) #rt. -n #bsolutely )#ith)ul #n$ %recise n#rr#tion in %rose o) Sh#kes%e#reJs .amlet or ;ostoevskyJs !he 7rothers $aramazov s#ves 'uch 'ore %sychic energy th#n the #ctu#l @orks o) #rt. ;ostoevsky! )or inst#nce! #t one o) the 'ost cli'#ctic 'o'ents in his novel! inserts sever#l $ots r#ther th#n $isclose @ho kille$ 2e$or ?#r#'#(ov > he lets our thoughts run in circles o) su%%ositions! sus%icions! #n$ sur'ises! seeking the #ns@er. It @oul$ h#ve

been )#r 'ore econo'ic#l F#s reg#r$s the eA%en$iture o) %sychic energyG to %ut $o@n the )#cts! #s in # court investig#tion or # scienti)ic re%ort. We 'ust conclu$e! there)ore! th#t the %rinci%le o) the econo'y o) strength! #t le#st in its S%enceri#n inter%ret#tion! is in#%%lic#ble to #rt )or's. :ence S%encerJs re#sons #n$ #rgu'ents #re useless here. :e #ssu'es th#t the Inglish l#ngu#ge is econo'ic#l Fi.e.! th#t it s#ves %sychic energyG! bec#use #$=ectives usu#lly %rece$e subst#ntives: 6# bl#ck horse8 is 'ore econo'ic#l )or our #ttention th#n 6# horse bl#ck!8 bec#use @e 'eet @ith trouble concerning the kin$ o) horse @e #re $e#ling @ith i) its color is not %reviously s%eci)ie$. his %sychologic#lly n#ive #rgu'ent 'ight %ossibly be #%%lie$ to # %ros#ic $istribution o) thoughtsN03O. In #rt! ho@ever! the eA%en$iture #n$ utili(#tion o) nervous energy #re governe$ by # co'%letely $i))erent #n$ o%%osite rule. he gre#ter the eA%en$iture o) nervous energy! the 'ore intense is the e))ect %ro$uce$ by the @ork o) #rt. We 'ust re'e'ber th#t #n e'otion is #n eA%en$iture o) %sychic )orce; @e 'ust #lso re'e'ber th#t #rt is in$issolubly #ssoci#te$ @ith # co'%leA %l#y o) e'otions; thus! @e sh#ll see th#t #rt viol#tes the %rinci%le o) econo'y o) strength! #t le#st inso)#r #s its i''e$i#te e))ect is concerne$! #n$ obeys #n o%%osite %rinci%le in the construction o) #rtistic )or's. +ur #esthetic res%onse! #bove #ll! is # res%onse th#t #nnihil#tes our nervous energy; it is #n eA%losion! not # %enny,%inching econo'y. It '#y be th#t the %rinci%le o) the econo'y o) strength c#n be #%%lie$ to #rt in # co'%letely $i))erent '#nner. o $eter'ine this! @e 'ust h#ve # cle#r i$e# #bout the n#ture o) #esthetic re#ction. here #re '#ny vie@s on this sub=ect! but these #re $i))icult to org#ni(e bec#use no gener#lly #cce%te$ syste'! %sychologic#l or other@ise! eAists to $e#l @ith this %roble'. Ivery investig#tor is concerne$ @ith # s%eci)ic %roble'! #n$ there is no co'%rehensive %sychologic#l syste' to eA%l#in #ll #esthetic beh#vior #n$ res%onse on # tot#l sc#le. - theory usu#lly $e#ls @ith but one #s%ect o) this res%onse; hence it is $i))icult to $eter'ine @hether it is true! bec#use it '#y @ell solve # %roble' th#t h#$ not been hitherto )or'ul#te$ )or investig#tion. In his syste'#tic %sychology o) #rt! MDller,2reien)els closes his theory o) #esthetic res%onse @ith the re'#rk th#t the %osition o) the %sychologist in this c#se rese'bles th#t o) the biologist @ho c#n $eco'%ose #n org#nic subst#nce into its che'ic#l co'%onents but is un#ble to re%ro$uce the @hole )ro' its %#rts.N12O he %sychologist '#y! #t best! re#ch the st#ge o) #n#lysis; he h#s #bsolutely no #ccess to the synthesis o) #n #esthetic res%onse. he best %roo) o) his in#bility is his #tte'%t to synthesi(e the %sychology o) #rt. :e c#n )in$ sensori#l! 'otor! #ssoci#tive! intellectu#l! #n$ e'otion#l )#ctors )or # re#ction! but he c#n s#y nothing #bout the rel#tionshi%s #'ong the' nor #bout ho@ # co'%lete %sychology o) #rt '#y be constructe$ )ro' these )#ctors! e#ch o) @hich c#n be )oun$ outsi$e o) #rt. :e '#y obt#in results @hich #re # ste% beyon$ the 6$e#$ se# o) #bstr#ct conce%ts!8 but @hich #re o) little i'%ort#nce )or ob=ective %sychology. hese results coul$ be eA%resse$ in '#ny %#ges but! in essence! they #re #s )ollo@s: this #uthor )ir'ly believes th#t #rtistic en=oy'ent is not %ure %erce%tion! but th#t it re.uires the highest %sychic #ctivity. -rtistic e'otions #re not collecte$ by the %syche #s i) they @ere # h#n$)ul o) see$s thro@n into # b#g. hey re.uire # %rocess o) ger'in#tion #n$ gro@th! #n$ # %sychologist '#y be #ble to $iscover the #uAili#ry #n$ secon$#ry nee$s o) this %rocess! such #s @#r'th! 'oisture! che'ic#l #$$itives! #n$ so )orth.N1/O 4ut #)ter his investig#tion! the %sychologist @ill kno@ no 'ore #bout the %rocess o) ger'in#tion th#n be)ore he beg#n. +ur %ur%ose consists in le#ving #si$e syste'#tic #n#lysis #n$ the eAh#ustive #bsolute co'%onents o) #esthetic res%onses in or$er to stu$y the ger'in#tion itsel) r#ther th#n the con$itions @hich c#use it. With the #i$ o) synthetic theories o) #esthetic e'otions! @e c#n grou% #ll th#t h#s hitherto been s#i$ on the sub=ect #roun$ t@o b#sic #rgu'ents. he )irst @#s $evelo%e$ by *hristi#nsen in # thorough but or$in#ry @#y. :e cl#i's th#t #ny #ction o) the eAtern#l @orl$ ent#ils # s%eci#l sensori#l #n$ 'or#l e))ect. -ccor$ing to 7oethe! this is the e'otion#l i'%ression! the $i))erenti#l in the 'oo$ @e eA%erience! @hich %sychologists o) the %#st c#lle$ the sensori#l tone o) %erce%tion. he color blue

c#l's us! yello@ eAcites us! #n$ so )orth. *hristi#nsen cl#i's th#t #rt is b#se$ on these 'oo$ $i))erenti#ls; hence! #esthetic re#ction c#n be re%resente$ #s )ollo@s: #n #esthetic ob=ect consists o) $i))erent %#rts #n$ co'%rises i'%ressions o) '#teri#l! ob=ect! #n$ )or' @hich #re essenti#lly $i))erent but h#ve in co''on the )#ct th#t e#ch ele'ent corres%on$s to # s%eci)ic e'otion#l tone. 6 he '#teri#l o) the ob=ect #n$ its )or' #re not co'%rise$ $irectly in the #esthetic ob=ect! but in the )or' o) the e'otion#l ele'ents #$$e$ to it!8N10O @hich c#n be )use$ into @h#t is gener#lly kno@n #s #n #esthetic ob=ect. he #esthetic res%onse there)ore re'in$s us o) %i#no %l#ying; e#ch ele'ent o) # @ork o) #rt strikes # corres%on$ing e'otion#l key in our org#nis' @hich %ro$uces # tone! #n$ the entire #esthetic re#ction is '#$e u% o) e'otion#l i'%ressions #rising in res%onse to the 6keys.8 In # @ork o) #rt no ele'ent is i'%ort#nt in itsel). it is 'erely # key. It is the e'otion#l re#ction it gener#tes th#t is i'%ort#nt. Such # 'ech#nic#l conce%t! ho@ever! is in the en$ inc#%#ble o) solving the %roble' o) #rtistic res%onse! bec#use the e'otion#l %ortion o) #n i'%ression is .uite s'#ll co'%#re$ @ith the strong #))ects th#t '#ke u% #n #esthetic res%onse. In #$$ition to the e'otion#l i'%ression gener#te$ by the in$ivi$u#lly eAisting ele'ents o) #rt! #n #esthetic res%onse consists #lso o) cert#in e'otion#l eA%eriences @hich c#nnot be inclu$e$ #'ong these 'oo$ $i))erenti#ls. *hristi#nsen $istinguishes his o@n theory )ro' the b#n#l theory o) #rt #s # 'oo$; this $istinction! ho@ever! is .u#ntit#tive r#ther th#n .u#lit#tive! #n$ in the en$ @e ret#in the conce%t o) #rt #s # 'oo$ #rising )ro' v#rious $i))erenti#ls. We c#nnot un$erst#n$ @hy there eAists # connection bet@een the #esthetic eA%erience #n$ the course o) our every$#y li)e! #n$ @hy #rt is so i'%ort#nt to us. *hristi#nsen )inishes by contr#$icting hi'sel) #n$ his o@n theory @hen he $eter'ines #rt #s e'bo$ie$ $esire #n$ #n eAtre'ely i'%ort#nt li)e #ctivity. :is %sychologic#l theory is un#ble to eA%l#in ho@! by the e'otion#l n#ture o) its ele'ents! #rt c#n #cco'%lish the t#ngible re#li(#tion o) the )un$#'ent#l $esires o) our %syche. 7iven such # %sychologic#l inter%ret#tion! #rt beco'es # very sh#llo@ '#tter th#t #))ects only the sur)#ce o) our %syche bec#use its sensori#l tone c#nnot be se%#r#te$ )ro' the e'otion itsel). his theory o%%oses sensu#lis' #n$ $e'onstr#tes th#t en=oy'ent o) #rt $oes not occur in the eye or e#r; it )#ils! ho@ever! to tell us %recisely @here it $oes occur! but %l#ces the eA%erience #t the #%%roAi'#te level o) the eye #n$ e#r! closely #ssoci#ting it @ith the #ctivity o) our %erce%tive org#ns. he other theory! kno@n in the %sychologic#l liter#ture #s the theory o) 8inf9hlung Fe'%#thyG! is there)ore 'ore e))ective. his theory h#rks b#ck to :er$er #n$ @#s $evelo%e$ by Li%%s. It %rocee$s )ro' #n o%%osite conce%t o) e'otion#l )eeling. -ccor$ing to this theory! e'otions #re not %ro$uce$ in us by # @ork o) #rt! #s #re soun$s by the keys o) # %i#no. -n #rtistic ele'ent $oes not intro$uce its e'otion#l tone into us. It is @e @ho intro$uce e'otions into # @ork o) #rt! e'otions #rising )ro' the gre#test $e%ths o) our being #n$ gener#te$ not #t the sh#llo@ level o) the rece%tors but in the 'ost co'%leA #ctivities o) our org#nis's. 6Such is the n#ture o) our %syche!8 s#ys 2. . 2ischer! 6th#t it insinu#tes itsel) into %hysic#l %heno'en#! or into '#n,'#$e )or's! #ttributing cert#in 'oo$s to these %heno'en#! 'oo$s @hich! by 'e#ns o) #n unconscious #ct! enter into the ob=ects. -esthetics $e#ls @ith this #$$ition! this 8inf9hlung into in#ni'#te ob=ects.8 Li%%s h#s $evelo%e$ # brilli#nt theory o) 8inf9hlung into both line#r #n$ three,$i'ension#l )or's. :e sho@e$ th#t @e rise @ith #n #scen$ing line! )#ll @ith # $escen$ing line! ben$ @ith # circle! #n$ so on. I) @e t#ke only the e'%iric#l )#cts uncovere$ by Li%%sJs theory! @e c#n s#y th#t it @ill cert#inly beco'e %#rt o) the )uture ob=ective %sychologic#l theory o) #esthetics. 2ro' #n ob=ective vie@%oint! 8inf9hlung is # res%onse to # sti'ulus. Li%%s! @ho #sserts th#t @e intro$uce our res%onses into # @ork o) #rt! is closer to the truth th#n *hristi#nsen @ho believes th#t #n #esthetic ob=ect intro$uces its e'otion#l %ro%erties into us. 4ut Li%%sJs theory h#s #s '#ny $r#@b#cks #s *hristi#nsenJs. 2irst! it o))ers no criterion by @hich to $istinguish #esthetic res%onses )ro' other res%onses unrel#te$ to #rt. We c#nnot $eny th#t 68inf9hlung is #n o'ni%resent %#rt o) our %erce%tion; hence! it c#nnot h#ve #ny s%eci)ic #esthetic 'e#ning. ...8N15O

I.u#lly convincing #re Mei'#nJs t@o other ob=ections! th#t 8inf9hlung+ such #s gener#te$ by 2#ustJs verses! so'eti'es 'oves to the )ore but #t other ti'es is co'%letely conce#le$ by the content! #n$ th#t in the inter%ret#tion o) Faust it is # subor$in#te ele'ent o) the #esthetic re#ction! r#ther th#n its core. I) @e consi$er such co'%leA #rtistic @orks #s novels or #rchitectur#l structures! @e see th#t their '#in e))ect is b#se$ on $i))erent! very co'%leA %rocesses #ssoci#te$ @ith our %erceiving the @hole! %er)or'ing $i))icult #n$ co'%lic#te$ intellectu#l o%er#tions! #n$ so on. MDller,2reien)els hol$s th#t # @ork o) #rt gener#tes t@o kin$s o) #))ect in us. IA%eriencing +thelloJs =e#lousy or M#cbethJs terror #t 4#n.uoJs #%%#rition is # co#))ect on our %#rt; )e#ring )or ;es$e'on# be)ore she re#li(es she is in $#nger is our o@n #))ect #n$ shoul$ be $istinguishe$ )ro' the co#))ects. N13O It is obvious th#t *hristi#nsenJs theory eA%l#ins only our o@n! 6the vie@erJs!8 #))ects #n$ ignores the co#))ects! bec#use no %sychologist @ill $e)ine the co#))ect o) M#cbethJs terror or +thelloJs e'otion#l %#ins #s the e'otion#l tone o) these i'#ges Ftheir e'otion#l tone is $i))erent! #n$ conse.uently *hristi#nsenJs theory ignores co#))ectsG. Li%%sJs theory! on the other h#n$! $e#ls eAclusively @ith co#))ects. It eA%l#ins ho@! by 'e#ns o) 8inf9hlung+ @e c#n eA%erience +thelloJs or M#cbethJs %#ssion! but it is un#ble to eA%l#in ho@ @e eA%erience # )eeling o) )e#r )or ;es$e'on# @hile she still is unconcerne$! sus%ecting nothing. -ccor$ing to MDller,2reien)els! the 8inf9hlung theory c#nnot eA%l#in the $i))erent kin$s o) #))ect. -t 'ost! it c#n be #%%lie$ to co#))ects! but )or our o@n #))ects it is in#$e.u#te. +nly in %#rt $o @e eA%erience the #))ects #s they #re given to the ch#r#cters in # $r#'#; 'ost o) the ti'e @e eA%erience the' not @ith! but bec#use o)! the ch#r#cters. *o'%#ssion! )or inst#nce! is # very in#%%ro%ri#te ter'! bec#use @e very sel$o' eA%erience # %#ssion with so'eone. Csu#lly! @e eA%erience # %#ssion on #ccount o) so'eone elseJs )eelings.8 hese re'#rks #re )ully corrobor#te$ by Li%%sJs theory o) tr#gic %erce%tion. :e intro$uces the l#@ o) the 6%sychic $#'8 #ccor$ing to @hich 6# %sychic event ... hel$ u% in its n#tur#l course ... )or's # block! or $#''e$,u% #re#!8 th#t is! it rises eA#ctly to the %oint #t @hich the i'%e$i'ent or interru%tion occurs. hus! tr#gic $el#ys incre#se the v#lue o) the su))ering %rot#gonist! #n$ 8inf9hlung incre#ses our o@n v#lue. 6When @e see %sychic su))erings!8 s#ys Li%%s! 6@h#t is heightene$ is the ob=ective )eeling o) sel),v#lue; I )eel! to # 'ore intense $egree! 'ysel) #n$ 'y hu'#n v#lue #s re)lecte$ in so'eone else; I )eel #n$ eA%erience to # 'ore intense $egree @h#t it 'e#ns to be # hu'#n being ... he 'e#ns to this en$ is su))ering... .8 he un$erst#n$ing o) the tr#gic %rocee$s )ro' the co#))ect! @hile the #))ect o) the tr#ge$y itsel) re'#ins uneA%l#ine$. We re#li(e th#t none o) the eAisting theories o) #esthetic e'otion c#n eA%l#in the inti'#te connection bet@een our )eeling #n$ the ob=ects @e %erceive. o #rrive #t this eA%l#n#tion! @e 'ust resort to %sychologic#l syste's b#se$ on the #ssoci#tion bet@een )#nt#sy #n$ )eeling. I #' s%e#king here o) the revie@ o) the %roble' o) )#nt#sy %er)or'e$ by Meinong #n$ his school! Reller! Meyer! #n$ other %sychologists in recent $ec#$es. his ne@ #%%ro#ch c#n be $escribe$ #%%roAi'#tely #s )ollo@s: he %sychologists %rocee$ )ro' the irre)ut#ble #ssoci#tion th#t eAists bet@een e'otion #n$ i'#gin#tion. We kno@ th#t every e'otion h#s # %sychic eA%ression in #$$ition to # %hysic#l one. In other @or$s! # )eeling 6is e'bo$ie$! )iAe$ in #n i$e#! #s is evi$ence$ in c#ses o) %ersecution '#ni#!8 #ccor$ing to 1ibot. *onse.uently! #n e'otion is eA%resse$ by the 'i'ic! %#nto'i'ic! secretory! #n$ so'#tic res%onses o) our org#nis'. It #lso re.uires so'e eA%ression o) our i'#gin#tion. We )in$ the best evi$ence )or this vie@ #'ong the so,c#lle$ ob=ectless e'otions. P#thologic#l %hobi#s! %ersistent )e#rs! #n$ so )orth! #re #l@#ys #ssoci#te$ @ith s%eci)ic i$e#s! 'ost o) @hich #re #bsolutely )#lse #n$ $istort re#lity! but in so $oing )in$ their 6%sychic8 eA%ression. - %#tient @ho su))ers )ro' obsessive )e#r is e'otion#lly sick! his )e#r is irr#tion#l; #n$ so in or$er to r#tion#li(e it! he i'#gines th#t everyone is %ursuing #n$ %ersecuting hi'. 2or such # %#tient! the se.uence o) events is eA#ctly the o%%osite o) th#t o) # nor'#l %erson. 2or the l#tter! %ersecution is %erceive$ )irst! then )e#r; )or the sick '#n! it is )irst the

)e#r! then the i'#gine$ %ersecution. Renkovskii #%tly c#lle$ this %heno'enon the 6$ouble eA%ression o) )eelings.8 Most conte'%or#ry %sychologists @oul$ #gree @ith this vie@ i) it is #ssu'e$ to 'e#n th#t #n e'otion is service$ by i'#gin#tion #n$ eA%resse$ in # series o) )#nt#stic i$e#s! conce%ts! #n$ i'#ges th#t re%resent its secon$ eA%ression. We 'ight s#y th#t #n e'otion h#s # centr#l e))ect in #$$ition to # %eri%her#l one! #n$ th#t in this c#se @e #re $iscussing the )or'er. Meinong $istinguishes o%inions )ro' #ssu'%tions by est#blishing @hether or not @e #re convince$ o) their correctness. I) @e #cci$ent#lly t#ke so'eone @e 'eet )or #n #c.u#int#nce #n$ $o not re#li(e our 'ist#ke! then this is # =u$g'ent F#lbeit # 'ist#ken oneG; but i)! kno@ing th#t the %erson is not our #c.u#int#nce! @e %ersevere in our 'is=u$g'ent #n$ continue to t#ke hi' )or #n #c.u#int#nce! @e #re $e#ling @ith #n #ssu'%tion. Meinong hol$s th#t chil$renJs g#'es #n$ #esthetic illusions #re b#se$ on #ssu'%tions! @hich #re the source o) the 6)eelings #n$ )#nt#sies8 th#t #cco'%#ny both these #ctivities. 2or so'e! these illusory )eelings #re i$entic#l to the re#l ones. It is .uite %ossible! they s#y! th#t the $i))erences Fkno@n to eA%erienceG bet@een #ctu#l #n$ i'#gin#ry )eelings #re b#se$ on the )#ct th#t the )or'er ste' )ro' =u$g'ents #n$ the l#tter )ro' #ssu'%tions. We c#n illustr#te this by the )ollo@ing eA#'%le: I) #t night @e 'ist#ke #n overco#t h#nging in our roo' )or # %erson! our error is obvious! the eA%erience is )#lse #n$ $evoi$ o) re#l content. 4ut the )eeling o) )e#r eA%erience$ #t the inst#nt the co#t @#s sighte$ is very re#l in$ee$. his 'e#ns th#t! in essence! #ll our )#nt#stic eA%eriences t#ke %l#ce on # co'%letely re#l e'otion#l b#sis. We see! there)ore! th#t e'otion #n$ i'#gin#tion #re not t@o se%#r#te %rocesses; on the contr#ry! they #re the s#'e %rocess. We c#n reg#r$ # )#nt#sy #s the centr#l eA%ression o) #n e'otion#l re#ction. We no@ co'e to #n eAtre'ely i'%ort#nt conclusion. Psychologists o) the %#st h#ve %on$ere$ the rel#tion bet@een the centr#l #n$ %eri%her#l eA%ression o) e'otions! @hether the eAtern#l eA%ression o) )eelings is enh#nce$ or @e#kene$ by i'#gin#tion. Wun$t #n$ Leh'#n g#ve contr#sting #ns@ers to this .uestion; Meyer %ostul#tes th#t both '#y be correct. @o $istinct c#ses coul$ @ell he involve$. 2irst! @hen the i'#ges o) our )#nt#sy )unction #s the intern#l sti'ulus )or our ne@ res%onse ! they enh#nce the b#sic res%onse. - very vivi$ i'#gin#tion incre#ses our #'orous eAcit#tion! but in this c#se the )#nt#sy is not the eA%ression o) the e'otion it enh#nces but r#ther the $isch#rge o) the %rece$ing e'otion. Whenever #n e'otion )in$s its solution in i'#ges o) )#nt#sy! this 6$re#'ing8 @e#kens the true '#ni)est#tion o) the e'otion; i) @e eA%resse$ our $oubts in our )#nt#sy! its eAtern#l '#ni)est#tion @oul$ be .uite @e#k. We )eel th#t! @ith re)erence to e'otion#l res%onses! #ll those gener#l %sychologic#l l#@s est#blishe$ @ith res%ect to #ny si'%le sensory,'otor res%onse re'#in v#li$. It is #n irre)ut#ble )#ct th#t our re#ctions slo@ $o@n #n$ lose intensity #s soon #s the centr#l ele'ent o) the e'otion beco'es 'ore co'%lic#te$. We $iscover th#t! #s the i'#gin#tion Fthe centr#l ele'ent o) the e'otion#l re#ctionG incre#ses! its %eri%her#l %#rt loses intensity. his h#s been est#blishe$ by Wun$tJs school @ith reg#r$ to ti'e! #n$ #lso stu$ie$ by ?ornilov. We think th#t it is #%%lic#ble here. he l#@ c#n be )or'ul#te$ #s )ollo@s: It is # single,%ole energy out)lo@ ch#r#cteri(e$ by the )#ct th#t nervous energy is eA%en$e$ #t one %ole! either #t the center or #t the %eri%hery! #n$ incre#ses in energy out)lo@ #t one %ole le#$ to # $ecre#se #t the other. his s#'e l#@ h#s been $iscovere$! in # so'e@h#t sc#ttere$ )#shion! by other investig#tors o) e'otion. he novelty th#t @e intro$uce #'ounts to g#thering these $iverse thoughts into # single conce%t. -ccor$ing to 7roos @e #re $e#ling! both in %l#y #n$ #esthetic #ctivity! or res%onse! @ith # $el#y! but not with an inhibition of the response/ :I #' 'ore #n$ 'ore convince$ th#t e'otions #s such #re in eAtre'ely close connection @ith %hysic#l sens#tions. he intern#l org#nic st#te on @hich %sychic 'otions #n$ e'otions #re b#se$ is likely to be i'%e$e$ to so'e eAtent by the ten$ency to@#r$ continu#tion o) the initi#l conce%t! #s it 'ight be in the c#se o) # chil$ @ho %l#ys th#t he is )ighting! but $el#ys the 'otion o) his #r' re#$y to strike.8N1"O I )eel th#t this $el#y #n$ @e#kening o) inner org#nic #n$ eAtern#l '#ni)est#tions o) e'otions shoul$ be reg#r$e$ #s # %#rticul#r c#se o) the gener#l l#@ o) single,%ole energy out)lo@ $ue to e'otions. -s @e h#ve seen! energy )lo@s out )ro' one o) t@o %oles! either #t the %eri%hery or #t the center; #n$ #n incre#se$ #ctivity #t one %ole le#$s i''e$i#tely to # $ecre#se #t the other.

It see's to 'e th#t only )ro' this vie@%oint c#n @e #%%ro#ch #rt @hich #%%e#rs to stir very strong )eelings in us! @hich )eelings #re not s%eci)ic#lly eA%resse$. he enig'#tic $i))erence th#t eAists bet@een #rtistic )eeling #n$ or$in#ry )eeling '#y be eA%l#ine$ #s )ollo@s: -rtistic )eeling is the s#'e #s the other! but it is rele#se$ by eAtre'ely intensi)ie$ #ctivity o) the i'#gin#tion. he contr#sting ele'ents o) @hich #ny #esthetic res%onse is co'%ose$ #re thus =oine$ into # unit. Psychologists h#ve u% to no@ been un#ble to est#blish # 'utu#l rel#tionshi% bet@een conte'%l#tion #n$ e'otion. hey coul$ not est#blish the %l#ce o) e#ch ele'ent in the )r#'e@ork o) #rtistic e'otion! so 'uch so th#t the 'ost conse.uenti#l #rt %sychologist! MDller,2reien)els! suggeste$ the eAistence o) t@o kin$s o) #rt #n$ t@o kin$s o) s%ect#tors. +ne #tt#ches gre#ter signi)ic#nce to conte'%l#tion! #n$ the other to )eeling! #n$ vice vers#. +ur #ssu'%tion is su%%orte$ by the )#ct th#t until no@ %sychologists h#ve been un#ble to $eter'ine the $i))erence bet@een )eeling in #rt #n$ convention#l! or or$in#ry! )eeling. MDller,2reien)els suggests th#t the $i))erence is 'erely .u#ntit#tive! #n$ s#ys! 6... #esthetic #))ects #re %o@er)ul! th#t is! they #re #))ects @hich $o not strive to@#r$ #ction! but @hich nonetheless c#n #tt#in the highest intensity o) )eeling.8N19O his st#te'ent #grees @ith @h#t @e h#ve =ust st#te$. It #lso co'es close to MunsterbergJs %sychologic#l theory! #ccor$ing to @hich isol#tion is #n in$is%ens#ble con$ition )or #esthetic eA%erience. In the l#st #n#lysis! isol#tion is nothing but the con$ition in @hich it is %ossible to $istinguish the #esthetic sti'ulus )ro' other sti'uli; this con$ition is in$is%ens#ble bec#use it gu#r#ntees # strictly centr#l rele#se o) the #))ects gener#te$ by #rt #n$ ensures th#t these #))ects #re not eA%resse$ by #ny other eAtern#l #ction. :enne.uin recogni(es the s#'e $i))erence bet@een re#l #n$ #rtistic )eeling in the )#ct th#t e'otions in the'selves $o not le#$ to #ctions. 6 he %ur%ose o) # @ork o) liter#ture!8 he st#tes! 6is to c#use s%eci)ic e'otions th#t c#nnot be $irectly eA%resse$ in #ction. ...8N2<O It is the $el#y in the eAtern#l '#ni)est#tion @hich is the $istinguishing ch#r#cteristic o) #n #rtistic e'otion #n$ the re#son )or its eAtr#or$in#ry %o@er. We c#n sho@ th#t #rt is # centr#l e'otion! one th#t rele#ses itsel) in the cerebr#l corteA. he e'otions c#use$ by #rt #re intelligent e'otions. Inste#$ o) '#ni)esting the'selves in the )or' o) )ist,sh#king or )its! they #re usu#lly rele#se$ in i'#ges o) )#nt#sy. ;i$erot st#tes th#t #n #ctor @ee%s re#l te#rs! but the te#rs co'e )ro' his br#in; thus! he eA%resses the essence o) his #rtistic re#ction. 4ut! @e 'ust re#li(e th#t # si'il#r centr#l rele#se is .uite conceiv#ble @ith convention#l or or$in#ry e'otions. *onse.uently! # single ch#r#cteristic $oes not yet est#blish! or $e)ine! the s%eci)ic $istinction o) #esthetic e'otion. 4ut there is 'ore. Psychologists )re.uently cl#i' th#t 'iAe$ )eelings eAist. -lthough so'e #uthors! such #s itchener! $eny their eAistence! others '#int#in th#t #rt #l@#ys $e#ls @ith 'iAe$ )eelings! #n$ th#t e'otions! in gener#l! h#ve #n org#nic ch#r#cter. his is @hy '#ny #uthors reg#r$ #n e'otion #s #n intern#l org#nic res%onse! @hich eA%resses the #gree'ent or $is#gree'ent o) our org#nis' @ith the neur#l res%onse rele#se$ by #n in$ivi$u#l org#n. he unity o) our org#nis' eA%resses itsel) in the e'otion. itchener eA%l#ins! 6When +thello is h#rsh to@#r$ ;es$e'on#! she eAcuses his ru$eness by s#ying th#t he is u%set by #))#irs o) st#te. L... Let our )inger #che!J she s#ys! L#n$ it in$uces our other he#lth)ul 'e'bers even to th#t sense o) %#in.J8N21O I'otion is t#ken here #s # gener#l glob#l org#nic res%onse to events occurring in #n in$ivi$u#l org#n. his is @hy #rt F@hich! r#ther th#n re%elling us! #ttr#cts us even #s it %rovokes un%le#s#nt )eelingsG is boun$ to be #ssoci#te$ @ith 'iAe$ )eelings #n$ e'otions. MDller,2reien)els re)ers to Socr#tesJ o%inion! #s st#te$ by Pl#to! th#t the s#'e %erson shoul$ @rite both co'e$ies #n$ tr#ge$iesN22O bec#use the contr#st o) )eelings is essenti#l to #n #esthetic i'%ressionN0"O. In #n#ly(ing tr#gic )eeling! he %oints out $u#lity #s its b#sis #n$ sho@s th#t the tr#gic is i'%ossible i) t#ken ob=ectively #n$ @ithout #ny %sychologic#l b#ckgroun$! bec#use this b#ckgroun$ is the contr#st bet@een inhibition #n$ eAcit#tion. N2/O ;es%ite the $e%ressing n#ture o) the tr#gic e'otion! 6on the @hole it is one o) the lo)tiest heights to @hich hu'#n n#ture c#n #tt#in! since the s%iritu#l con.uest o) $ee% %#in or sorro@ gener#tes # )eeling o) triu'%h @hich h#s no e.u#l.8N20O

2or Schil$er #lso! this e'otion is b#se$ u%on the $u#lity o) the tr#gic i'%ression.N25O In$ee$! every #uthor h#s '#$e so'e co''ent concerning the )#ct th#t # tr#ge$y #l@#ys involves contr#sting )eelings. Plekh#nov cites ;#r@inJs vie@s o) the %rinci%le o) #ntithesis in our eA%ressive e'otions #n$ #tte'%ts to #%%ly the' to #rt. -ccor$ing to ;#r@in! so'e 'oo$s c#use cert#in h#bitu#l 'ove'ents @hich '#y be reg#r$e$ #s use)ul; in #n o%%osing intellectu#l 'oo$ there eAists # strong! involunt#ry ten$ency to %er)or' 'ove'ents o) #n o%%osite n#ture @hich see' useless. his #%%e#rs to be $ue to the )#ct th#t #ny volunt#ry 'ove'ent inv#ri#bly re.uires the #ction o) cert#in 'uscles; by %er)or'ing # $i#'etric#lly o%%osite 'ove'ent! @e %ut o%%osite 'uscles to @ork F'ove'ent right or le)t! %ushing or %ulling! li)ting #n$ $ro%%ing! #n$ so )orthG. Since the %er)or'#nce o) o%%osite 'ove'ents un$er the in)luence o) o%%osing i'%ulses h#s beco'e h#bitu#l in us #s @ell #s in lo@er #ni'#ls! @hen 'ove'ents o) one kin$ #re closely #ssoci#te$ @ith #n e'otion or )eeling! it is %er)ectly n#tur#l to #ssu'e th#t 'ove'ents o) #n o%%osite n#ture #re %er)or'e$ involunt#rily! #s # conse.uence o) # h#bitu#l #ssoci#tion.N23O his re'#rk#ble l#@ $iscovere$ by ;#r@in is #%%lic#ble to #rt! #n$ it is no longer sur%rising th#t the tr#ge$y @hich si'ult#neously gener#tes in us o%%osing #))ects #cts #ccor$ing to the %rinci%le o) #ntithesis #n$ sen$s o%%osite i'%ulses to o%%osing 'uscle grou%s. It )orces us to 'ove si'ult#neously to the right #n$ le)t! si'ult#neously to li)t #n$ $ro% @eights! si'ult#neously to 'ove one grou% o) 'uscles #n$ their o%%osites. his is ho@ @e c#n eA%l#in the $el#y in the eAtern#l '#ni)est#tion o) #))ect th#t t#kes %l#ce in #rt. -n$ this is @here @e '#y )in$ the s%eci)ic $istinguishing '#rks o) the #esthetic res%onse. We h#ve seen )ro' the )oregoing th#t # @ork o) #rt Fsuch #s # )#ble! # short story! # tr#ge$yG! #l@#ys inclu$es #n #))ective contr#$iction! c#uses con)licting )eelings! #n$ le#$s to the short,circuiting #n$ $estruction o) these e'otions. his is the true e))ect o) # @ork o) #rt. We co'e no@ to the conce%t o) c#th#rsis N09O use$ by -ristotle #s the b#sis )or his eA%l#n#tion o) tr#ge$y! #n$ re%e#te$ly 'entione$ by hi' @ith reg#r$ to the other #rts. In his Poetic# he s#ys th#t 6tr#ge$y i'it#tes #n i'%ort#nt #n$ )inishe$ #ction o) # cert#in '#gnitu$e! @ith # s%eech @hose every %#rt h#s # $i))erent orn#'ent! or @ith #ction! not n#rr#tion! th#t %er)or's # %uri)ic#tion o) such #))ects by 'e#ns o) %ity #n$ )e#r.8N2"O &o '#tter @h#t inter%ret#tion @e #ssign the enig'#tic ter' c#th#rsis! @e 'ust be sure th#t it corres%on$s to -ristotleJs. 2or our %ur%oses! ho@ever! this is irrelev#nt. Whether @e )ollo@ Lessing! @ho un$erst#n$s c#th#rsis to be the 'or#l #ction o) the tr#ge$y Fthe tr#ns)or'#tion o) %#ssions into virtuesG or MDller! )or @ho' it is the tr#nsition )ro' $is%le#sure to %le#sure; @hether @e #cce%t 4ern#ysJ inter%ret#tion o) the ter' #s he#ling #n$ %uri)ic#tion in the 'e$ic#l sense! or RellerJs o%inion th#t c#th#rsis #%%e#ses #))ect! > @e @ill i'%er)ectly #n$ inco'%letely eA%ress the 'e#ning @e #ssign to this ter'. ;es%ite the in$e)initeness o) its content! $es%ite our )#ilure to eA%l#in the 'e#ning o) this ter' in the -ristoteli#n sense! there is no other ter' in %sychology @hich so co'%letely eA%resses the centr#l )#ct o) #esthetic re#ction! #ccor$ing to @hich %#in)ul #n$ un%le#s#nt #))ects #re $isch#rge$ #n$ tr#ns)or'e$ into their o%%osites. -esthetic re#ction #s such is nothing but c#th#rsis! th#t is! # co'%leA tr#ns)or'#tion o) )eelings. hough little is kno@n #t %resent #bout the %rocess o) c#th#rsis! @e $o kno@! ho@ever! th#t the $isch#rge o) nervous energy F@hich is the essence o) #ny e'otionG t#kes %l#ce in # $irection @hich o%%oses the convention#l one! #n$ th#t #rt there)ore beco'es # 'ost %o@er)ul 'e#ns )or i'%ort#nt #n$ #%%ro%ri#te $isch#rges o) nervous energy. he b#sis )or this %rocess reve#ls itsel) in the contr#$iction @hich inheres in the structure o) #ny @ork o) #rt. We h#ve #lre#$y 'entione$ +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii! @ho believes :ectorJs )#re@ell scene stirs in us contr#sting #n$ con)licting e'otions. +n the one h#n$! these #re e'otions @e @oul$ eA%erience i) the scene @ere $escribe$ by Pise'skii; they #re #nything but lyric#l since the $escri%tion is not # %oe'; on the other h#n$! the e'otion is stirre$ by the heA#'eters #n$ # lyric#l e'otion %#r eAcellence. 4ut then! in #ny @ork o) #rt there #re e'otions gener#te$ by the '#teri#l #s @ell #s the )or'; the .uestion is: ho@ $o these t@o

kin$s o) e'otion interrel#te to e#ch otherK We #lre#$y kno@ the #ns@er! )or it $erives )ro' our %rece$ing #rgu'ents. his rel#tion is one o) #nt#gonis'; the t@o kin$s o) e'otion 'ove in o%%osite $irections. he l#@ o) #esthetic res%onse is the s#'e )or # )#ble #s )or # tr#ge$y: it comprises an affect that develops in two opposite directions but reaches annihilation at its point o) termination/ his is the %rocess @e shoul$ like to c#ll c#th#rsis. We h#ve sho@n th#t the #rtist #l@#ys overco'es content @ith )or'! #n$ @e h#ve )oun$ # corrobor#tion o) this st#te'ent in the structures o) the )#ble #n$ the tr#ge$y. I) @e stu$y the %sychologic#l e))ect o) in$ivi$u#l )or'#l ele'ents! @e )in$ th#t they )it %recisely the re.uire'ents set by the t#sk. Wun$t h#s sho@n th#t rhyth' in itsel) eA%resses only 6# 'etho$ o) eA%ressing )eelings in ter's o) ti'e.8 -n in$ivi$u#l rhyth'ic )or' is the eA%ression o) # )lo@ o) )eelings! but since the te'%or#l %l#ce'ent o) the )lo@ o) )eelings is %#rt o) the #))ect! the re%resent#tion o) this 'etho$ in rhyth' c#uses the #))ect #s such. 6 hus! the #esthetic signi)ic#nce o) rhyth' is its )unction #s # c#use #))ect. In other @or$s! rhyth' gener#tes the #))ect o) @hich it is # %#rt through the %sychologic#l l#@s o) e'otion#l %rocesses.8 N29O We see! there)ore! th#t rhyth' itsel)! #s one o) the )or'#l ele'ents! is c#%#ble o) gener#ting the #))ects re%resente$ by it. I) # %oet selects # rhyth' @hose e))ect is in contr#st @ith! or o%%osite to! the e))ect o) the content o) his @ork! @e %erceive this %heno'enon o) contr#st. 4unin h#s $escribe$ 'ur$er! shooting! #n$ %#ssion @ith # rhyth' o) col$! $et#che$ c#l'. :is rhyth' gener#tes #n #))ect o%%osite to the one gener#te$ by his storyJs '#teri#l. In the en$ the #esthetic res%onse beco'es # )eeling o) c#th#rsis; @e eA%erience # co'%leA $isch#rge o) )eelings! their 'utu#l tr#ns)or'#tion! #n$ inste#$ o) the %#in)ul eA%eriences )or'ing the content o) the short story! @e eA%erience the $elic#te! tr#ns%#rent )eeling o) # bre#th o) )resh #ir. he s#'e thing occurs in )#bles #n$ tr#ge$ies. Such # contr#st o) )eelings eAists #lso in the c#se 'entione$ by +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii. :eA#'eters! i) nee$e$ #t #ll! #n$ i) :o'er is #t #ll better th#n Pise'skii! $o enlighten #n$ c#th#rtic#lly %uri)y the e'otions gener#te$ by the content o) the Iliad/ he contr#st $iscovere$ by us in the structure o) #rtistic )or' #n$ th#t o) #rtistic content is the b#sis o) c#th#rtic #ction in the #esthetic res%onse. Schiller %uts it like this: 6 he secret o) # '#ster is to $estroy content by 'e#ns o) )or'; the 'ore '#=estic #n$ #ttr#ctive the content! the 'ore it 'oves to the )ore! #n$ the 'ore the vie@er )#lls un$er its s%ell! the gre#ter the triu'%h o) #rt @hich re'oves the content #n$ $o'in#tes it.8 - @ork o) #rt #l@#ys cont#ins #n inti'#te con)lict bet@een its content #n$ its )or'! #n$ the #rtist #chieves his e))ect by 'e#ns o) the )or'! @hich $estroys the content. Let us no@ '#ke so'e )in#l st#te'ents. We c#n s#y th#t the b#sic #esthetic res%onse consists o) #))ect c#use$ by #rt! #))ect eA%erience$ by us #s i) it @ere re#l! but @hich )in$s its rele#se in the #ctivity o) i'#gin#tion %rovoke$ by # @ork o) #rt. his centr#l rele#se $el#ys #n$ inhibits the eAtern#l 'otor #s%ect o) #))ect! #n$ @e think @e #re eA%eriencing only illusory )eelings. -rt is b#se$ u%on the union o) )eeling #n$ i'#gin#tion. -nother %eculi#rity o) #rt is th#t! @hile it gener#tes in us o%%osing #))ects! it $el#ys Fon #ccount o) the #ntithetic %rinci%leG the 'otor eA%ression o) e'otions #n$! by '#king o%%osite i'%ulses colli$e! it $estroys the #))ect o) content #n$ )or'! #n$ initi#tes #n eA%losive $isch#rge o) nervous energy. *#th#rsis o) the #esthetic res%onse is the tr#ns)or'#tion o) #))ects! the eA%losive res%onse @hich cul'in#tes in the $isch#rge o) e'otions. Psychology o) -rt. Vygotsky F1925G

The Psychology of Art

Veri)ying the 2or'ul#. Psychology o) Verse. Lyric #n$ I%ic. :ero #n$ ;r#'#tis %erson#e. ;r#'#. he *o'ic #n$ the r#gic. he#ter. P#inting! ;r#@ing! Scul%ture! -rchitecture.

We h#ve #scert#ine$ th#t contr#$iction is the essenti#l )e#ture o) #rtistic )or' #n$ '#teri#l. We h#ve #lso )oun$ th#t the essenti#l %#rt o) #esthetic res%onse is the '#ni)est#tion o) the #))ective contr#$iction @hich @e h#ve $esign#te$ by the ter' c#th#rsis. It @oul$ be very i'%ort#nt to sho@ ho@ c#th#rsis is #chieve$ in $i))erent #rt )or's! @h#t its chie) ch#r#cteristics #re! #n$ @h#t #uAili#ry %rocesses #n$ 'ech#nis's #re involve$ in it. :o@ever! such #n investig#tion @oul$ le#$ beyon$ the sco%e o) our %resent en$e#vor! since s%eci#l rese#rch on the )unction o) c#th#rsis in e#ch #rt )or' @oul$ h#ve to be un$ert#ken. +ur '#in %ur%ose is to )ocus #ttention on the centr#l %oint o) the #esthetic res%onse! $eter'ine its %sychologic#l 6@eight!8 #n$ use it #s the )un$#'ent#l eA%l#n#tory %rinci%le in our )urther investig#tions. We 'ust no@ check the #ccur#cy o) the )or'ul# @e h#ve )oun$ #n$ $eter'ine its gener#l #%%lic#bility #n$ eA%l#n#tory %o@er. his test! #n$ the corrections @hich no $oubt @ill be '#$e #s # conse.uence o) its #%%lic#tion! shoul$ be the sub=ect o) '#ny )urther in$ivi$u#l stu$ies. :ere @e sh#ll con)ine ourselves to '#king # brie) survey to $eter'ine @hether or not our )or'ul# @ithst#n$s the test. It is obvious th#t @e 'ust #b#n$on the i$e# o) # syste'#tic! e'%iric#l veri)ic#tion o) our )or'ul#. We #re only #ble to survey in$ivi$u#l! r#n$o' %heno'en# by t#king ty%ic#l eA#'%les )ro' #ll )iel$s o) #rt #n$ #tte'%ting to see @hether! #n$ to @h#t eAtent! our )or'ul# #%%lies to the'. Let us begin @ith %oetry. I) @e t#ke eAisting stu$ies o) verse! stu$ies %er)or'e$ not by %sychologists but by #rt critics! #s #n #esthetic )#ct! @e i''e$i#tely note the striking rese'bl#nce bet@een the conclusions re#che$ by %sychologists on the one h#n$! #n$ #rt critics on the other. he t@o sets o) )#cts > %sychic #n$ #esthetic > reve#l # sur%rising corres%on$ence @hich corrobor#tes #n$ con)ir's our )or'ul#. his observ#tion #%%lies to the conce%t o) rhyth' in 'o$ern %oetry. We h#ve long since #b#n$one$ the n#ive inter%ret#tion o) rhyth' #s 'eter! or 'e#sure. -n$rei 4elyJs investig#tions in 1ussi# #n$ S#r#nJs stu$ies #bro#$ sho@e$ th#t rhyth' is # co'%leA #rtistic structure th#t corres%on$s to the contr#$iction @hich @e conce%tu#li(e #s the he#rt o) the #rtistic res%onse. he 1ussi#n tonic syste' o) versi)ic#tion is b#se$ on the regul#r se.uence o) stresse$ #n$ unstresse$ syll#bles. I) #n i#'bic tetr#'eter N09O is $e)ine$ #s # verse consisting o) )our $isyll#bic )eet! e#ch consisting o) # stresse$ syll#ble )ollo@e$ by #n unstresse$ syll#ble! it is #l'ost i'%ossible to co'%ose such # verse; )or the tetr#'eter @oul$ h#ve to consist o) )our t@o,syll#ble @or$s Fin the 1ussi#n l#ngu#ge every @or$ h#s but # single stressG. In #ctu#l %r#ctice! ho@ever! verses #re @ritten in this 'eter. hese verses cont#in three! )ive! or siA @or$s! th#t is! 'ore or )e@er stresses th#n re.uire$ by theory. -ccor$ing to the #c#$e'ic theory o) %hilology! #ny $iscre%#ncy bet@een the re.uire'ents o) the 'eter #n$ the #ctu#l nu'ber o) stresses in # verse is '#$e u% by subtr#ction or #$$ition o) stresses @ith corres%on$ent #$=ust'ent o) #rticul#tion #n$ %ronunci#tion. In %oetry! ho@ever! @e ret#in the n#tur#l stress o) @or$s! so th#t the verse )re.uently $evi#tes )ro' the re.uire$ 'eter. he su' o) $evi#tions )ro' the 'eter $e)ines the rhyth'! #ccor$ing to 4ely. :e %roves his %oint #s )ollo@s: i) the rhyth' o) # verse consists in nothing but kee%ing the correct be#t! then #ll the verse @ritten in one 'eter shoul$ be i$entic#l! #n$ such # regul#r be#t shoul$ %ro$uce no e'otion#l e))ect #si$e )ro' re'in$ing us o) # r#ttle or # $ru'. It is the s#'e @ith 'usic! @here rhyth' is not the be#t th#t c#n be '#rke$ @ith the )oot! but the )illing o) the 'e#sures @ith une.u#l #n$ uneven notes @hich give the i'%ression o) co'%leA 'ove'ent. hese $evi#tions observe cert#in regul#rities! eng#ge in cert#in co'bin#tions! )or' # cert#in syste'; this syste' o) irregul#rities is @h#t 4ely t#kes #s the b#sis )or his conce%t o) rhyth'. N1O :is stu$ies h#ve been %rove$ to be correct! )or to$#y @e '#y )in$ # %recise $i))erenti#tion bet@een the conce%ts o) 'eter #n$ rhyth' in #ny teAtbook. he nee$ )or such # $i))erenti#tion #rises )ro' the )#ct th#t @or$s resist the 'eter @hich #tte'%ts to #$=ust the' into # verse. 6... With the #i$ o) @or$s!8 s#ys Rhir'unskii! 6it is #s i'%ossible to cre#te # @ork o) #rt governe$ co'%letely by the rules o) 'usic#l co'%osition @ithout $istorting the very n#ture o) the @or$s! =ust #s it is i'%ossible to cre#te #n orn#'ent o) the hu'#n bo$y #n$ still '#int#in its %ri'#ry %ur%ose. here is no %ure rhyth' in %oetry! =ust #s there is no sy''etry in %#inting. 1hyth' is the inter#ction o) the n#tur#l %ro%erties o) s%eech co'%onents @ith the rules o)

co'%osition @hich c#nnot be )ully #%%lie$ bec#use o) the resist#nce o) the '#teri#l.8 N2O We %erceive # n#tur#l nu'ber o) stresses in @or$s! #n$ #t the s#'e ti'e @e %erceive the nor' to@#r$ @hich verse strives but never #%%ro#ches. he con)lict bet@een 'eter #n$ @or$s > the $iscre%#ncy! $iscor$! #n$ contr#$iction bet@een the' > this is rhyth'. -s @e c#n see! this vie@ coinci$es @ith the #n#lyses @e h#ve #lre#$y con$ucte$. :ere #re the three %#rts o) the #esthetic res%onse @hich @e 'entione$ #t #n e#rlier st#ge: the t@o con)licting #))ects #n$ the c#th#rsis @hich co'%letes the' in the three ele'ents est#blishe$ by the theory o) 'etrics )or the verse. -ccor$ing to Rhir'unskii! these #re 6F1G the n#tur#l phonetic Properties o) the s%eech '#teri#l... . F2G the meter+ #n i$e#l l#@ governing the succession o) strong #n$ @e#k soun$s in # verse; #n$ F/G the rhythm+ the #ctu#l succession o) strong #n$ @e#k soun$s resulting )ro' the inter#ction bet@een the n#tur#l %ro%erties o) the s%eech '#teri#l use$ #n$ the 'etric rules.8 N/O S#r#n hol$s the s#'e vie@: 6- verse )or' is the result o) #n inti'#te uni)ic#tion o)! or # co'%ro'ise bet@een! t@o ele'ents! the soun$ )or' ch#r#cteristic o) s%oken l#ngu#ge! #n$ the orchestr#l 'eter ... his is ho@ the struggle! @hose results #re the v#rious LstylesJ o) the s#'e verse )or'! #rises.8 N0O We no@ 'ust $e'onstr#te th#t the three %oetic#l ele'ents in the verse coinci$e in their %sychologic#l 'e#ning @ith the three ele'ents o) #esthetic #ction. o $o this! @e 'ust est#blish th#t the )irst t@o ele'ents #re in 'utu#l contr#$iction #n$ %rovoke #))ects o) contr#sting n#ture; the thir$ ele'ent! rhyth'! is the c#th#rtic resolution o) the )irst t@o. Such #n #%%ro#ch is su%%orte$ by the l#test stu$ies @hich re%l#ce the ol$,)#shione$ te#ching o) the h#r'ony o) #ll the ele'ents o) # @ork o) #rt #n$ contr#st it @ith the %rinci%le o) the struggle #n$ #ntino'y o) cert#in ele'ents. I) @e $o not stu$y st#tic )or'! #n$ i) @e re=ect the cru$e #n#logy #ccor$ing to @hich )or' cont#ins content #s # gl#ss $oes @ine! then! #ccor$ing to yni#nov! @e 'ust #$o%t # constructive %rinci%le #n$ consi$er )or' to be $yn#'ic. We 'ust stu$y the )#ctors '#king u% # @ork o) #rt not in their st#tic structure but in their $yn#'ic )lo@. We sh#ll then see th#t 6the unity o) the @ork is not # close$ sy''etric#l entity but #n un)ol$ing! $yn#'ic @hole. here is no st#tic sign o) e.u#lity or 'ulti%lic#tion bet@een its ele'ents! but the $yn#'ic sign o) correl#tion #n$ integr#tion eAists #l@#ys.UN5O &ot #ll )#ctors in # @ork o) #rt #re e.uiv#lent. 2or' is the result o) the constructive subor$in#tion o) cert#in )#ctors to others! r#ther th#n o) their )usion into one. 6We #l@#ys %erceive )or' #s )lo@ Fth#t is! ch#ngeG! #s the correl#tion o) the subor$in#ting! constructive )#ctor #n$ the subor$in#te$ one. here is no nee$ to #tt#ch # te'%or#l ch#r#cteristic to this un)ol$ing. he )lo@! the $yn#'ics! c#n be t#ken %er se! outsi$e o) ti'e! #n$ consi$ere$ #s %ure 'otion. -rt is this inter#ction! this struggle. Without this subor$in#tion! @ithout the $e)or'#tion o) )#ctors by the one )#ctor %l#ying the constructive role! there c#n be no #rt.8 N3O Such re#soning is @hy 'o$ern schol#rs $o not #cce%t the tr#$ition#l te#ching o) the rel#tionshi% bet@een the rhyth' #n$ the 'e#ning o) # verse. hey sho@ th#t the structure o) # verse is not b#se$ u%on the corres%on$ence bet@een rhyth' #n$ 'e#ning! nor u%on the uni)or' tren$ o) #ll its )#ctors; the eA#ct contr#ry is true. Mei'#n $istinguishe$ t@o o%%osing ten$encies in the $ecl#'#tion o) verses! # ti'e,be#ting one #n$ # %hr#sing one. :e #ssu'e$! ho@ever! th#t these t@o ten$encies #re ch#r#cteristics o) $i))erent in$ivi$u#lsG @hen! #ctu#lly! they #re %#rt o) the verse itsel) # verse @hich si'ult#neously cont#ins t@o o%%osing ten$encies. 6 he verse reve#ls itsel) #s # syste' o) co'%leA inter#ctions! # struggle r#ther th#n # coo%er#tion bet@een )#ctors. It beco'es obvious th#t the s%eci)ic %lus o) %oetry is to be )oun$ in this inter#ction! the b#sis o) @hich is the constructive role o) rhyth'! #n$ its $e)or'ing )unction @ith res%ect to the other )#ctors ... hus! the #coustic #%%ro#ch to verse reve#ls the %#r#$oA o) #%%#rently b#l#nce$ #n$ even %oetic @ork.8 N"O Procee$ing )ro' this contr#$iction #n$ the struggle o) )#ctors! investig#tors @ere #ble to sho@ ho@ the very 'e#ning o) # verse or @or$ ch#nges! ho@ the evolution o) the sub=ect! the selection o) #n i'#ge! #n$ so on! ch#nge un$er the e))ect o) rhyth' #s the constructive )#ctor in # %oe'. he s#'e is true in the c#se o) 'e#ning. yni#nov! %#r#%hr#sing 7oethe! conclu$es th#t 6gre#t i'%ressions $e%en$ 'ysteriously on v#rious

%oetic )or's. It @oul$ be te'%ting to tr#ns%ose the content o) sever#l 1o'#n elegies to the tone #n$ 'eter o) 4yronJs (on ;uan.8 N9O - )e@ eA#'%les '#y sho@ th#t the 'e#ning)ul construction o) # verse necess#rily inclu$es #n inti'#te contr#$iction in #n inst#nce @here @e eA%ect h#r'ony. +ne o) Ler'ontovJs critics @rites #bout his re'#rk#ble %oe'! I+ the Mother of "od+ : hese orn#te verses l#ck ins%ire$ si'%licity #n$ sincerity! the t@o '#in ch#r#cteristics o) %r#yer. In %r#ying )or # young! innocent @o'#n! it is in#%%ro%ri#te to 'ention ol$ #ge or $e#th. &ote: Lthe @#r' %#troness o) # col$ @orl$... .J Wh#t # col$ #ntithesisQ8 In$ee$! it is $i))icult not to note the inner contr#$iction in the 'e#ning o) those ele'ents @hich '#ke u% the %oe'. Ivl#khov s#ys! 6&ot only $oes Ler'ontov $iscover # ne@ s%ecies in the #ni'#l king$o' Fin #$$ition to -n#kreonJs horne$ $oeG in his $escri%tion o) # Llioness @ith # curly '#ne #roun$ her he#$!J but in his %oe' )hen the <ellow #ornfield )aves+ he ch#nges n#ture to suit his c#se. 7leb Cs%enskii re'#rks th#t L)or the s#ke o) this s%eci#l c#se! cli'#te #n$ )eelings #re con)use$! #n$ everything is chosen so #rbitr#rily th#t one c#n only $oubt the %oetJs sincerityJ ... his re'#rk is very correct in essence! #lthough not very intelligent in its conclusion.UN9O -ll o) PushkinJs %oetry involves t@o contr#$ictory )eelings. Let us t#ke the %oe' I =oam the *oisy treets #s #n eA#'%le. It is tr#$ition#lly un$erstoo$ to re%resent # %oet %ersecute$ by the notion o) $e#th. :is %reoccu%#tion s#$$ens hi'! but he #$=usts to the i$e# o) $e#thJs inevit#bility #n$ en$s by %r#ising youth #n$ li)e. 7iven such #n inter%ret#tion! the l#st line o) the %oe' contr#sts @ith the entire @ork. We c#n e#sily sho@ th#t this tr#$ition#l inter%ret#tion is tot#lly in#ccur#te. I) the %oet @#nte$ to sho@ ho@ the environ'ent le#$s to thoughts o) $e#th! he @oul$ h#ve chosen # 'ore #%%ro%ri#te environ'ent. :e @oul$ h#ve le$ us to the usu#l h#unts o) senti'ent#l %oets: # ce'etery! # hos%it#l! to the $ying! or %erh#%s to suici$e. 4ut Pushkin chose #n #'bient @hich cre#tes # contr#$iction in every line. he %oet is sei(e$ by the thought o) $e#th in noisy streets! in cro@$e$ churches! in busy s.u#res > in %l#ces @here $e#th is $e)initely out o) %l#ce. - lone o#k! sovereign o) the )orests; # ne@born chil$ > these i'#ges #g#in con=ure the i$e# o) $e#th! #n$ the contr#$iction beco'es over@hel'ing. hus @e c#n see th#t the %oe' is built u%on the =uAt#%osition o) t@o eAtre'es N5<O! li)e #n$ $e#th. We )in$ this contr#$iction in every line! )or it %erv#$es the entire %oe'. In the )i)th line! )or eA#'%le! the %oet recogni(es th#t $e#th co'es every $#y! but it is not re#lly $e#th > it is the #nnivers#ry o) $e#th! th#t is! $e#thJs tr#ce in li)e. It is not sur%rising th#t the %oe' conclu$es @ith the st#te'ent th#t even the insensible cor%se @ishes to rest ne#r its ho'el#n$. he l#st! c#t#stro%hic line is not in contr#st to the @hole %oe' but %resents # c#th#rsis o) the t@o contr#sting i$e#s by c#sting the' in # ne@ )or': young li)e con=ure$ $e#thJs i'#ge every@here; it no@ %l#ys #t the threshol$ o) $e#th. Pushkin h#bitu#lly uses such sh#r% contr#$ictions. :is 8gyptian *ights+ his 7an%uet during Pestilence+ #n$ others #re b#se$ on si'il#r contr#$ictions @hich #re c#rrie$ to the eAtre'e. PushkinJs lyric %oetry #l@#ys )ollo@s the l#@ o) $u#lis'. :is @or$s #re si'%le in 'e#ning! but his verse tr#ns)or's this 'e#ning into lyric#l e'otion. - si'il#r %#ttern eAists in his e%ics. he 'ost striking eA#'%les #re his !ales o) 7elkin/ 2or # long ti'e these t#les @ere reg#r$e$ #s r#ther insigni)ic#nt #n$ .uite i$yllic @orks! until critics $iscovere$ t@o con)licting levels! # tr#gic re#lity hi$$en bene#th # s'ooth #n$ h#%%y sur)#ce! so th#t !ales o) 7elkin su$$enly bec#'e $r#'#tic! )ull o) strong #n$ %o@er)ul e))ects. he #rtistic e))ect o) the stories is b#se$ u%on the contr#$iction bet@een the core #n$ the sur)#ce o) the story. 6 he su%er)ici#l course o) events!8 s#ys C(in! 6i'%erce%tibly le#$s the re#$er to@#r$ # %e#ce)ul! c#l' solution o) the %roble's! the 'ost co'%leA o) @hich #%%#rently unr#vel the'selves in the si'%lest @#y. 4ut the n#rr#tion itsel) cont#ins contr#$ictory ele'ents. -s @e c#re)ully observe the co'%leA orn#'ent#tion o) the !ales o) 7elkin @e )in$ th#t the )in#l resolutions #re not the only ones %ossible.8 N1<O 6Li)e itsel) #n$ its hi$$en 'e#ning #re here )use$ into # unit! so 'uch so th#t @e c#nnot $istinguish the'. he co''on%l#ce )#cts #%%e#r tr#gic bec#use @e )eel #long @ith the' the #ction o) hi$$en un$ergroun$ )orces in #ction. 4elkinJs secret intention! @hich is so c#re)ully conce#le$ in the intro$uction o) his #nony'ous biogr#%her! sho@s us th#t bene#th the %e#ce)ul #n$ %l#ci$ sur)#ce! )#te)ul %ossibilities lie hi$$en ... Let everything co'e to # h#%%y en$ing: this is consol#tion )or

Mitro)#n! bec#use #ny thought o) #nother solution )ills us @ith terror.8 N11O he 'erit o) this critic consists in his success in sho@ing convincingly th#t PushkinJs stories cont#in # hi$$en 'e#ning! th#t the lines @hich see' to le#$ to h#%%iness '#y le#$ to 'isery #s @ell; he succee$e$ in sho@ing th#t the inter%l#y o) these t@o $irections in one #n$ the s#'e line re%resents the true %heno'enon @hich @e seek in the #esthetic eA%erience o) c#th#rsis. 6 hese t@o ele'ents #re =oine$ together in every one o) 4elkinJs stories @ith eAtr#or$in#ry! ini'it#ble #rt. he slightest incre#se o) one #t the eA%ense o) the other @oul$ le#$ to # co'%lete $estruction o) these '#rvellous @orks. he intro$uction cre#tes the e.uilibriu' #'ong the ele'ents.8 N12O he s#'e rule is #%%lic#ble to the structure o) the 'ore co'%leA e%ic @orks. Let us t#ke 8ugene 1negin/ his @ork is usu#lly un$erstoo$ #s the %ortr#y#l o) # young '#n o) the 192<Js #n$ #n i$e#li(e$ 1ussi#n girl. he heroes #re conce%tu#li(e$ #s st#tic! co'%letely )inishe$ entities th#t $o not ch#nge $uring the course o) the n#rr#tive. Bet! @e nee$ only look #t this @ork to see th#t Pushkin tre#ts his heroes $yn#'ic#lly #n$ th#t the constructive %rinci%le o) his n#rr#tive in verse lies in the $evelo%'ent o) the ch#r#cters #s the story %rocee$s. yni#nov s#ys! 6+nly recently h#ve @e #b#n$one$ the kin$ o) criticis' in @hich @e $iscuss #n$ con$e'n the %rot#gonists o) # novel #s i) they @ere live hu'#n beings ... -ll such criticis' is b#se$ u%on the #ssu'%tion o) # static protagonist/// / !he st#tic unity o) the %rot#gonist F#s #ny st#tic unity in # @ork o) liter#tureG is very unst#ble; $e%en$ing entirely u%on the %rinci%le o) construction e'%loye$! it c#n oscill#te in the course o) # liter#ry @ork in the @#y c#lle$ )or by the $yn#'ics o) e#ch in$ivi$u#l c#se. Su))ice it to s#y th#t there eAists # sign o) unity! # c#tegory th#t =usti)ies the 'ost obvious c#ses o) its viol#tion #n$ )orces us to reg#r$ the' #s e%uivalents of unity/ 4ut this unity c#nnot be the n#ively conce%tu#li(e$ st#tic unity o) the %rot#gonist; inste#$ o) the l#@ o) st#tic unity @e 'ust consi$er the sy'bol o) $yn#'ic integr#tion! o) co'%letion. here is no st#tic %rot#gonist! there c#n only be $yn#'ic ones. -n$ the n#'e o) the %rot#gonist #lone is enough o) # sy'bol to %revent us )ro' observing the hero hi'sel) #t every =uncture in the n#rr#tive.8 N1/O &othing corrobor#tes this st#te'ent better th#n PushkinJs 8ugene 1negin/ In this verse n#rr#tive! +neginJs n#'e )unctions only #s the sy'bol o) # hero; it is e.u#lly e#sy to sho@ th#t the %rot#gonists re%resente$ #re $yn#'ic #n$ ch#nge in #ccor$#nce @ith the structure o) the @ork. *ritics h#ve #l@#ys %rocee$e$ )ro' the @rong #ssu'%tion! n#'ely! th#t the hero o) this @ork is st#tic. o corrobor#te their #%%ro#ch they %ointe$ out +neginJs ch#r#cter tr#its! @hich @ere t#ken )ro' his 'o$el in li)e. 6 he ob=ect o) # stu$y o) #rt 'ust be the s%eci)ic '#tter th#t $istinguishes #rt )ro' other )iel$s o) intellectu#l en$e#vor #n$ 'etho$s o) e'%loying these )iel$s #s '#teri#l or #s tools. - @ork o) #rt is # co'%leA inter#ction o) '#ny )#ctors; conse.uently! the %ur%ose o) # stu$y 'ust be the $eter'in#tion o) the s%eci)ic ch#r#cter o) this inter#ction.8 N10O his vie@ cle#rly s#ys th#t the '#teri#l o) the stu$y 'ust be non'otiv#te$ in #rt! th#t is! so'ething @hich belongs to #rt #lone. Let us no@ t#ke # look #t 8ugene 1negin/ he convention#l ch#r#cteristics #scribe$ to +negin #n$ #ti#n# #re $erive$ entirely )ro' the )irst %#rt o) the novel. he $yn#'ics o) the $evelo%'ent #n$ evolution o) these ch#r#cters #re ignore$! #s #re the eAtr#or$in#ry contr#$ictions into @hich the hero #n$ heroine run #t the en$ o) the @ork. :ence there #%%e#rs # @hole series o) 'isun$erst#n$ings #n$ 'isconce%tions. #ke +neginJs ch#r#cter )irst: @e c#n e#sily sho@ th#t Pushkin initi#lly intro$uces cert#in convention#l st#tic ele'ents @ith the sole %ur%ose o) '#king the' )unction in contr#$ictions #t the en$ o) the n#rr#tive. We #re tol$ #bout the uni.ue! over@hel'ing! #n$ ho%eless love o) +negin #n$ o) its tr#gic en$. he #uthor shoul$ h#ve here selecte$ %rot#gonists %re$estine$ to %l#y # love role. Inste#$! @e see )ro' the very beginning th#t Pushkin stresses those tr#its in the ch#r#cter o) +negin @hich '#ke it i'%ossible )or hi' to be the hero o) # story o) tr#gic love. In the )irst ch#%ter! in @hich the %oet $escribes in $et#il ho@ +negin @#s )#'ili#r @ith the science o) s@eet %#ssion Fst#n(#s V! VI! #n$ VIIG he is sho@n #s # %erson @ho h#s @#ste$ his he#rt on @orl$ly %eo%le. 2ro' the )irst st#n(#s the re#$er is %re%#re$ )or the )#ct th#t #nything c#n

h#%%en to +negin except $e#th )ro' unre.uite$ love. It is re'#rk#ble th#t this very )irst ch#%ter cont#ins the lyric#l $igression on be#uti)ul )e'#le legs! # $igression @hich hints #t the eAtr#or$in#ry %o@er o) un)ul)ille$ love! #n$ i''e$i#tely intro$uces #nother! o%%osing! level @hich contr#sts to the %revious eA%osition o) +neginJs ch#r#cter. I''e$i#tely #)ter@#r$! ho@ever! the %oet s#ys th#t +negin is inc#%#ble o) love Fst#n(#s VVVVII! VLII! #n$ VLIIIG: &o )eelings live$ @ithin his he#rt; he @orl$ly gl#'our bore$ hi'; 4e#uties @ere but )leetingly he sub=ect o) his thoughts ... We #re #bsolutely cert#in th#t +negin @ill not beco'e the hero o) # tr#gic ro'#nce @hen the n#rr#tive su$$enly t#kes #n uneA%ecte$ turn. -)ter #ti#n#Js %ro)ession o) love! @e see th#t +neginJs he#rt h#s h#r$ene$ to the eAtent th#t involve'ent @ith her is out o) the .uestion. :o@ever! the other line o) $evelo%'ent '#ni)ests itsel) still. +negin le#rns th#t his )rien$ Lenskii is in love #n$ s#ys! 6I5$ t#ke the other one N #ti#n#O! @ere I! like you! # %oet.8 he true i'#ge o) c#t#stro%he )in#lly e'erges )ro' the contr#st bet@een +negin #n$ #ti#n#. he %oet re%resents #ti#n#Js love #s #n i'#gin#ry love; he stresses every@here th#t she loves not +negin but # ro'#ntic hero @ho' she h#s invente$. 6She beg#n to re#$ novels @hen she @#s very youngU: )ro' this st#te'ent Pushkin $evelo%s the i'#gin#ry! $re#'y ch#r#cter o) her love. -ccor$ing to PushkinJs story! #ti#n# $oes not love +negin! or r#ther she $oes love! but her ob=ect is not +negin; the %oe' tells us #bout her overhe#ring ru'ors th#t she @ill '#rry +negin: - thought @#s born @ithin her he#rt; -n$ @hen ti'e c#'e @hen she )ell in love. - see$ th#t )#lls onto the groun$! #kes li)e )ro' s%ringJs o@n #r$or. :er 'in$! consu'e$ 4y ten$erness #n$ $esire! h#$ Long been hungry )or )orbi$$en )ruit; :er he#rt h#s long been 4e#ting @ith %#ssion in her bre#st; She ye#rne$ ... )or so'eone! -t l#st ... she s#@ the light; -n$ then she s#i$: ItJs heQ It is st#te$ .uite cle#rly here th#t +negin is the 6so'ebo$y8 )or @ho' #ti#n# ye#rns. 2ro' then on! her love evolves #long #n i'#gin#ry line Fst#n(# VG. She )#ncies hersel) *l#riss#! Pulie! or ;el%hine! #n$ She sighs! she @ee%s! #$o%ts So'eone elseJs =oy #n$ sorro@! 4eco'es oblivious! @his%ers he @or$s she5ll @rite her $e#rest one ... :er )#'ous letter is @ritten )irst in her 'in$! #n$ then on %#%er. We sh#ll see th#t it h#s in$ee$ #ll the )e#tures o) # )ictitious letter. It is re'#rk#ble th#t #lre#$y in st#n(# VV Pushkin sets his novel on # see'ingly )#lse course @hen he be'o#ns #ti#n#! @ho h#s %l#ce$ her )#te in the h#n$s o) # su%er)ici#l $#n$y! @hen in #ctu#l )#ct it is +negin @ho %erishes o) love. 4e)ore his encounter @ith #ti#n#! Pushkin re'in$s us th#t :is he#rt no longer burnt @ith love )or be#uty!

-lthough #t ti'es! in$i))erently! he @oul$ In$ulge in courting girls; I) they re)use$! he @#s #t once console$! I) they betr#ye$ hi'! he @#s gl#$ to rest. :is love! s#ys Pushkin! is like the %er)or'#nce o) #n in$i))erent guest @ho #rrives to %l#y @hist. I#rly in the 'orning he $oes not kno@ Where in the evening he @ill go. When +negin 'eets #ti#n#! he i''e$i#tely t#lks #bout '#rri#ge #n$ $escribes # torn! unh#%%y )#'ily li)e. It is h#r$ to i'#gine $uller or 'ore co'%leA i'#ges th#n these! @hich #re $i#'etric#lly o%%ose$ to the sub=ect '#tter o) their t#lk. he ch#r#cter o) #ti#n#Js love reve#ls itsel) @hen she visits +neginJs house! looks #t his books! #n$ begins to un$erst#n$ th#t he is #ctu#lly # sh#'. :er 'in$ #n$ )eeling no@ )in$ # solution to the ri$$le th#t @#s h#unting her. he uneA%ecte$ly %#thetic ch#r#cter o) +neginJs l#st love beco'es %#rticul#rly obvious @hen @e co'%#re +neginJs letter to #ti#n#Js. In the l#tter! Pushkin e'%h#si(es the ele'ents o) the 2rench ro'#n )ro' @hich it is $erive$. In @riting this letter! he #%%e#ls to the b#r$ o) b#n.uets #n$ l#ngui$ sorro@! bec#use he is the only one @ho c#n sing its '#gic 'elo$y. Pushkin c#lls his ren$ition o) the letter #n inco'%lete #n$ %oor tr#nsl#tion. Interestingly! he %rece$es +neginJs letter @ith the re'#rk! 6 here is his letter! @or$ )or @or$.8 In #ti#n#Js letter! on the other h#n$! #ll is ro'#ntic#lly in$e)inite! v#gue! #n$ nebulous; in +neginJs re%ly #ll is cle#r #n$ %recise > @or$ )or @or$. It is re'#rk#ble th#t in her letter #ti#n#! #s i) by #cci$ent! reve#ls the true %ur%ose o) the n#rr#tive @hen she @rites: 6 o be # )#ith)ul @i)e #n$ # goo$ 'other.8 *o'%#re$ @ith this gentle c#relessness #n$ s@eet nonsense Fto .uote PushkinG! the )r#nk truth)ulness o) +neginJs letter is over@hel'ing. I kno@ it @ell! 'y $#ys #re counte$; 4ut )or 'y li)e to )lo@ # @hile! I 'ust be cert#in in the 'orning h#t I sh#ll see you be)ore the night ... he entire l#st %#rt o) the n#rr#tive $o@n to the very l#st stro%he is %er'e#te$ @ith hints th#t +neginJs li)e is en$e$! th#t he is $ying! th#t he c#n no longer bre#the. hough Pushkin t#lks #bout this h#l) =okingly! h#l) seriously! the truth reve#ls itsel) @ith sh#ttering )orce in the )#'ous scene o) their ne@ encounter! @hich is interru%te$ by the su$$en #n$ uneA%ecte$ clicking o) s%urs: :ere! 'y $e#r )rien$! I sh#ll #b#n$on +ur hero! @hen his luck :#s turne$ #g#inst hi'! 2or long ... )orever. ... Pushkin en$s his t#le #t # see'ingly #rbitr#ry %oint! but this str#nge #n$ co'%letely uneA%ecte$ o%er#tion strongly e'%h#si(es the #rtistic co'%leteness o) the @ork. When in the c#t#stro%hic st#n(# Pushkin s%e#ks #bout the bliss o) those @ho h#ve le)t the )estiv#l o) li)e #t #n e#rly #ge @ithout $rinking the bri''ing cu% to the very en$! the re#$er @on$ers @hether the %oet s%e#ks #bout his hero or #bout hi'sel). LenskiiJs %#r#llel ro'#nce @ith +lg# is in $irect contr#st @ith the tr#gic love o) +negin #n$ #ti#n#. Pushkin cl#i's th#t her )#ith)ul %ortr#it c#n be )oun$ in #ny novel or roman/ :e chose her bec#use she is by n#ture %re$estine$ to be the heroine o) # love story. Lenskii! too! is %resente$ #s # %erson born )or love! but is kille$ in # $uel. :ere! the re#$er is )#ce$ @ith # %#r#$oA: :e eA%ects the re#l love $r#'# to un)ol$ bet@een the @o'#n $estine$ to be the true heroine o) the n#rr#tive! #n$ the '#n $estine$ to %l#y

the role o) 1o'eo; he eA%ects the shot th#t $estroye$ their love to be cruci#lly $r#'#tic > but his eA%ect#tions #re cut short. Pushkin $evelo%s his story #g#inst the n#tur#l gr#in o) the '#teri#l! @hen he tr#ns)or's +lg#Js #n$ LenskiiJs love into co''on%l#ce triteness FLenskiiJs )#te! he reve#ls! is th#t o) 6# country s.uire! h#%%y #n$ cuckol$e$! @e#ring # .uilte$ $ressing go@n8G! #n$ '#kes the re#l $r#'# occur @here @e le#st eA%ect it. In )#ct! the entire @ork is built on #n i'%ossibility. he #n#logy bet@een the )irst #n$ the secon$ %#rt F#lthough their 'e#nings #re o%%ositeG sho@s this .uite cle#rly: #ti#n#Js letter > +neginJs letter; the encounter o) +negin #n$ #ti#n# in the country g#r$en > the t#lk #t #ti#n#Js in Petersburg. he re#$er! 'isle$ by this %#r#llelis'! $oes not notice to @h#t eAtent the hero #n$ the heroine h#ve ch#nge$; he $oes not notice th#t the +negin o) the en$ o) the n#rr#tive is not only $i))erent )ro' the +negin o) the beginning! but his co'%lete o%%osite! #n$ the conclu$ing #ction #t the en$ is the o%%osite o) th#t #t the beginning. he ch#r#cter o) the hero h#s ch#nge$ $yn#'ic#lly! the n#rr#tive h#s t#ken #n uneA%ecte$ course! #n$! 'ost i'%ort#nt! the ch#nge in the heroJs ch#r#cter is essenti#l to the un)ol$ing o) the #ction. Pushkin %re%#res the re#$er to believe th#t +negin c#nnot beco'e the hero o) # tr#gic love #))#ir! but in the en$ tr#ns)or's hi' into # tr#gic victi' o) love. - schol#r very #%tly once s#i$ th#t there #re t@o kin$s o) @orks o) #rt! =ust #s there #re t@o kin$s o) )lying '#chines > those lighter #n$ those he#vier th#n #ir. b#lloon rises bec#use it is lighter th#n #ir. his is not re#lly # triu'%h over n#ture! )or the b#lloon )lo#ts in the #ir not by its o@n $evices! but bec#use it is %ushe$ u%@#r$. *onversely! #n #ir%l#ne F# )lying '#chine he#vier th#n #irG )ights #ir resist#nce! overco'es it! %ushes itsel) u%! #n$ rises $es%ite its ten$ency to )#ll. - true @ork o) #rt re'in$s us o) # he#vier,th#n,#ir '#chine. It is #l@#ys '#$e o) '#teri#l 'uch he#vier th#n #ir! #n$ )ro' the very outset see's to o%%ose #ny e))ort to '#ke it rise. he @eight o) the '#teri#l counter#cts its rise #n$ $r#gs the structure to the groun$. 2light c#n be #chieve$ only by overco'ing this ten$ency to )#ll. his is the c#se @ith 8ugene 1negin/ :o@ si'%le F#n$ ho@ triteG the story @oul$ be i) @e kne@ )ro' the very beginning th#t +negin @oul$ h#ve #n unh#%%y love #))#ir. -t best! this %lot coul$ be $evelo%e$ into # secon$,r#te senti'ent#l novel. 4ut @hen he #ctu#lly )#lls victi' to the tr#gic love in s%ite o) his o@n e))orts! then @e @itness the #rtistJs triu'%h over 6'#teri#l he#vier th#n #ir8 #n$ eA%erience the re#l =oy o) )lying! the li)t i'%#rte$ by the c#th#rsis o) #rt. he heroes o) # $r#'#! #s @ell #s #n e%ic! #re $yn#'ic. he subst#nce o) $r#'# is struggle! but the struggle cont#ine$ in the %rinci%#l '#teri#l o) # $r#'# oversh#$o@s the con)lict bet@een #rtistic ele'ents th#t results )ro' convention#l $r#'#tic stri)e. his %oint is e#sy to un$erst#n$ i) @e reg#r$ # $r#'# not #s # )inishe$ @ork o) #rt but #s the b#sic '#teri#l )or # the#tric#l %er)or'#nce. - closer look #t the %roble' o) content #n$ )or'! ho@ever! @ill '#ke it %ossible to $i))erenti#te these t@o $r#'#tic ele'ents. 2irst! @e 'ust #%%ly the conce%t o) the $yn#'ic %rot#gonist to $r#'#. he )#lse notion th#t the %ur%ose o) $r#'# is to re%resent ch#r#cters coul$ h#ve been #b#n$one$ long #go! h#$ schol#rs tre#te$ Sh#kes%e#reJs $r#'#s @ith the %ro%er ob=ectivity. IvI#khov c#lls the i$e# o) Sh#kes%e#reJs re'#rk#ble skill in re%resenting ch#r#cters 6#n ol$ @ivesJ t#le.8 Volkelt s#ys th#t 6Sh#kes%e#re in '#ny c#ses @ent 'uch )urther th#n %sychology %ro%erly #$'its.8 &o one! ho@ever! h#s un$erstoo$ this )#ct better th#n olstoy F#s @e h#ve #lre#$y note$ in our $iscussion o) .amlet>/ :e st#tes th#t his o%inion is co'%letely o%%ose$ to the one then %rev#lent in Iuro%e #n$ correctly %oints out th#t ?ing Le#r s%e#ks # %o'%ous! ch#r#cterless l#ngu#ge! #s $o #ll o) Sh#kes%e#reJs kings. :e then sho@s th#t the events in the tr#ge$y #re unbeliev#ble! %#r#$oAic#l! #n$ unn#tur#l. 6Perh#%s this tr#ge$y is #bsur$ the @#y I retell it ... but in its origin#l version it is even 'ore so.8 N13O -s the '#in %roo) th#t there #re no re#l ch#r#cters in Sh#kes%e#reJs %l#ys olstoy #$$uces th#t 6none o) his ch#r#cters ever s%e#k their o@n l#ngu#ge! but #l@#ys t#lk in the s#'e Sh#kes%e#ri#n! stilte$! unn#tur#l l#ngu#ge @hich not only $oes not suit the roles! but c#nnot be s%oken by #ny %erson #live.8 N13O olstoy reg#r$s l#ngu#ge #s the %rinci%#l tool )or

re%resenting # ch#r#cter! #n$ Volkenshteyn re'#rks th#t olstoyJs vie@ is 6... the criti.ue o) # bellelettristic re#list.8 N1"O 4ut he corrobor#tes olstoyJs o%inion @hen he %roves th#t # tr#ge$y c#nnot h#ve # ch#r#cteristic l#ngu#ge #n$ th#t 6the l#ngu#ge o) # tr#gic hero is # resoun$ing #n$ %o'%ous one! i'#gine$ by the #uthor; there is no roo' in the tr#ge$y )or # $et#ile$ ch#r#cteri(#tion o) s%eech.8 N19O With this insight! he $e'onstr#tes th#t tr#ge$y h#s no ch#r#cter bec#use it re%resents '#n in the eAtre'e! @here#s ch#r#cter consists in %ro%ortions! correl#tions! #n$ co'%ro'ises bet@een )e#tures #n$ #ttitu$es. olstoy is right @hen he s#ys th#t 6not only #re Sh#kes%e#reJs dramatis personae %l#ce$ into i'%ossible tr#gic situ#tions th#t $o not )ollo@ the course o) events #n$ #re in#%%ro%ri#te in ter's o) ti'e #n$ %l#ce! but they #ct co'%letely #rbitr#rily! not in #ccor$ @ith their o@n st#te$ ch#r#cters.8 N19O olstoy '#kes # gre#t $iscovery here! #s he %oints out the $o'#in o) the un'otiv#te$! @hich is # s%eci)ic $istinguishing '#rk o) #rt. :e %oints to the re#l %roble' o) Sh#kes%e#ri#n stu$ies @hen he s#ys 6Sh#kes%e#reJs ch#r#cters const#ntly $o #n$ s#y things th#t #re not only #g#inst their n#ture! but serve no %ur%ose.8 N2<O We t#ke 1thello #s #n eA#'%le to sho@ ho@ correct this #n#lysis is #n$ ho@ it c#n be use$ to uncover Sh#kes%e#reJs 'erits #s @ell #s his )#ults. olstoy s#ys th#t Sh#kes%e#re! @ho borro@e$ the sub=ects o) his %l#ys )ro' ol$er $r#'#s or n#rr#tives! not only $istorte$! but @e#kene$ #n$ )re.uently $estroye$ the ch#r#cter o) his %rot#gonists. 6 hus! Sh#kes%e#reJs ch#r#cters in 1thello F+thello! l#go! *#ssio! or I'ili#G #re )#r less genuine #n$ lively th#n those in the origin#l It#li#n novell#... . he re#sons )or +thelloJs =e#lousy #re 'uch 'ore n#tur#l in the It#li#n origin#l th#n in Sh#kes%e#reJs tr#ge$y ... . Sh#kes%e#reJs I#go is # vill#in! # che#t! # thie)! #n i'%ostor ... . he 'otives )or his vill#iny! #ccor$ing to Sh#kes%e#re! #re '#ny #n$ uncle#r. In the novell#! ho@ever! there is but one 'otive! #n$ it is si'%le #n$ cle#r: I#goJs %#ssion#te love )or ;es$e'on# h#s ch#nge$ into h#tre$ )or her #n$ +thello #)ter she %re)erre$ the Moor to I#go.8 N21O olstoy %oints out th#t Sh#kes%e#re intention#lly o'itte$! ch#nge$! or $estroye$ the ch#r#cters o) the It#li#n story. he ch#r#cter o) +thello hi'sel) is only # %oint o) encounter )or the t@o o%%osing #))ects. Let us t#ke # look #t the hero. I) Sh#kes%e#re @#nte$ to $escribe # tr#ge$y o) =e#lousy! he shoul$ h#ve chosen # =e#lous '#n! %ut hi' together @ith # @o'#n @ho @oul$ %rovi$e hi' @ith # 'otive! #n$ )in#lly @oul$ h#ve est#blishe$ bet@een the' # rel#tionshi% in @hich =e#lousy coul$ beco'e the inevit#ble #n$ inse%#r#ble co'%#nion o) love. Inste#$! he chooses ch#r#cters #n$ '#teri#l @hich '#ke the solution o) his %roble' eAtre'ely $i))icult. 6+thello is not =e#lous by n#ture; on the contr#ry! he is trust)ul!8 re'#rke$ Pushkin.N22O In$ee$! +thelloJs trust)ulness is one o) the '#ins%rings o) the tr#ge$y. Iverything %rocee$s bec#use +thello is trusting #n$ bec#use there is not # stre#k o) =e#lousy in his n#ture. In )#ct! his ch#r#cter is utterly o%%ose$ to th#t o) # =e#lous %erson. Si'il#rly! ;es$e'on# is not the ty%e o) @o'#n @ho @oul$ c#use blin$ =e#lousy in # '#n. M#ny critics even )in$ her too i$e#li(e$ #n$ %ure. 2in#lly! the 'ost i'%ort#nt %oint > +thelloJs #n$ ;es$e'on#Js love #%%e#rs so %l#tonic th#t one 'ight think they never re#lly consu''#te$ their '#rri#ge. he tr#ge$y re#ches its cli'#A: the trusting +thello! no@ violently =e#lous! kills the innocent ;es$e'on#. :#$ Sh#kes%e#re )ollo@e$ the )irst 6%rescri%tion!8 he @oul$ h#ve #chieve$ the s#'e b#n#l e))ect #s -rtsyb#shev in his %l#y Pe#lousy! in @hich # sus%icious husb#n$ is =e#lous o) # @i)e @ho is re#$y to give hersel) to #ny '#n! #n$ @here the rel#tionshi% bet@een husb#n$ #n$ @i)e is sho@n only in ter's o) their %roble's. he 6)light o) # '#chine he#vier th#n #ir!8 @ith @hich # @ork o) #rt @#s co'%#re$! is triu'%h#ntly #chieve$ in 1thello+ @here the tr#ge$y evolves in t@o o%%osing $irections #n$ gener#tes con)licting e'otions in us. I#ch ste%! e#ch #ction! $r#gs us lo@er! to #b=ect tre#son #n$ tre#chery! @hile #t the s#'e ti'e li)ting us to the heights o) #n i$e#l ch#r#cter! so th#t the collision #n$ c#th#rtic %uri)ic#tion o) the t@o o%%osite #))ects engen$ere$ beco'es the b#sis o) the tr#ge$y. olstoy #ttributes Sh#kes%e#reJs unsur%#sse$ '#stery to # s%eci)ic techni.ue: 6:is #bility to @rite scenes eA%ressing the 'ove'ent o) )eelings. &o

'#tter ho@ unn#tur#l the situ#tions in @hich he %l#ces his ch#r#cters! ho@ in#%%ro%ri#te the l#ngu#ge they s%e#k! ho@ i'%erson#l they #re! the 'ove'ent o) their )eelings! the co'bin#tion o) contr#$ictory e'otions is eA%resse$ @ith %o@er #n$ %recision in 'ost o) Sh#kes%e#reJs scenes.8 N2/O It is the #bility to re%resent ch#nges in )eelings @hich is the b#sis )or un$erst#n$ing the $yn#'ic %rot#gonist. 7oethe re'#rks th#t #t one %oint L#$y M#cbeth s#ys she suckle$ her chil$ren @ith her bre#st! but #t #nother %oint @e le#rn th#t she h#s no chil$ren. his! #ccor$ing to hi'! is #n #rtistic convention! )or! Sh#kes%e#re 6is concerne$ #bout the %o@er #n$ e))ect o) e#ch in$ivi$u#l s%eech ... he %oet '#kes his ch#r#cters s#y eA#ctly @h#t the situ#tion re.uires #n$ @h#t %ro$uces the best e))ect! @ithout @orrying too 'uch @hether or not it contr#$icts # st#te'ent '#$e else@here.8 N20O I) @e be#r in 'in$ the logic contr#$iction o) @or$s! @e c#n #gree @ith 7oethe. here #re innu'er#ble eA#'%les )ro' Sh#kes%e#reJs %l#ys th#t sho@ th#t the ch#r#cters #l@#ys evolve $yn#'ic#lly! $e%en$ing on the structure o) the %l#y! #n$ th#t they #l@#ys )ollo@ -ristotleJs $ictu' th#t 6... the %lot is the b#sis! the soul! o) the tr#ge$y! #n$ the ch#r#cters )ollo@ it.8 N25O MDller %oints out th#t Sh#kes%e#reJs co'e$ies $i))er )ro' the #ncient 1o'#n co'e$ies F@ith their inevit#ble %#r#site! br#gging @#rrior! %i'%! #n$ other stereoty%esG! but he )#ils to un$erst#n$ th#t the %ur%ose o) the )ree ren$ition o) ch#r#cters! @hich Pushkin #$'ire$ so 'uch in Sh#kes%e#re! is not to '#ke the' look like re#l %eo%le or to liken their situ#tions to re#l li)e! but to co'%lic#te #n$ enrich the %lot #n$ enh#nce the tr#gic setting. In the )in#l #n#lysis! # ch#r#cter is st#tic! #n$ @hen Pushkin s#ys th#t MoliereJs 6hy%ocrite runs hy%ocritic#lly #)ter the @i)e o) his bene)#ctor! hy%ocritic#lly #cce%ts the custo$y o) the est#te! hy%ocritic#lly #sks )or # gl#ss o) @#ter!8 he $e)ines the very essence o) # ch#r#cter tr#ge$y. hus! @hen MDller tries to $eter'ine the interrel#tionshi% bet@een ch#r#cters #n$ %lot in the Inglish $r#'#! he h#s to #$'it th#t the %lot is $ecisive! @hile the ch#r#cters #re 6o) secon$#ry i'%ort#nce in the cre#tive %rocess. In Sh#kes%e#reJs c#se this '#y soun$ like nonsense. ... It is there)ore #ll the 'ore interesting to sho@ by eA#'%les th#t he too occ#sion#lly subor$in#tes his ch#r#cters to the %lot.8 N23O When he tries to eA%l#in *or$eli#Js re)us#l to verb#lly eA%ress her love )or her )#ther #s # technic#l re.uire'ent! he runs into the s#'e contr#$iction #s @e $i$ in the #tte'%t to eA%l#in! )ro' the technic#l vie@%oint! # non'otiv#te$ %heno'enon in #rt @hich is in )#ct not only # s#$ necessity re.uire$ by the techni.ue! but #lso # =oyous %rivilege #))or$e$ by )or'. he )#ct th#t Sh#kes%e#reJs lun#tics s%e#k in %rose! th#t letters #re @ritten in %rose! th#t L#$y M#cbeth r#ves in %rose! '#kes us re#li(e th#t the connection bet@een the l#ngu#ge #n$ the ch#r#cter o) the $r#'#tis %erson#e c#n be %urely )ortuitous. It is i'%ort#nt to cl#ri)y the subst#nti#l $i))erence th#t eAists bet@een the novel #n$ the tr#ge$y. In the novel the ch#r#cters o) the %rot#gonists #re #lso )re.uently $yn#'ic #n$ )ull o) contr#$ictions. hey evolve #s # constructive )#ctor c#%#ble o) ch#nging events or! conversely! o) being tr#ns)or'e$ by other! stronger or su%erior )#ctors. We )in$ this inner contr#$iction in ;ostoevskyJs novels! @hich evolve si'ult#neously on t@o levels Fthe 'ost b#se #n$ the 'ost subli'eG! @here 'ur$erers %hiloso%hi(e! s#ints sell their bo$ies on the streets! %#rrici$es s#ve '#nkin$! #n$ so on. In the tr#ge$y! ho@ever! ch#r#cter h#s # co'%letely $i))erent 'e#ning. o un$erst#n$ the %eculi#rity o) the structure o) # tr#gic hero @e 'ust be#r in 'in$ th#t $r#'# is b#se$ on struggle! #n$! @hether @e consi$er # tr#ge$y or # )#rce! @e @ill see th#t their )or'#l structure is i$entic#l. While # %rot#gonist #l@#ys )ights ob=ects! l#@s! or )orces! the v#rious ty%es o) $r#'# #re $istinguishe$ by @h#t he #ctu#lly o%%oses. In tr#ge$y he )ights in)leAible! #bsolute l#@s; in co'e$y he usu#lly )ights soci#l l#@s; #n$ in )#rce he struggles #g#inst %hysiologic#l l#@s. 6 he hero o) # co'e$y viol#tes socio%sychologic#l nor's! custo's! #n$ h#bits. he hero o) # )#rce ... viol#tes socio%hysic#l nor's o) soci#l li)e.8 N2"O his is @hy )#rce! #s in -risto%h#nesJ Lysistr#t#! )re.uently $e#ls @ith eroticis' #n$ $igestion. he )#rce %l#ys #t #ll ti'es @ith the #ni'#lity o) '#n @hile his )or'#l n#ture re'#ins %urely $r#'#tic. *onse.uently! in #ny $r#'#! @e %erceive both # nor' #n$ its viol#tion; in this res%ect! the structure o) # $r#'# rese'bles th#t o) # verse in @hich @e h#ve #lso # nor' F'eterG #n$ # syste' o) $evi#tions )ro' it. he %rot#gonist o) # $r#'# is there)ore # ch#r#cter @ho co'bines t@o con)licting #))ects! th#t o) the nor' #n$ th#t o) its viol#tion;

this is @hy @e %erceive hi' $yn#'ic#lly! not #s #n ob=ect but #s # %rocess. his beco'es %#rticul#rly obvious i) @e look #t the v#rious ty%es o) $r#'#. Volkenshteyn consi$ers # $istinguishing )e#ture o) tr#ge$y the )#ct th#t its hero is en$o@e$ @ith very gre#t strength; he rec#lls th#t the #ncients $e)ine$ the tr#gic hero #s # s%iritu#l '#Ai'u'. :ence! the %ri'e ch#r#cteristic o) tr#ge$y is '#Ai'#lis'! or the viol#tion o) #bsolute l#@ by #bsolute strength o) heroic struggle. -s soon #s tr#ge$y ste%s $o@n )ro' this lo)ty level o) struggle it beco'es $r#'#. :ebbel is 'ist#ken @hen he eA%l#ins the %ositive e))ect o) tr#gic c#t#stro%he by s#ying th#t 6@hen # '#n is covere$ @ith @oun$s! to kill hi' is to cure hi'.8 his st#te'ent @oul$ 'e#n th#t @hen # tr#gic %oet le#$s his hero to $estruction! he gives us # s#tis)#ction si'il#r to the one @e eA%erience @hen # su))ering! 'ort#lly @oun$e$ #ni'#l is %ut to $e#th. 4ut this vie@ is @rong. We $o not )eel th#t $e#th gives relie) to the hero; #t the ti'e o) the c#t#stro%he @e $o not see hi' covere$ @ith @oun$s. he tr#ge$y %er)or's # re'#rk#ble #n$ #stonishing c#th#rsis @hose e))ect is $i#'etric#lly o%%ose$ to its content. In tr#ge$y! the subli'e 'o'ent o) the s%ect#tor coinci$es @ith the subli'e 'o'ent o) the %rot#gonistJs $e#th or $estruction. he s%ect#tor %erceives not only @h#t the %rot#gonist is or re%resents but so'ething 'ore; this is @hy :ebbel s#ys th#t c#th#rsis in the tr#ge$y is necess#ry )or the s%ect#tor only #n$ 6it is not #t #ll necess#ry ... )or the %rot#gonist to #chieve inner %e#ce.8 - re'#rk#ble illustr#tion o) this %oint is given in the $enoue'ent o) #ll Sh#kes%e#re#n tr#ge$ies! 'ost o) @hich en$ in #n i$entic#l '#nner. +nce the c#t#stro%he is #cco'%lishe$! the %rot#gonist $ies un#%%e#se$! #n$ one o) the surviving ch#r#cters t#kes the s%ect#tor once #g#in through the events o) the tr#ge$y! #n$! in # '#nner o) s%e#king! collects the #shes o) tr#ge$y consu'e$ in the c#th#rsis. When the s%ect#tor he#rs :or#tioJs brie) #ccount o) the )right)ul events @hich h#ve =ust %#sse$ be)ore his eyes! it is #s i) he s#@ the s#'e tr#ge$y )or # secon$ ti'e! only @ithout its sting #n$ veno'. his n#rr#te$ revie@ gives hi' ti'e to re#li(e his o@n c#th#rsis! to co'%#re his o@n rel#tionshi% to the tr#ge$y! #s given in the $enoue'ent! @ith the i''e$i#tely eA%erience$ i'%ression o) the tr#ge$y #s # @hole. 6- tr#ge$y is #n eA%losion o) su%re'e hu'#n )orce; there)ore it is in # '#=or key. In vie@ing # tit#nic struggle! the s%ect#torJs )eeling o) horror is re%l#ce$ by # )eeling o) cheer)ulness @hich #%%ro#ches enthusi#s'. r#ge$y #%%e#ls to #n$ #@#kens the subconscious! 'ysterious origin#l )orces hi$$en in our souls. he %l#y@right see's to tell us th#t @e #re ti'i$! in$ecisive! obse.uious to society #n$ the st#te. hen he tells us to look #t ho@ strong %eo%le #ct: See @h#t @ill h#%%en i) you surren$er to your #'bition! to your volu%tuousness! to your %ri$e. ry in your i'#gin#tion to )ollo@ 'y hero #n$ see i) it is not te'%ting to give in to %#ssionQ8 N29O -lthough this )or'ul#tion is so'e@h#t si'%li)ie$! it cont#ins # cert#in #'ount o) truth! bec#use the tr#ge$y #@#kens our 'ost hi$$en %#ssions! )orces the' to )lo@ @ithin b#nks o) gr#nite! '#$e o) co'%letely o%%osite )eelings! #n$ en$s this struggle @ith # c#th#rsis o) resolution. *o'e$y h#s # si'il#r structure! @ith # c#th#rsis @hich results in the s%ect#torJs l#ughter beco'ing $irecte$ #t the %rot#gonist. he $istinction bet@een the s%ect#tor #n$ the %rot#gonist o) # co'e$y is obvious: the hero @ee%s! @hile the s%ect#tor l#ughs. -n obvious $u#lis' is cre#te$. he hero is s#$ #n$ the s%ect#tor l#ughs! or vice vers#; # %ositive hero '#y 'eet # s#$ en$! but the s%ect#tor is h#%%y =ust the s#'e. We @ill not $@ell on the s%eci)ic )e#tures th#t $istinguish the tr#gic )ro' the co'ic! or the $r#'# )ro' the co'e$y. M#ny #uthors F#'ong the' *roce #n$ :#'#nG hol$ th#t in essence these c#tegories #re not #esthetic ones! since the co'ic #n$ the tr#gic #lso eAist outsi$e the #rts. hey #re .uite right. -t this st#ge it is i'%ort#nt )or us to sho@ th#t @henever #rt uses the tr#gic! co'ic! or $r#'#tic 'o$es! it inv#ri#bly obeys the l#@ o) c#th#rsis. -ccor$ing to 4ergson! the %ur%ose o) co'e$y is to sho@ 6the $evi#tion o) the dramatis personae )ro' the convention#l nor's o) soci#l li)e.8 :e )eels th#t 6only '#n c#n be ri$iculous. I) @e l#ugh #t #n ob=ect or #n #ni'#l! @e t#ke the' )or hu'#n beings #n$ hu'#ni(e the'.8 L#ughter re.uires # soci#l environ'ent. *o'e$y is i'%ossible outsi$e society #n$! conse.uently! #g#in reve#ls itsel) #s # $u#lis' bet@een cert#in societ#l nor's #n$ $evi#tions )ro'

the'. Volkenshteyn %erceives this $u#lis' in the co'ic hero #n$ s#ys! 6- )unny #n$ @itty re%ly given by # co'ic ch#r#cter obt#ins # %#rticul#rly strong e))ect. Sh#kes%e#reJs re%resent#tion o) 2#lst#)) is success)ul bec#use he is not only # co@#r$! # glutton! # %hil#n$erer! #n$ so on! but #lso # '#rvelous =oker.8 N29O his is @hy the =okes $estroy the trite #n$ co''on%l#ce #s%ects o) his n#ture in # c#th#rsis o) l#ughter. -ccor$ing to 4ergson! the origin o) )un lies in #uto'#tis'; th#t is! @hen so'ething live $evi#tes )ro' cert#in nor's! it beh#ves #s i) it @ere 'ech#nic#l! #n$ this gener#tes l#ughter. he results o) 2reu$Js investig#tions into @it! hu'or! #n$ the co'ic #re )#r 'ore interesting. We )eel th#t his inter%ret#tion o) these three )or's o) eA%erience #s %urely energetic is so'e@h#t #rbitr#ry! but .uite #si$e )ro' this %oint @e c#nnot but #gree @ith the eAtre'e #ccur#cy o) 2reu$Js #n#lysis. It is re'#rk#ble th#t it )ully coinci$es @ith our )or'ul# )or c#th#rsis #s # b#sis )or #esthetic re#ction. Wit )or hi' is # P#nus @hich c#n $evelo% # thought si'ult#neously in t@o o%%osite $irections. here is # $iscre%#ncy in our )eelings #n$ %erce%tions in the c#se o) hu'or! #n$ the l#ughter resulting )ro' this $iscre%#ncy is the best %roo) o) the rel#Aing e))ect o) @it.N/<O :#'#n hol$s # si'il#r vie@: 6Wit re.uires #bove #ll novelty #n$ origin#lity. - =oke c#n h#r$ly be #%%reci#te$ t@ice! #n$ 'ost o) the ti'e cre#tive %eo%le #re #lso @itty! since the =u'% )ro' stress to $isch#rge c#n be .uite uneA%ecte$ #n$ un%re$ict#ble. 4revity is the soul o) @it; its essence lies in the su$$en tr#nsition )ro' stress to $isch#rge.8 N/1O his #lso #%%lies to # )iel$ intro$uce$ into scienti)ic #esthetics by 1osenkr#n(! #uthor o) !he 'esthetics of ,gliness/ - )#ith)ul )ollo@er o) :egel! he re$uces the role o) ugliness to # contr#st F#ntithesisG! @hose %ur%ose is to set o)) the %ositive ele'ent FthesisG. 4ut this vie@ is b#sic#lly @rong bec#use! #s %ointe$ out by L#lo! the ugly '#y beco'e #n ele'ent o) #rt )or the s#'e re#sons #s the be#uti)ul. -n ob=ect $escribe$ #n$ re%ro$uce$ in # @ork o) #rt c#n by itsel) Fth#t is! outsi$e the @ork o) #rtG! be both ugly #n$ in$i))erent; in so'e c#ses it must be in re#lity either ugly or in$i))erent. *h#r#cteristic eA#'%les #re %ortr#its #n$ re#listic @orks o) #rt. his )#ct is @ell kno@n! #n$ the i$e# is )#r )ro' ne@. 6 here is no sn#ke NL#lo re)ers here to 4oile#uO! there is no 'onster th#t coul$ not be %le#sing in # @ork o) #rt.8 N/2O It is #lso Vernon LeeJs vie@ th#t the be#uty o) ob=ects )re.uently c#nnot be intro$uce$ $irectly into #rt. 6 he 'ost subli'e #rt!8 she s#ys! 6)or inst#nce! the #rt o) Michel#ngelo! )re.uently gives us bo$ies @hose structur#l be#uty is $istorte$ by cons%icuous $e)ects... . *onversely! #ny #rt eAhibit or even the 'ost co''on%l#ce #rt collection c#n give us $o(ens o) eA#'%les o) the reverse; th#t is! they %rovi$e the %ossibility o) e#sily #n$ convincingly recogni(ing the be#uty o) the origin#l 'o$el @hich '#y! ho@ever! h#ve ins%ire$ 'e$iocre or b#$ %#intings or st#tues.8 Vernon Lee sees the )#ct th#t true #rt %rocesses the origin#l sensory i'%ression intro$uce$ into it #s the c#use o) this rel#tionshi% bet@een #rt #n$ ugliness N511. It is h#r$ to )in$ # 'ore suit#ble #%%lic#tion )or our )or'ul# th#n the #esthetics o) ugliness! )or it $iscusses c#th#rsis! @ithout @hich the en=oy'ent o) #rt @oul$ be i'%ossible. It is 'uch h#r$er to )it the #ver#ge ty%e o) $r#'# into this )or'ul#. 4ut here! @e c#n sho@ by the eA#'%le o) *hekhovJs %l#ys th#t this rule is .uite correct. Let us consi$er his %l#ys !he !hree isters #n$ !he #herry 1rchard/ he )or'er is usu#lly F#n$ .uite erroneouslyG s#i$ to re%resent the 'el#ncholy ye#rnings o) three %rovinci#l belles )or the gl#'orous li)e o) Mosco@KJ In #ctu#l )#ct! ho@ever! *hekhov eli'in#tes #ll those tr#its th#t coul$ conceiv#bly 'otiv#te the three sistersJ $esire to go to Mosco@! N52O #n$ since Mosco@ is only #n i'#gin#ry #rtistic construct )or the'! not #n ob=ect o) re#l $esire! the %l#y h#s not # co'ic#l but # $ee%ly $r#'#tic e))ect on the s%ect#tor. -)ter its )irst %resent#tion! the critics @rote th#t the %l#y is so'e@h#t ri$iculous bec#use )or )our entire #cts the sisters kee% 'o#ning! 6 o Mosco@! to Mosco@! to Mosco@!8 even though e#ch o) the' coul$ #t #ny ti'e si'%ly buy # r#il@#y ticket #n$ go to th#t Mosco@ @hich! #%%#rently! none o) the' nee$s. +ne o) the critics c#lle$ the %l#y the $r#'# o) # r#il@#y ticket; #n$ in # @#y he @#s 'ore right #bout it th#n critics like I('#ilov. In$ee$! the #uthor @ho h#s '#$e Mosco@ the center o) #ttr#ction )or the sisters shoul$ so'eho@ #lso 'otiv#te their urge to get there. rue! he s#ys!

they s%ent their chil$hoo$ there; but none o) the' re'e'bers the %l#ce. he i$e# th#t they 'ight be %revente$ by so'e i'%e$i'ent )ro' going to Mosco@ turns out to be incorrect #lso. We c#nnot )in$ #ny co'%rehensible re#son @hy the sisters c#nnot go. here #re so'e critics @ho think th#t the sisters @#nt to go to Mosco@ bec#use )or the' the city is the sy'bolic center o) civili(e$ #n$ cultiv#te$ li)e. his vie@ #lso is @rong bec#use not # @or$! not # syll#ble 'entions this )#ct. +n the contr#ry! their brotherJs urge to go to Mosco@ contr#sts @ith theirs: )or hi' Mosco@ is not # $re#' but # re#lity. :e rec#lls the university! he @#nts to sit in estovJs rest#ur#nt! #n$ his re#l #n$ re#listic Mosco@ is intention#lly contr#ste$ @ith the Mosco@ o) his three sisters. heirs re'#ins v#gue #n$ @ithout 'otiv#tion! since there is no re#son @hy they coul$ not get there > #n$ this l#ck o) 'otiv#tion! o) course! is the b#sis )or the $r#'#tic e))ect o) the %l#y. So'ething si'il#r h#%%ens in !he #herry 1rchard/ It is h#r$ to un$erst#n$ @hy the s#le o) the cherry orch#r$ is such # terrible 'is)ortune )or 1#nevsk#i#. Perh#%s she lives %er'#nently in this cherry orch#r$. 4ut then @e le#rn th#t she s%en$s her entire li)e tr#veling #bro#$ #n$ th#t she never coul$ or @oul$ be #ble to live on her est#te. Perh#%s the s#le coul$ 'e#n ruin or b#nkru%tcy )or her! but this 'otive )#lls #@#y! too! bec#use it is not the nee$ o) 'oney th#t %l#ces her in the $r#'#tic situ#tion. 2or 1#nevsk#i# #s @ell #s )or the s%ect#tor the cherry orch#r$ is #n un'otiv#te$ ele'ent o) the $r#'#! #s is Mosco@ )or the three sisters. he $istinguishing )e#ture o) these %l#ys is this unre#l 'otive > @hich @e #cce%t #s # %sychologic#l re#lity > #n$ @hich %#ints itsel) onto the c#nv#s o) re#l every$#y li)e. he struggle bet@een the t@o irreconcil#ble 'otives F6re#l8 #n$ un'otiv#te$G yiel$s the contr#$iction @hich 'ust necess#rily be solve$ in the c#th#rsis! #n$ @ithout @hich there is no #rt. In conclusion @e 'ust $e'onstr#teW very brie)ly! by 'e#ns o) #rbitr#ry eA#'%les! th#t this )or'ul# c#n be #%%lie$ to #ll other #rt )or's besi$e %oetry. +ur re#soning #n$ #rgu'ents %rocee$ )ro' concrete eA#'%les )ro' liter#ture! but @e c#n #%%ly our conclusions to other $o'#ins o) #rt. he closest one is the the#tre! one h#l) o) @hich belongs to liter#ture. We c#n sho@! ho@ever! th#t the other h#l)! t#ken in its strict inter%ret#tion #s the %l#ying o) #ctors #n$ the st#ging o) the s%ect#cle! is #lso governe$ by our #esthetic rule. he b#sis )or this vie@ @#s est#blishe$ by ;i$erot in his )#'ous Paradox of the 'ctor in @hich he #n#ly(es the %l#ying o) #n #ctor. :e sho@s cle#rly th#t #n #ctor not only eA%eriences #n$ eA%resses the )eelings o) the ch#r#cter he re%resents! but $evelo%s the' into #n #rtistic )or'. 64ut eAcuse 'e!8 so'eone @ill re%ly! 6these 'ourn)ul soun$s! )ull o) sorro@ #n$ s#$ness @hich #n #ctor %ro$uces )ro' the $e%th o) his being! @hich u%set 'y he#rt #n$ soul! #re they not c#use$ by genuine )eeling! by genuine $es%#irK &ot #t #ll. -n$ here is the %roo): they! these soun$s! #re 'e#sure$! they #re # co'%onent %#rt o) $ecl#'#tion. Were they one t@entieth o) # .u#rter o) # tone higher or lo@er! they @oul$ be )#lse. hey obey the l#@ o) unity. hey h#ve been selecte$ in # s%eci)ic @#y #n$ #re $istribute$ h#r'onic#lly. hey contribute to the solution o) # s%eci)ic %roble'. ... :e kno@s @ith #cco'%lishe$ %recision @hen to t#ke out his h#n$kerchie) #n$ @hen to she$ te#rs. IA%ect this to h#%%en @hen # s%eci)ic @or$ is s#i$! @hen # s%eci)ic syll#ble is %ronounce$! neither be)ore! nor l#ter.8 N/0O ;i$erot c#lls the #ctorJs cre#tivity # %#thetic gri'#ce! # '#gni)icent #ching. his st#te'ent is %#r#$oAic#l only in %#rt; it @oul$ be true i) @e s#i$ th#t on st#ge the 'o#n o) $es%er#tion o) # 'other inclu$es! o) course! genuine $es%er#tion #s @ell. he #ctorJs #bility #n$ success $e%en$ on the 'e#sure he gives to this $es%er#tion. he t#sk o) #esthetics is! #s olstoy )#cetiously @rote! 6to $escribe c#%it#l %unish'ent #s i) it @ere #s s@eet #s honey.8 *#%it#l %unish'ent is c#%it#l %unish'ent even on st#ge! #n$ it is never #s s@eet #s honey. ;es%#ir re'#ins $es%#ir! but it is rele#se$ by the #ction o) #rtistic )or'! #n$ there)ore the #ctor '#y not hi'sel) )ully eA%erience the )eelings #ttribute$ to the ch#r#cter he re%resents. ;i$erot tells us # @on$er)ul story: 6I @oul$ like to tell you ho@ #n #ctor #n$ his @i)e! @ho h#te$ one #nother! @ere lovers on st#ge! #n$ very %#ssion#tely t#ken @ith one #nother. &ever h#$ they %l#ye$ #ny other role so success)ully #n$ convincingly! or re#%e$ such thun$erous #%%l#use. &o less th#n ten ti'es $i$ @e interru%t their scene to shout our enthusi#stic #%%rov#l.8 ;i$erot then .uotes # long $i#logue in @hich the #ctors t#lk #lou$ to e#ch other o) %#ssion#te love! but then! un$er their

bre#th! c#ll e#ch other un'ention#ble n#'es. -s #n It#li#n %roverb st#tes! e non e vero+ e ben trovato/ 2or the %sychology o) #rt this is very signi)ic#nt! bec#use it %oints out the $u#lity o) #n e'otion eA%erience$ #n$ re%resente$ by #n #ctor. ;i$erot cl#i's th#t once #n #ctor h#s )inishe$ %l#ying his %#rt! he $oes not ret#in #ny o) the )eelings he h#s re%resente$; they #re tr#ns)erre$ to the #u$ience. Cn)ortun#tely! this observ#tion is to$#y consi$ere$ # %#r#$oA! #n$ no su))iciently thorough stu$y h#s yet been '#$e o) the %sychology o) #cting! #lthough in this )iel$ the %sychology o) #rt coul$ solve this %roble' 'uch better th#n in #ny other #rt )or'. here #re goo$ re#sons to believe th#t! irres%ective o) its results! such # stu$y @oul$ corrobor#te the )un$#'ent#l $u#lis' o) #n #ctorJs e'otion @hich! it see's to us! '#kes it %ossible to #%%ly our )or'ul# o) c#th#rsis to the the#tre N5/O. he best @#y to sho@ the e))ect o) this l#@ in %#inting is to stu$y the $i))erence in style th#t eAists bet@een the #rt o) %#inting Fin the %ro%er sense o) the @or$G #n$ th#t o) $r#@ing. ?lingerJs stu$ies h#ve '#$e this evi$ent. We believe F#s $oes *hristi#nsenG th#t this $i))erence is $ue to the $i))erent inter%ret#tions o) s%#ce in %#inting #n$ in $r#@ing: %#inting $oes #@#y @ith the )l#t! t@o,$i'ension#l ch#r#cter o) the $r#@n i'#ge #n$ )orces us to %erceive everything in # ne@! three,$i'ension#l )#shion. - $r#@ing '#y re%resent # three,$i'ension#l s%#ce! but the ch#r#cter o) the $r#@ing re'#ins t@o, $i'ension#l. hus! the i'%ression gener#te$ by # $r#@ing is #l@#ys $u#listic: on the one h#n$! @e %erceive the i'#ge #s three,$i'ension#l! but @e #lso %erceive the %l#y o) lines in the t@o,$i'ension#l %l#ne. his $u#lis' %l#ces $r#@ing in # s%eci#l c#tegory o) #rt. ?linger %oints out th#t! unlike %#inting! $r#@ing uses i'%ressions o) $ish#r'ony! horror! etc.! .uite )re.uently; #ll o) these #re o) %ositive signi)ic#nce. :e cl#i's th#t in %oetry! $r#'#! #n$ 'usic such )e#tures #re not only %er'issible! but in$is%ens#ble. *hristi#nsen st#tes th#t it is %ossible to %ro$uce such i'%ressions bec#use the horror %ro$uce$ is solve$ by the c#th#rsis o) )or'. 6- $isson#nce 'ust be overcome4 there 'ust be resolution #n$ #%%e#se'ent. I shoul$ like to s#y c#th#rsis! h#$ -ristotleJs be#uti)ul ter' not beco'e 'e#ningless bec#use o) the '#ny #tte'%ts to inter%ret it. he i'%ression o) horror or )e#r 'ust )in$ its resolution #n$ %uri)ic#tion in #n ele'ent o) ;ionysi#c enthusi#s'; horror is re%resente$ not )or its o@n s#ke but #s #n i'%ulse to be overco'e ... -n$ this $istr#cting ele'ent 'ust signi)y overco'ing #n$ c#th#rsis si'ult#neously.8 N/5O he %otenti#l o) c#th#rsis in v#lues o) )or' is illustr#te$ by Poll#ioloJs Men Fighting+ :@here the horror o) $e#th is co'%letely obliter#te$ by the ;ionysi#c triu'%h o) rhyth'ic lines.8 N/3O 2in#lly! # cursory look #t scul%ture #n$ #rchitecture reve#ls th#t here! too! the contr#st bet@een '#teri#l #n$ )or' is )re.uently the st#rting %oint )or the #rtistic i'%ression. o re%resent the hu'#n or #ni'#l bo$y! scul%ture #l'ost eAclusively uses '#rble or 'et#l > '#teri#ls th#t #re #'ong those le#st n#tur#lly suite$ to this %ur%ose. 4ut )or the #rtist! this re)r#ctoriness o) the '#teri#l is the gre#test ch#llenge to the cre#tion o) # live )igure. he )#'ous L#ocoXn grou% best illustr#tes the contr#st bet@een )or' #n$ '#teri#l )ro' @hich scul%ture e'erges. 7othic #rchitecture reve#ls this s#'e contr#st. It is re'#rk#ble th#t the #rtist )orces the stone to t#ke on the sh#%e o) %l#nts > to s%rout br#nches! to be#r le#ves #n$ to blosso'; it is #stonishing th#t in # 7othic c#the$r#l! @here the eA%erience o) '#teri#l '#ssiveness re#ches its (enith! the #rtist obt#ins the e))ect o) # triu'%h#nt vertic#l @hich '#kes the vie@er )eel the @hole e$i)ice striving u%@#r$ @ith tre'en$ous )orce. he lightness #n$ tr#ns%#rency th#t the 7othic #rchitect '#n#ges to $r#@ out )ro' he#vy! inert stone is the best corrobor#tion o) this i$e#. We #gree @ith the #uthor @ho @rote #bout the *ologne c#the$r#l! 6In its slen$er #n$ h#r'onious $istribution o) #rches intersecting #s i) they @ere %#rt o) # )iligree! the high v#ults! #n$ so on! @e see the s#'e bol$ness #n$ cour#ge th#t @e #$'ire in knightly eA%loits. In its so)t #n$ h#r'onious outlines @e )in$ the s#'e @#r' )eeling th#t e'#n#tes )ro' the love songs o) chiv#lry.8 -s the #rtist %ro$uces bol$ness #n$ $elic#te gr#ce )ro' stone! he obeys the s#'e l#@ #s th#t @hich )orces hi' to %ro%el

u%@#r$ the stone th#t gr#vity %ulls to the groun$! #n$ to cre#te in # 7othic c#the$r#l the e))ect o) #n #rro@ shot into the sky. he n#'e o) this l#@ is catharsis. his l#@! #n$ nothing else! co'%elle$ the '#ster o) &otre ;#'e in P#ris to %l#ce #to% the c#the$r#l ugly #n$ horri)ying 'onsters! the g#rgoyles! @ithout @hich the c#the$r#l is uni'#gin#ble.

#ble o) *ontents Y Vygotsky -rchive he Psychology o) -rt. Vygotsky 1925

Art and !ife

heory o) *onti'in#tion. Signi)ic#nce o) -rt in Li)e. Soci#l Signi)ic#nce o) -rt. -rt *riticis'! -rt #n$ e#ching. he -rt o) the 2uture. &o@ @e 'ust stu$y the )ollo@ing .uestions: Wh#t signi)ic#nce $oes #rt #c.uire i) @e #ssu'e th#t our inter%ret#tion o) it is correctK Wh#t is the rel#tion bet@een #esthetic res%onse #n$ #ll other )or's o) hu'#n beh#viorK :o@ $o @e eA%l#in the role #n$ i'%ort#nce o) #rt in the gener#l beh#vior#l syste' o) '#nK here #re #s '#ny $i))erent #ns@ers to these .uestions #s there #re $i))erent @#ys o) ev#lu#ting the i'%ort#nce o) #rt. So'e believe #rt is the su%re'e hu'#n #ctivity @hile others consi$er it nothing but leisure #n$ )un. he ev#lu#tion o) #rt $e%en$s $irectly on the %sychologic#l vie@%oint )ro' @hich @e #%%ro#ch it. I) @e @#nt to )in$ out @h#t the rel#tionshi% bet@een #rt #n$ li)e is! i) @e @#nt to solve the %roble' o) #rt in ter's o) #%%lie$ %sychology! @e 'ust #$o%t # v#li$ gener#l theory )or solving these %roble's. he )irst #n$ 'ost @i$es%re#$ vie@ hol$s th#t #rt in)ects us @ith e'otions #n$ is there)ore b#se$ u%on cont#'in#tion. olstoy s#ys! 6 he #ctivity o) #rt is b#se$ on the c#%#city o) %eo%le to in)ect others @ith their o@n e'otions #n$ to be in)ecte$ by the e'otions o) others. ... Strong e'otions! @e#k e'otions! i'%ort#nt e'otions! or irrelev#nt e'otions! goo$ e'otions or b#$ e'otions > i) they cont#'in#te the re#$er! the s%ect#tor! or the listener > beco'e the sub=ect o) #rt. his st#te'ent 'e#ns th#t since #rt is but co''on e'otion! there is no subst#nti#l $i))erence bet@een #n or$in#ry )eeling #n$ # )eeling stirre$ by #rt. *onse.uently! #rt )unctions si'%ly #s # reson#tor! #n #'%li)ier! or # tr#ns'itter )or the in)ection o) )eeling. -rt h#s n3 s%eci)ic $istinction; hence the ev#lu#tion o) #rt 'ust %rocee$ )ro' the s#'e criterion @hich @e use to ev#lu#te #ny )eeling. -rt '#y be goo$ or b#$ i) it in)ects us @ith goo$ or b#$ )eelings. -rt in itsel) is neither goo$ nor b#$; it is # l#ngu#ge o) )eeling @hich @e 'ust ev#lu#te in #ccor$#nce @ith @h#t it eA%resses. hus! olstoy c#'e to the n#tur#l conclusion th#t #rt 'ust be ev#lu#te$ )ro' # 'or#l vie@%oint; he there)ore #%%rove$ o) #rt th#t gener#te$ goo$ )eelings! #n$ ob=ecte$ to #rt th#t! )ro' his %oint o) vie@! re%resente$ re%rehensible events or #ctions. M#ny other critics re#che$ the s#'e conclusions #s $i$ olstoy #n$ ev#lu#te$ # @ork o) #rt on the b#sis o) its obvious content! @hile %r#ising or con$e'ning the #rtist #ccor$ingly. Like ethics! like #esthetics > this is the slog#n o) this theory. 4ut olstoy soon $iscovere$ th#t his theory )#ile$ @hen he trie$ to be consistent @ith his o@n conclusions. :e co'%#re$ t@o #rtistic i'%ressions: one %ro$uce$ by # l#rge chorus o) %e#s#nt @o'en @ho @ere celebr#ting the '#rri#ge o) his $#ughter; #n$ the other! by #n #cco'%lishe$ 'usici#n @ho %l#ye$ 4eethovenJs Son#t#. he singing o) the %e#s#nt @o'en eA%resse$ such # )eeling o) =oy! cheer)ulness! #n$ liveliness th#t it in)ecte$ olstoy #n$ he @ent ho'e in high s%irits. -ccor$ing to hi'! such singing is true #rt! bec#use it co''unic#tes # s%eci)ic #n$ %o@er)ul e'otion. Since the secon$

i'%ression involve$ no such s%eci)ic e'otions! he conclu$e$ th#t 4eethovenJs son#t# is #n unsuccess)ul #rtistic #tte'%t @hich cont#ins no $e)inite e'otions #n$ is there)ore neither re'#rk#ble nor outst#n$ing. his eA#'%le sho@s us the #bsur$ conclusions th#t c#n be re#che$ i) the critic#l un$erst#n$ing o) #rt is b#se$ u%on the criterion o) its in)ectiousness. 4eethovenJs 'usic incor%or#tes no $e)inite )eeling! @hile the singing o) the %e#s#nt @o'en h#s #n ele'ent#ry #n$ cont#gious g#iety. I) this is true! then Bevl#khov is right @hen he st#tes th#t 6Lre#l! trueJ #rt is 'ilit#ry or $#nce 'usic! since it is 'ore c#tchy.8 olstoy is consistent in his i$e#s; besi$e )olk songs! he recogni(es only 6'#rches #n$ $#nces @ritten by v#rious co'%osers8 #s @orks 6th#t #%%ro#ch the re.uire'ents o) univers#l #rt.8 - revie@er o) olstoyJs #rticle! V. 7. V#lter! %oints out th#t 6i) olstoy h#$ s#i$ th#t the g#iety o) the %e#s#nt @o'en %ut hi' in # goo$ 'oo$! one coul$ not ob=ect to th#t. It @oul$ 'e#n th#t the l#ngu#ge o) e'otions th#t eA%resse$ itsel) in their singing Fit coul$ @ell h#ve eA%resse$ itsel) si'%ly in yelling! #n$ 'ost likely $i$G in)ecte$ olstoy @ith their g#iety. 4ut @h#t h#s this to $o @ith #rtK olstoy $oes not s#y @hether the @o'en s#ng @ell; h#$ they not sung but si'%ly yelle$! be#ting their scythes! their )un #n$ g#iety @oul$ h#ve been no less c#tching! es%eci#lly on his $#ughterJs @e$$ing $#y.8 We )eel th#t i) @e co'%#re #n or$in#ry yell o) )e#r to # %o@er)ul novel in ter's o) their res%ective in)ectiousness! the l#tter @ill )#il the test. +bviously! to un$erst#n$ #rt @e 'ust #$$ so'ething else to si'%le in)ectiousness. -rt #lso %ro$uces other i'%ressions! #n$ LonginusJ st#te'ent! 6Bou 'ust kno@ th#t the or#tor %ursues one %ur%ose! #n$ the %oet #nother. he %ur%ose o) %oetry is tre%i$#tion! th#t o) %rose is eA%ressivity!8 is correct. olstoyJs )or'ul# )#ile$ to #ccount )or the tre%i$#tion @hich is the %ur%ose o) %oetry. 4ut to %rove th#t he is re#lly @rong! @e 'ust look #t the #rt o) 'ilit#ry #n$ $#nce 'usic #n$ )in$ out @hether the true %ur%ose o) th#t #rt is to in)ect. Petr#(hitskii #ssu'es th#t #esthetici#ns #re @rong @hen they cl#i' th#t the %ur%ose o) #rt is to gener#te #esthetic e'otions only. :e )eels th#t #rt %ro$uces gener#l e'otions! #n$ th#t #esthetic e'otions #re 'erely $ecor#tive. 62or inst#nce! the #rt o) # @#rlike %erio$ in the li)e o) # %eo%le h#s #s its '#in %ur%ose the eAcit#tion o) heroic,bellicose e'otions. Iven no@! 'ilit#ry 'usic is not inten$e$ to give the sol$iers in the )iel$ #esthetic en=oy'ent! but to eAcite #n$ enh#nce their belligerent )eelings. he %ur%ose o) 'e$iev#l #rt Finclu$ing scul%ture #n$ #rchitectureG @#s to %ro$uce lo)ty religious e'otions. Lyric #%%e#ls to one #s%ect o) our e'otion#l %syche! s#tire to #nother; the s#'e #%%lies to $r#'#! tr#ge$y! #n$ so on ... -%#rt )ro' the )#ct th#t 'ilit#ry 'usic $oes not gener#te bellicose e'otions on the b#ttle)iel$! the .uestion is not %ro%erly )or'ul#te$ here. +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii! )or eA#'%le! co'es closer to the truth @hen he s#ys th#t 6'ilit#ry lyrics #n$ 'usic Lli)t the s%iritJ o) the #r'y #n$ Lins%ireJ )e#ts o) v#lor #n$ heroic $ee$s! but neither o) the' le#$s $irectly to bellicose e'otions or belligerent #))ects. +n the contr#ry! they see' to 'o$er#te bellicose #r$or! c#l' #n eAcite$ nervous syste'! #n$ ch#se #@#y )e#r. We c#n s#y th#t li)ting 'or#le! c#l'ing nerves! #n$ ch#sing #@#y )e#r #re #'ong the 'ost i'%ort#nt %r#ctic#l )unctions o) LlyricsJ @hich result )ro' their %sychologic#l n#ture. It is there)ore @rong to think th#t 'usic c#n $irectly c#use @#rlike e'otions; 'ore %recisely! it gives bellicose e'otions #n o%%ortunity )or eA%ression! but 'usic #s such neither c#uses nor gener#tes the'. So'ething si'il#r h#%%ens @ith erotic %oetry! the sole %ur%ose o) @hich! #ccor$ing to olstoy! is to eAcite lust. -nyone @ho un$erst#n$s the true n#ture o) lyric#l e'otions kno@s th#t olstoy is @rong. 6 here is no $oubt th#t lyric#l e'otion h#s # soothing e))ect on #ll other e'otions F#n$ #))ectsG to the %oint th#t #t ti'es it %#r#ly(es the'. his is #lso the e))ect it h#s on seAu#lity @ith its e'otions #n$ #))ects. Irotic %oetry! i) it is truly lyric#l! is )#r less suggestive th#n @orks o) the visu#l #rts in @hich the %roble's o) love #n$ the notorious seA %roble' #re tre#te$ @ith the %ur%ose o) %ro$ucing # 'or#l re#ction. +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii is only %#rtly correct in his #ssu'%tion th#t seAu#l )eeling! @hich is e#sily eAcite$! is 'ost strongly stirre$ by i'#ges #n$ thoughts! th#t these i'#ges #n$ thoughts #re ren$ere$ h#r'less by lyric#l e'otion! #n$ th#t '#nkin$ is in$ebte$ to lyrics! even 'ore th#n to ethics!

)or the t#'ing #n$ restr#ining o) seAu#l instincts. :e un$eresti'#tes the i'%ort#nce o) the other #rt )or's! @hich he c#lls )igur#tive! #n$ $oes not re'#rk th#t in their c#se #lso e'otions %rovoke$ by i'#ges #re counter#cte$ by the nonlyric#l e'otion o) #rt. hus @e see th#t olstoyJs theory $oes not hol$ in the $o'#in o) the #%%lie$ #rts! @here he thought its v#li$ity to be #bsolute. -s concerns gre#t #rt Fthe #rt o) 4eethoven #n$ Sh#kes%e#reG! olstoy hi'sel) %ointe$ out th#t his theory is in#%%lic#ble. -rt @oul$ h#ve # $ull #n$ ungr#te)ul t#sk i) its only %ur%ose @ere to in)ect one or '#ny %ersons @ith )eelings. I) this @ere so! its signi)ic#nce @oul$ be very s'#ll! bec#use there @oul$ be only # .u#ntit#tive eA%#nsion #n$ no .u#lit#tive eA%#nsion beyon$ #n in$ivi$u#lJs )eeling. he 'ir#cle o) #rt @oul$ then be like the ble#k 'ir#cle o) the 7os%el! @hen )ive b#rley lo#ves #n$ t@o s'#ll )ishes )e$ thous#n$s o) %eo%le! #ll o) @ho' #te #n$ @ere s#tis)ie$! #n$ # $o(en b#skets @ere )ille$ @ith the re'#ining )oo$. his 'ir#cle is only .u#ntit#tive: thous#n$s @ere )e$ #n$ @ere s#tis)ie$! but e#ch o) the' #te only )ish #n$ bre#$. 4ut @#s this not their $#ily $iet #t ho'e! @ithout #ny 'ir#clesK I) the only %ur%ose o) # tr#gic %oe' @ere to in)ect us @ith the #uthorJs sorro@! this @oul$ be # very s#$ situ#tion in$ee$ )or #rt. he 'ir#cle o) #rt re'in$s us 'uch 'ore o) #nother 'ir#cle in the 7os%el! the tr#ns)or'#tion o) @#ter into @ine. In$ee$! #rtJs true n#ture is th#t o) tr#nsubst#nti#tion! so'ething th#t tr#nscen$s or$in#ry )eelings; )or the )e#r! %#in! or eAcite'ent c#use$ by #rt inclu$es so'ething #bove #n$ beyon$ its nor'#l! convention#l content. his 6so'ething8 overco'es )eelings o) )e#r #n$ %#in! ch#nges @#ter into @ine! #n$ thus )ul)ills the 'ost i'%ort#nt %ur%ose o) #rt. +ne o) the gre#t thinkers s#i$ once th#t #rt rel#tes to li)e #s @ine rel#tes to the gr#%e. With this he 'e#nt to s#y th#t #rt t#kes its '#teri#l )ro' li)e! but gives in return so'ething @hich its '#teri#l $i$ not cont#in. Initi#lly! #n e'otion is in$ivi$u#l! #n$ only by 'e#ns o) # @ork o) #rt $oes it become soci#l or gener#li(e$. 4ut it #%%e#rs th#t #rt by itsel) contributes nothing to this e'otion. It is not cle#r! then! @hy #rt shoul$ be vie@e$ #s # cre#tive #ct nor ho@ it $i))ers )ro' #n or$in#ry yell or #n or#torJs s%eech. Where is the tre%i$#tion o) @hich Longinus s%oke! i) #rt is vie@e$ only #s #n eAercise in in)ectiousnessK We re#li(e th#t science $oes not si'%ly in)ect one %erson or # @hole society @ith thoughts #n$ i$e#s! #ny 'ore th#n technology hel%s '#n to be h#n$y. We c#n #lso recogni(e th#t #rt is #n eA%#n$e$ 6social )eeling8 or techni%ue of feelings! #s @e sh#ll sho@ l#ter. Plekh#nov st#tes th#t the rel#tionshi% bet@een #rt #n$ li)e is eAtre'ely co'%leA! #n$ he is right. :e .uotes #ir)e @ho investig#te$ the interesting .uestion o) @hy l#n$sc#%e %#inting evolve$ only in the city. I) #rt @ere inten$e$ 'erely to in)ect us @ith the )eelings th#t li)e co''unic#tes to us! then l#n$sc#%e %#inting coul$ not survive in the city. :istory! ho@ever! %roves eA#ctly the o%%osite. #ine @rites! 6We h#ve the right to #$'ire l#n$sc#%es! =ust #s they h#$ the right to be bore$ by it. 2or seventeenth,century '#n there @#s nothing uglier th#n # 'ount#in. It #rouse$ in hi' '#ny un%le#s#nt i$e#s! bec#use he @#s #s @e#ry o) b#rb#ri#nis' #s @e #re @e#ry o) civili(#tion. Mount#ins give us # ch#nce to rest! #@#y )ro' our si$e@#lks! o))ices! #n$ sho%s; @e like l#n$sc#%e only )or this re#son.8 3 Plekh#nov %oints out th#t #rt is so'eti'es not # $irect eA%ression o) li)e! but #n eA%ression o) its #ntithesis. he i$e#! o) course! is not in the leisure o) @hich #ine s%e#ks! but in # cert#in #ntithesis: #rt rele#ses #n #s%ect o) our %syche @hich )in$s no eA%ression in our every$#y li)e. We c#nnot s%e#k o) #n in)ection @ith e'otions. he e))ect o) #rt is obviously 'uch 'ore v#rie$ #n$ co'%leA; no '#tter ho@ @e #%%ro#ch #rt! @e #l@#ys $iscover th#t it involves so'ething $i))erent )ro' # si'%le tr#ns'ission o) )eelings. Whether or not @e #gree @ith Lun#ch#rskii th#t #rt is # concentr#tion o) li)e! @e 'ust re#li(e th#t it %rocee$s )ro' cert#in live )eelings #n$ @orks u%on those )eelings! # )#ct not consi$ere$ by olstoyJs theory. We h#ve seen th#t this %rocess is # c#th#rsis > the tr#ns)or'#tion o) these )eelings into o%%osite ones #n$ their subse.uent resolution. his vie@ o) course #grees %er)ectly @ith Plekh#novJs %rinci%le o) #ntithesis in #rt. o un$erst#n$ this @e 'ust look #t the %roble' o) the biologic#l signi)ic#nce o) #rt! #n$ re#li(e th#t #rt is not 'erely # 'e#ns )or in)ection but so'ething i''e#sur#bly 'ore i'%ort#nt in

itsel). In his 6 hree *h#%ters o) :istoric Poetics!8 Veselovskii s#ys th#t #ncient singing #n$ %l#ying @ere born )ro' # co'%leA nee$ )or c#th#rsis; # chorus sung $uring h#r$ #n$ eAh#usting @ork regul#tes 'uscul#r e))ort by its rhyth'! #n$ #%%#rently #i'less %l#y res%on$s to the subconscious re.uire'ent o) tr#ining #n$ regul#tion o) %hysic#l or intellectu#l e))ort. his is #lso the re.uire'ent o) %sycho%hysic#l c#th#rsis )or'ul#te$ by -ristotle )or the $r#'#; it '#ni)ests itsel) in the unsur%#sse$ '#stery o) M#ori @o'en to she$ te#rs #t @ill! #n$ #lso in the over@hel'ing te#r)ulness o) the eighteenth century. he %heno'enon is the s#'e; the $i))erence lies only in eA%ression #n$ un$erst#n$ing. We %erceive rhyth' in %oetry #s so'ething #rtistic #n$ )orget its %ri'itive %sycho%hysic#l origins. he best re%u$i#tion o) the cont#'in#tion theory is the stu$y o) those %sycho%hysic#l %rinci%les on @hich #rt is b#se$ #n$ the eA%l#n#tion o) the biologic#l signi)ic#nce o) #rt. -%%#rently #rt rele#ses #n$ %rocesses so'e eAtre'ely co'%leA org#nis'ic urges. he best corrobor#tion o) our vie@%oint c#n be )oun$ in the )#ct th#t it #grees @ith 4ucherJs stu$ies on the origins o) #rt #n$ %er'its us to un$erst#n$ the true role #n$ %ur%ose o) #rt. 4ucher est#blishe$ th#t 'usic #n$ %oetry h#ve # co''on origin in he#vy %hysic#l l#bor. heir ob=ect @#s to rel#A c#th#rtic#lly the tre'en$ous stress cre#te$ by l#bor. his is ho@ 4ucher )or'ul#te$ the gener#l content o) @ork songs: 6 hey )ollo@ the gener#l tren$ o) @ork! #n$ sign#l the beginning o) # si'ult#neous collective e))ort; they try to incite the 'en to @ork by $erision! invective! or re)erence to the o%inion o) s%ect#tors; they eA%ress the thoughts o) the @orkers #bout l#bor itsel)! its course! its ge#r! #n$ so )orth! #s @ell #s their =oys or sorro@s! their co'%l#ints #bout the h#r$ness o) the @ork #n$ the in#$e.u#te %#y; they #$$ress # %le# to the o@ner! the su%ervisor! or si'%ly to the s%ect#tor.8 he t@o ele'ents o) #rt #n$ their resolution #re )oun$ here. he only %eculi#rity o) these songs is th#t the )eeling o) %#in #n$ h#r$shi% @hich 'ust be solve$ by #rt is #n essenti#l %#rt o) l#bor itsel). Subse.uently! @hen #rt $et#ches itsel) )ro' l#bor #n$ begins to eAist #s #n in$e%en$ent #ctivity! it intro$uces into the @ork o) #rt the ele'ent @hich @#s )or'erly gener#te$ by l#bor: the )eelings o) %#in! tor'ent! #n$ h#r$shi% F@hich re.uire relies #re no@ #rouse$ by #rt itsel)! but their n#ture re'#ins the s#'e. 4iicher '#kes #n eAtre'ely interesting st#te'ent: 6 he %eo%les o) #nti.uity consi$ere$ song #n in$is%ens#ble #cco'%#ni'ent o) h#r$ l#bor.8 2ro' this @e re#li(e th#t song #t )irst org#ni(e$ collective l#bor! then g#ve relie) #n$ rel#A#tion to %#in)ul #n$ tor'enting str#in. We sh#ll see th#t #rt! even in its highest '#ni)est#tions! co'%letely se%#r#te )ro' l#bor #n$ @ithout #ny $irect connection thereto! h#s '#int#ine$ the s#'e )unctions. It still 'ust syste'#ti(e! or org#ni(e! soci#l )eeling #n$ give relie) to %#in)ul #n$ tor'enting str#in. Zuintili#n %uts it this @#y: 6-n$ it #%%e#rs #s i) N'usicO @ere given to us by n#ture in or$er to '#ke l#bor be#r#ble. 2or inst#nce! the ro@er is ins%ire$ by song; it is use)ul not only @here the e))orts o) '#ny #re co'bine$! but #lso @hen it is inten$e$ to %rovi$e rest )or #n eAh#uste$ @orker.8 hus #rt #rises origin#lly #s # %o@er)ul tool in the struggle )or eAistence; the i$e# o) re$ucing its role to # co''unic#tion o) )eeling @ith no %o@er or control over th#t )eeling! is in#$'issible. I) the %ur%ose o) #rt! like olstoyJs chorus o) %e#s#nt @o'en! @ere only to '#ke us g#y or s#$! it @oul$ neither h#ve survive$ nor h#ve ever #c.uire$ its %resent i'%ort#nce. &iet(sche eA%resses it @ell in5oyful )isdom+ @hen he s#ys th#t rhyth' involves in$uce'ent #n$ incentive: 6It #rouses #n irresistible $esire to i'it#te! #n$ not only our legs but our very soul )ollo@ the be#t. ... W#s there #nything 'ore use)ul th#n rhyth' )or #ncient! Su%erstitious '#nkin$K With its hel% everything bec#'e )e#sible > @ork coul$ be %er)or'e$ '#gic#lly! 7o$ coul$ be )orce$ to #%%e#r #n$ listen to griev#nces! the )uture coul$ be ch#nge$ #n$ correcte$ #t @ill! oneJs soul coul$ be $elivere$ o) #ny #bnor'#lity. Without verse '#n @oul$ be nothing; @ith it! he #l'ost bec#'e 7o$.8 It is .uite interesting to see ho@ &iet(sche eA%l#ins the @#y in @hich #rt succee$e$ in #c.uiring such %o@er over '#n. 6When the nor'#l 'oo$ #n$ h#r'ony o) the soul @ere lost! one h#$ to $#nce to the song o) # b#r$ > this @#s the %rescri%tion o) th#t 'e$icine ... 2irst o) #ll! inebri#tion #n$ uncontrolle$ #))ect @ere %ushe$ to the li'it! so th#t the ins#ne bec#'e )ren(ie$! #n$ the #venger bec#'e s#tur#te$ @ith h#tre$.U -%%#rently the %ossibility o) rele#sing into #rt %o@er)ul %#ssions @hich c#nnot )in$ eA%ression in nor'#l! every$#y li)e is the biologic#l b#sis

o) #rt. he %ur%ose o) our beh#vior is to kee% our org#nis' in b#l#nce @ith its surroun$ings. he si'%ler #n$ 'ore ele'ent#ry our rel#tions @ith the environ'ent! the si'%ler our beh#vior. he 'ore subtle #n$ co'%leA the inter#ction bet@een org#nis' #n$ environ'ent! the 'ore $evious #n$ intric#te the b#l#ncing %rocess. +bviously this %rocess c#nnot continue s'oothly to@#r$ #n e.uilibriu'. here @ill #l@#ys be # cert#in i'b#l#nce in )#vor o) the environ'ent or the org#nis'. &o '#chine c#n @ork to@#r$ e.uilibriu' using #ll its energy e))iciently. here #re #l@#ys st#tes o) eAcit#tion @hich c#nnot result in #n e))icient use o) energy. his is @hy # nee$ #rises )ro' ti'e to ti'e to $isch#rge the unuse$ energy #n$ give it )ree rein in or$er to reest#blish our e.uilibriu' @ith the rest o) the @orl$. +rsh#nskii s#ys th#t )eelings 6#re the %luses #n$ 'inuses o) our e.uilibriu'.8 hese %luses #n$ 'inuses! these $isch#rges #n$ eA%en$itures o) unuse$ energy! #re the biologic#l )unction o) #rt. Looking #t # chil$! it is evi$ent th#t its %ossibilities #re )#r gre#ter th#n #ctu#lly re#li(e$. I) # chil$ %l#ys #t sol$iers! co%s #n$ robbers! #n$ so on! this 'e#ns! #ccor$ing to so'e! th#t insi$e hi'sel) he re#lly beco'es # sol$ier or # robber. SherringtonJs %rinci%le Fthe %rinci%le o) struggle )or # co''on )iel$ o) #ctionG cle#rly sho@s th#t in our org#nis' the nervous rece%tor )iel$s eAcee$ '#ny ti'es the eAecuting e))ector neurons! so th#t the org#nis' %erceives '#ny 'ore sti'uli th#n it c#n %ossibly #tten$ to. +ur nervous syste' rese'bles # r#il@#y st#tion into @hich )ive tr#cks le#$! but only one tr#ck le#$s out. +) )ive tr#ins #rriving #t this st#tion! only one ever '#n#ges to le#ve F#n$ this only #)ter # )ierce struggleG! @hile the other )our re'#in st#lle$. he nervous syste' re'in$s us o) # b#ttle)iel$ @here the struggle never ce#ses! not even )or # single inst#nt! #n$ our beh#vior is #n in)initesi'#l %#rt o) @h#t is re#lly inclu$e$ in the %ossibilities o) our nervous syste'! but c#nnot )in$ #n outlet. In n#ture the re#li(e$ #n$ eAecute$ %#rt o) li)e is but # 'inute %#rt o) the entire conceiv#ble li)e +ust #s every li)e born is %#i$ )or by 'illions o) unborn onesG. Si'il#rly! in our nervous syste'! the re#li(e$ %#rt o) li)e is only the s'#llest %#rt o) the re#l li)e cont#ine$ in us. Sherrington likens our nervous syste' to # )unnel @ith its n#rro@ %#rt turne$ to@#r$ #ction! #n$ the @i$er %#rt to@#r$ the @orl$. he @orl$ %ours into '#n! through the @i$e o%ening o) the )unnel 150G! thous#n$s o) c#lls! $esires! sti'uli! etc. enter! but only #n in)initesi'#l %#rt o) the' is re#li(e$ #n$ )lo@s out through the n#rro@ing o%ening. It is obvious th#t the unre#li(e$ %#rt o) li)e! @hich h#s not gone through the n#rro@ o%ening o) our beh#vior! 'ust be so'eho@ utili(e$ #n$ live$. he org#nis' is in #n e.uilibriu' @ith its environ'ent @here b#l#nce 'ust be '#int#ine$! =ust #s it beco'es necess#ry to o%en # v#lve in # kettle in @hich ste#' %ressure eAcee$s the strength o) the vessel. -%%#rently #rt is # %sychologic#l 'e#ns )or striking # b#l#nce @ith the environ'ent #t critic#l %oints o) our beh#vior. Long #go the i$e# h#$ been eA%resse$ th#t #rt co'%le'ents li)e by eA%#n$ing its %ossibilities. Von L#nge s#ys! 6 here is # sorry rese'bl#nce bet@een conte'%or#ry civili(e$ '#n #n$ $o'estic #ni'#ls: li'it#tion #n$ 'onotony. Issuing )ro' the %#tterns o) bourgeois li)e #n$ its soci#l )or's! these #re the '#in )e#tures o) the in$ivi$u#l eAistence! @hich le#$ everybo$y! rich #n$ %oor! @e#k #n$ strong! t#lente$ #n$ $e%rive$! through #n inco'%lete #n$ i'%er)ect li)e. It is #stonishing ho@ li'ite$ is the nu'ber o) i$e#s! )eelings! #n$ #ctions th#t 'o$ern '#n c#n %er)or' or eA%erience.U L#(urskii hol$s the s#'e vie@ @hen he eA%l#ins the theory o) e'%#thy by re)erring to one o) olstoyJs novels. 6 here is # %oint in -nn# ?#renin# @here olstoy tells us th#t -nn# re#$s # novel #n$ su$$enly @#nts to $o @h#t the heroes o) th#t novel $o: )ight! struggle! @in @ith the'! go @ith the %rot#gonist to his est#te! #n$ so on.8 2reu$ sh#res this o%inion #n$ s%e#ks o) #rt #s # 'e#ns o) #%%e#sing t@o ini'ic#l %rinci%les! the %rinci%le o) %le#sure #n$ th#t o) re#lity. Inso)#r #s @e #re t#lking #bout the 'e#ning o) li)e! these @riters co'e closer to the truth th#n those @ho! like 7r#nt,-llen! #ssu'e th#t 6#esthetics #re those e'otions @hich h#ve )ree$ the'selves )ro' #ssoci#tion @ith %r#ctic#l interests.8 his re'in$s us o) S%encerJs )or'ul#: he #ssu'e$ th#t 6be#uti)ul is @h#t once @#s! but no longer is! use)ul.8 ;evelo%e$ to its eAtre'e li'its! this vie@%oint le#$s to the theory o) g#'es! @hich is #cce%te$ by '#ny %hiloso%hers! #n$ given its highest eA%ression by Schiller.

he one serious ob=ection #g#inst it is th#t! in not recogni(ing #rt #s # cre#tive #ct! it ten$s to re$uce it to the biologic#l )unction o) eAercising cert#in org#ns! # )#ct o) little i'%ort#nce )or the #$ult. Much 'ore convincing #re the other theories @hich consi$er #rt #n in$is%ens#ble $isch#rge o) nervous energy #n$ # co'%leA 'etho$ o) )in$ing #n e.uilibriu' bet@een our org#nis' #n$ the environ'ent in critic#l inst#nces o) our beh#vior. We resort to #rt only #t critic#l 'o'ents in our li)e! #n$ there)ore c#n un$erst#n$ @hy the )or'ul# @e %ro%ose vie@s #rt #s # cre#tive #ct. I) @e consi$er #rt to be c#th#rsis! it is %er)ectly cle#r th#t it c#nnot #rise @here there is nothing but live #n$ vivi$ )eeling. - sincere )eeling t#ken %er se c#nnot cre#te #rt. It l#cks 'ore th#n techni.ue or '#stery! bec#use # )eeling eA%resse$ by # techni.ue @ill never gener#te # lyric %oe' or # 'usic#l co'%osition. o $o this @e re.uire the cre#tive #ct o) overcoming the )eeling! resolving it! con.uering it. +nly @hen this #ct h#s been %er)or'e$ > then #n$ only then is #rt born. his is @hy the %erce%tion o) #rt re.uires cre#tivity: it is not enough to eA%erience sincerely the )eeling! or )eelings! o) the #uthor; it is not enough to un$erst#n$ the structure o) the @ork o) #rt; one 'ust #lso cre#tively overco'e oneJs o@n )eelings! #n$ )in$ oneJs o@n c#th#rsis; only then @ill the e))ect o) #rt be co'%lete. his is @hy @e #gree @ith +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii @ho s#ys th#t the %ur%ose o) 'ilit#ry 'usic is not to #rouse bellicose e'otions but! by est#blishing #n e.uilibriu' bet@een the org#nis' #n$ the environ'ent #t # critic#l 'o'ent )or the org#nis'! to $isci%line #n$ org#ni(e its @ork! %rovi$e #%%ro%ri#te relie) to its )eelings! to ch#se #@#y )e#r! #n$ to o%en the @#y to cour#ge #n$ v#lor. hus! #rt never $irectly gener#tes # %r#ctic#l #ction; it 'erely %re%#res the org#nis' )or such #ction. 2reu$ s#ys th#t #! )rightene$ %erson is terri)ie$ #n$ runs @hen he sees $#nger; the use)ul %#rt o) this beh#vior is th#t he runs! not th#t he is )rightene$. In #rt! the reverse is true: )e#r %er se is use)ul. M#nJs rele#se %er se is use)ul! bec#use it cre#tes the %ossibility o) #%%ro%ri#te )light or #tt#ck. his is @here @e 'ust consi$er the econo'y o) our )eelings! @hich +vsi#niko,?ulikovskii $escribes thus: 6 he h#r'onic rhyth' o) lyrics cre#tes e'otions @hich $i))er )ro' the '#=ority o) other e'otions in th#t such Llyric e'otionsJ s#ve our %sychic energies by %utting our L%sychic househol$J into h#r'onic or$er.8 his is not the s#'e econo'y o) @hich @e t#lke$ e#rlier! it is not #n #tte'%t to #voi$ the out%ut o) %sychic energies. In this res%ect #rt is not subor$in#te$ to the %rinci%le o) the econo'y o) strength; on the contr#ry! #rt is #n eA%losive #n$ su$$en eA%en$iture o) strength! o) )orces F%sychic #n$ other@iseG! # $isch#rge o) energy. - @ork o) #rt %erceive$ col$ly #n$ %ros#ic#lly! or %rocesse$ #n$ tre#te$ to be %erceive$ in this @#y! s#ves 'uch 'ore energy #n$ )orce th#n i) it @ere %erceive$ @ith the )ull e))ect o) its #rtistic )or' in 'in$. -lthough it is #n eA%losive $isch#rge! #rt $oes intro$uce or$er #n$ h#r'ony into the 6%sychic househol$!8 o) our )eelings. -n$ o) course the @#ste o) energy %er)or'e$ by -nn# ?#renin# @hen she eA%erience$ the )eelings #n$ e'otions o) the heroes o) the novel she @#s re#$ing! is # s#ving o) %sychic )orces i) co'%#re$ to the #ctu#l e'otion. - 'ore co'%leA #n$ $ee%er 'e#ning o) the %rinci%le o) econo'i(ing e'otions @ill beco'e cle#rer i) @e try to un$erst#n$ the soci#l signi)ic#nce o) #rt. -rt is the soci#l @ithin us N55O! #n$ even i) its #ction is %er)or'e$ by # single in$ivi$u#l! it $oes not 'e#n th#t its essence is in$ivi$u#l. It is .uite n#ive #n$ in#%%ro%ri#te to t#ke the soci#l to be collective! #s @ith # l#rge cro@$ o) %ersons. he soci#l #lso eAists @here there is only one %erson @ith his in$ivi$u#l eA%eriences #n$ tribul#tions. his is @hy the #ction o) #rt! @hen it %er)or's c#th#rsis #n$ %ushes into this %uri)ying )l#'e the 'ost inti'#te #n$ i'%ort#nt eA%eriences! e'otions! #n$ )eelings o) the soul! is # soci#l #ction. 4ut this eA%erience $oes not h#%%en #s $escribe$ in the theory o) cont#'in#tion F@here # )eeling born in one %erson in)ects #n$ cont#'in#tes everybo$y and becomes soci#lG! but eA#ctly the other @#y #roun$. he 'elting o) )eelings outsi$e us is %er)or'e$ by the strength o) soci#l )eeling! @hich is ob=ectivi(e$! '#teri#li(e$! #n$ %ro=ecte$ outsi$e o) us! then )iAe$ in eAtern#l ob=ects o) #rt @hich h#ve beco'e the tools o) society. - )un$#'ent#l ch#r#cteristic o) '#n! one th#t $istinguishes hi' )ro' #ni'#ls! is th#t he en$ures #n$ se%#r#tes )ro' his bo$y both the #%%#r#tus o) technology #n$ th#t o) scienti)ic kno@le$ge! @hich then beco'e the tools o) society. -rt is the soci#l techni.ue o) e'otion! # tool o) society @hich brings the

'ost inti'#te #n$ %erson#l #s%ects o) our being into the circle o) soci#l li)e. It @oul$ be 'ore correct to s#y th#t e'otion beco'es %erson#l @hen every one o) us eA%eriences # @ork o) #rt; it beco'es %erson#l @ithout ce#sing to be soci#l. 6-rt!8 s#ys 7uy#u! 6is # con$ens#tion o) re#lity; it sho@s us the hu'#n '#chine un$er high %ressure. It tries to sho@ us 'ore li)e %heno'en# th#n @e #ctu#lly eA%erience.8 +) course this li)e! concentr#te$ in #rt! eAerts #n e))ect not only on our e'otions but #lso on our @ill 6bec#use e'otion cont#ins the see$ o) @ill.8 7uy#u correctly #ttributes # tre'en$ous i'%ort#nce to the role %l#ye$ by #rt in society. It intro$uces the e))ects o) %#ssion! viol#tes inner e.uilibriu'! ch#nges @ill in # ne@ sense! #n$ stirs )eelings! e'otions! %#ssions! #n$ vices @ithout @hich society @oul$ re'#in in #n inert #n$ 'otionless st#te. It 6%ronounces the @or$ @e @ere seeking #n$ vibr#tes the string @hich @#s str#ine$ but soun$less. - @ork o) #rt is the center o) #ttr#ction! #s is the #ctive @ill o) # genius: i) &#%oleon #ttr#cts @ill! *orneille #n$ Victor :ugo $o so too! but in # $i))erent @#y. ... Who kno@s the nu'ber o) cri'es instig#te$ by novels $escribing 'ur$ersK Who kno@s the nu'ber o) $ivorces resulting )ro' re%resent#tions o) $eb#ucheryK8 67uy#u )or'ul#tes the .uestion in 'uch too %ri'itive # @#y! bec#use he i'#gines th#t #rt $irectly c#uses this or the other e'otion. Bet! this never h#%%ens. - re%resent#tion o) 'ur$er $oes not c#use 'ur$er. - scene o) $eb#uchery $oes not ins%ire $ivorce; the rel#tionshi% bet@een #rt #n$ li)e is very co'%leA! #n$ in # very #%%roAi'#te @#y it c#n be $escribe$ #s @ill be sho@n. :enne.uin sees the $i))erence bet@een #esthetic #n$ re#l e'otion in the )#ct th#t #esthetic e'otion $oes not i''e$i#tely eA%ress itsel) in #ction. :e s#ys! ho@ever! th#t i) re%e#te$ over #n$ over #g#in! these e'otions c#n beco'e the b#sis )or #n in$ivi$u#lJs beh#vior; thus! #n in$ivi$u#l c#n be #))ecte$ by the kin$ o) liter#ture he re#$s. 6-n e'otion i'%#rte$ by # @ork o) #rt is not c#%#ble o) eA%ressing itsel) in i''e$i#te #ctions. In this res%ect #esthetic )eelings $i))er sh#r%ly )ro' #ctu#l )eelings. 4ut! since they serve #n en$ in the'selves! they =usti)y the'selves #n$ nee$ not be i''e$i#tely eA%resse$ in #ny %r#ctic#l #ctivity; #esthetic e'otions c#n! by #ccu'ul#tion #n$ re%etition! le#$ to subst#nti#l %r#ctic#l results. hese results $e%en$ u%on the gener#l %ro%erties o) #esthetic e'otion #n$ the %#rticul#r %ro%erties o) e#ch o) these e'otions. 1e%e#te$ eAercises o) # s%eci)ic grou% o) )eelings un$er the e))ect o) invention! i'#gin#tion! or unre#l rnoo$s or c#uses th#t gener#lly c#nnot result in #ction $o not re.uire #ctive '#ni)est#tions! #n$ $oubtless @e#ken the %ro%erty co''on to #ll re#l e'otions! th#t o) eA%ression in #ction. ...8 6I :enne.uin intro$uces t@o very i'%ort#nt corrections! but his solution o) the %roble' re'#ins .uite %ri'itive. :e is correct in s#ying th#t #esthetic e'otion $oes not i''e$i#tely gener#te #ction! th#t it '#ni)ests itsel) in the ch#nge o) %ur%ose. :e is #lso correct @hen he st#tes th#t #esthetic e'otion not only $oes not gener#te the #ctions o) @hich it s%e#ks! but is co'%letely #lien to the'. +n the b#sis o) 7uy#uJs eA#'%le! @e coul$ s#y th#t the re#$ing o) novels #bout 'ur$er not only $oes not incite us to 'ur$er! but #ctu#lly te#ches us not to kill; but this %oint o) vie@ o) :enne.uinJs! #lthough it is 'ore #%%lic#ble th#n the )or'er! is .uite si'%le co'%#re$ @ith the subtle )unction #ssigne$ to #rt. -s # '#tter o) )#ct! #rt %er)or's #n eAtre'ely co'%leA #ction @ith our %#ssions #n$ goes )#r beyon$ the li'its o) these t@o si'%listic #ltern#tives. -n$rei 4ely s#ys th#t @hen @e listen to 'usic @e )eel @h#t gi#nts 'ust h#ve )elt. ostoy '#ster)ully $escribes this high tension o) #rt in his $reutzer onata: 8 ;o you kno@ the )irst %l#ceK ;o you re#lly kno@ itK8 he eA%l#ins. +hQ ... - son#t# is # )rightening thing. Bes! this %#rt! %recisely. Music! gener#lly! is # )rightening thing. Wh#t is itK I $onJt un$erst#n$. Wh#t is 'usicK Wh#t $oes it $oK -n$ @hy $oes it $o @h#tever it $oesK hey s#y th#t 'usic elev#tes our soul. 1ubbish! nonsenseQ It $oes @ork! it h#s # terrible e))ect FI #' t#lking )or 'ysel)! but it cert#inly $oes not li)t the soul. It $oes not li)t the soul! nor $oes it $eb#se it! but it irrit#tes it. :o@ c#n I %ut itK Music '#kes 'e oblivious o) 'ysel); it '#kes 'e )orget 'y true %osition; it tr#ns)ers 'e into #nother %osition! not 'ine! not 'y o@n: it see's to 'e! un$er the e))ect o) 'usic! th#t I )eel @h#t I $onJt )eel! th#t I un$erst#n$ @h#t I #ctu#lly $onJt un$erst#n$! c#nJt un$erst#n$. ...

UMusic i''e$i#tely! su$$enly! tr#ns%orts 'e into the 'oo$ @hich must h#ve been th#t o) the '#n @ho @rote it. I beco'e one @ith hi'! #n$ together @ith hi' I s@ing )ro' one 'oo$ into #nother! )ro' one st#te into #nother! but @hy I #' $oing it! I $onJt kno@. h#t )ello@! )or inst#nce! @ho @rote the ?reut(er Son#t#! 4eethoven! he kne@ @hy he @#s in th#t st#te. h#t st#te le$ hi' to cert#in #ctions! #n$ there)ore! )or hi'! th#t st#te @#s sensible. 2or 'e! it 'e#ns nothing! it is co'%letely senseless. -n$ this is @hy 'usic only irrit#tes #n$ #chieves nothing. Well! i) I %l#y # 'ilit#ry '#rch! the sol$iers @ill '#rch in ste%! #n$ the 'usic h#s #chieve$ its %ur%ose; i) $#nce 'usic is %l#ye$! I $#nce! #n$ the 'usic #chieves its %ur%ose. +r! i) M#ss is sung #n$ I t#ke co''union! @ell! here too the 'usic h#s #chieve$ its %ur%ose; other@ise! it is only irrit#tion! #n$ no one kno@s @h#t to $o @ith this irrit#tion. his is @hy 'usic occasionally has such a horrible+ terri)ying e))ect. In *hin# 'usic is #n #))#ir o) st#te! #n$ this is ho@ it shoul$ be ... 6+ther@ise it coul$ be # terri)ying tool in the h#n$s o) #nybo$y. #ke )or inst#nce the ?reut(er Son#t#. :o@ c#n one %l#y its %resto in # $r#@ing roo'! #'i$st l#$ies in $ecolleteK Pl#y it! #n$ then busy onesel)! then e#t so'e ice cre#' #n$ listen to the l#test gossi%K &o! these things c#n be %l#ye$ only in the )#ce o) signi)ic#nt! i'%ort#nt circu'st#nces! #n$ then it @ill be necess#ry to %er)or' cert#in #%%ro%ri#te #cts th#t )it the 'usic. I) it 'ust be %l#ye$! @e 'ust #ct #ccor$ing to its setting o) our 'oo$. +ther@ise the incongruity bet@een the %l#ce! the ti'e! the @#ste o) energy! #n$ the )eelings @hich $o not '#ni)est the'selves @ill h#ve # $is#strous e))ect.8 his eAcer%t )ro' !he $reutzer onata tells us .uite convincingly o) the inco'%rehensibly )rightening e))ect o) 'usic )or the #ver#ge listener. It reve#ls # ne@ #s%ect o) the #esthetic res%onse #n$ sho@s th#t it is not # bl#nk shot! but # res%onse to # @ork o) #rt! #n$ # ne@ #n$ %o@er)ul sti'ulus )or )urther #ction. -rt re.uires # re%ly! it incites cert#in #ctions! #n$ olstoy .uite correctly co'%#res the e))ect o) 4eethovenJs 'usic @ith th#t o) # $#nce tune or # '#rch. In the l#tter c#se! the eAcite'ent cre#te$ by the 'usic resolves itsel) in # res%onse! #n$ # )eeling o) s#tis)ie$ re%ose sets in. In the c#se o) 4eethovenJs 'usic @e #re thro@n into # st#te o) con)usion #n$ #nAiety! bec#use the 'usic reve#ls those urges #n$ $esires th#t c#n )in$ # resolution only in eAce%tion#lly i'%ort#nt #n$ heroic #ctions. When this 'usic is )ollo@e$ by ice cre#' #n$ gossi% #'i$st l#$ies in $Jcollet! @e #re le)t in # st#te o) eAce%tion#l #nAiety! tension! #n$ $is#rr#y. 4ut olstoyJs ch#r#cter '#kes # 'ist#ke @hen he co'%#res the irrit#ting #n$ sti'ul#ting e))ect o) this 'usic to the e))ect %ro$uce$ by # 'ilit#ry '#rch. :e $oes not re#li(e th#t the e))ect o) 'usic reve#ls itsel) 'uch 'ore subtly! by 'e#ns o) hi$$en shocks! stresses! #n$ $e)or'#tions o) our constitution. It '#y reve#l itsel) uneA%ecte$ly! #n$ in #n eAtr#or$in#ry @#y. 4ut in this $escri%tion! t@o %oints #re '#$e @ith eAce%tion#l cl#rity: 2irst! 'usic incites! eAcites! #n$ irrit#tes in #n in$eter'in#te )#shion not connecte$ @ith #ny concrete re#ction! 'otion! or #ction. his is %roo) th#t its e))ect is c#th#rtic! th#t is! it cle#rs our %syche! reve#ls #n$ c#lls to li)e tre'en$ous energies @hich @ere %reviously inhibite$ #n$ restr#ine$. his! ho@ever is # conse.uence o) #rt! not its #ction. Secon$ly! 'usic h#s coercive %o@er. olstoy suggests th#t 'usic shoul$ be #n #))#ir o) st#te. :e believes th#t 'usic is # %ublic #))#ir. +ne critic %ointe$ out th#t @hen @e %erceive # @ork # @ork o) #rt @e think th#t our re#ction is strictly %erson#l #n$ #ssoci#te$ only @ith ourselves. We believe th#t it h#s nothing to $o soci#l %sychology. 4ut this is #s @rong #s the o%inion o) # %erson %#ys t#Aes #n$ consi$ers this #ction only )ro' his o@n vie@%oint o@n! %erson#l bu$get! @ithout be#ring in 'in$ th#t he %#rtici%#te the huge #n$ co'%leA econo'y o) the st#te. :e $oes not re)lect th#t by %#ying t#Aes he t#kes %#rt in involve$ st#te o%er#tions @hose eAistence he $oes not even sus%ect. his is @hy 2reu$ is @rong @hen he s#ys th#t '#n st#n$s )#ce to )#ce @ith the re#lity o) n#ture! #n$ th#t #rt be $erive$ )ro' the %urely biologic#l $i))erence bet@een the %rinci%le o) en=oy'ent to@#r$ @hich #ll our inclin#tions gr#vit#te! #n$ th#t o) re#lity @hich )orces us to renounce s#tis)#ction #n$ %le#sure. 4et@een '#n #n$ the outsi$e @orl$ there st#n$s the soci#l environ'ent! @hich in its o@n @#y re)r#cts #n$ $irects the sti'uli #cting u%on the in$ivi$u#l #n$ gui$es #ll the re#ctions th#t e'#n#te )ro' the in$ivi$u#l. #%%lie$ %sychology it is there)ore o) i''ense signi)ic#nce to kno@ I #s olstoy %uts it! 'usic is so'ething

#@eso'e #n$ )rightening to #ver#ge listener. I) # 'ilit#ry '#rch incites sol$iers to '#rch %rou$ly in # %#r#$e! @h#t eAce%tion#l $ee$s 'ust 4eethovenJs 'usic ins%ireQ Let 'e re%e#t: 'usic by itsel) is isol#te$ )ro' our every$#y beh#vior; it $oes not $rive us to $o #nything! it only cre#tes # v#gue #n$ enor'ous $esire )or so'e $ee$s or #ctions; it o%ens the @#y )or the e'ergence o) %o@er)ul! hi$$en )orces @ithin us; it #cts like #n e#rth.u#ke #s it thro@s o%en unkno@n #n$ hi$$en str#t#. he vie@ th#t #rt returns us to #t#vis' r#ther th#n %ro=ecting us into the )uture! is erroneous. -lthough 'usic $oes not gener#te #ny $irect #ctions! its )un$#'ent#l e))ect! the $irection it i'%#rts to %sychic c#th#rsis! is essenti#l )or the kin$ o) )orces it @ill rele#se! @h#t it @ill rele#se! #n$ @h#t it @ill %ush into the b#ckgroun$. -rt is the org#ni(#tion o) our )uture beh#vior. It is # re.uire'ent th#t '#y never be )ul)ille$ but th#t )orces us to strive beyon$ our li)e to@#r$ #ll th#t lies beyon$ it. We '#y there)ore c#ll #rt # $el#ye$ re#ction! bec#use there is #l@#ys # )#irly long %erio$ o) ti'e bet@een its e))ect #n$ its eAecution. his $oes not 'e#n! ho@ever! th#t the e))ect o) #rt is 'ysterious or 'ystic#l or th#t its explanation re%uires so'e ne@ conce%ts $i))erent )ro' those @hich the %sychologist sets u% @hen he #n#ly(es co''on beh#vior. -rt %er)or's @ith our bo$ies #n$ through our bo$ies. It is re'#rk#ble th#t schol#rs like 1ut( #n$ Sievers! @ho stu$ie$ %erce%tu#l %rocesses #n$ not the e))ects o) #rt! s%e#k o) the $e%en$ence o) #esthetic %erce%tion on # s%eci)ic 'uscul#r constitution o) the bo$y. 1ut( @#s the )irst to suggest th#t #ny #esthetic e))ect 'ust be #ssoci#te$ @ith # $e)inite ty%e o) 'uscul#r constitution. Sievers #%%lie$ his i$e# to the conte'%l#tion o) scul%ture. +ther schol#rs 'ention # connection bet@een the b#sic org#nic constitution o) the #rtist #n$ the structure o) his @orks. 2ro' the 'ost #ncient ti'es! #rt h#s #l@#ys been reg#r$e$ #s # 'e#ns o) e$uc#tion! th#t is! #s # long, r#nge %rogr#' )or ch#nging our beh#vior #n$ our org#nis'. he sub=ect o) this ch#%ter! the signi)ic#nce o) #%%lie$ #rts! involves the e$uc#tion#l e))ect o) #rt. hose @ho see # rel#tionshi% bet@een %e$#gogy #n$ #rt )in$ their vie@ uneA%ecte$ly su%%orte$ by %sychologic#l #n#lysis. We c#n no@ #$$ress ourselves to the l#st %roble's on our #gen$#! those o) the %r#ctic#l e))ect o) #rt on li)e #n$ o) its e$uc#tion#l signi)ic#nce. he e$uc#tion#l signi)ic#nce o) #rt #n$ its %r#ctic#l #s%ects '#y be $ivi$e$ into t@o %#rts. We h#ve )irst criticis' #s # )un$#'ent#l soci#l )orce! @hich o%ens the @#y to #rt! ev#lu#tes it! #n$ serves #s # tr#nsition#l 'ech#nis' bet@een #rt #n$ society. 2ro' # %sychologic#l %oint o) vie@! the role o) criticis' is to org#ni(e the e))ects o) #rt. It gives # cert#in e$uc#tion#l $irection to these e))ects! #n$ since by itsel) it h#s no %o@er to in)luence the b#sic e))ect o) #rt %er se it %uts itsel) bet@een this e))ect #n$ the #ctions into @hich this e))ect 'ust )in#lly resolve itsel). We )eet there)ore th#t the re#l %ur%ose #n$ t#sk o) #rt criticis' is $i))erent )ro' its convention#l one. Its %ur%ose is not to inter%ret or eA%l#in # @ork o) #rt! nor is its %ur%ose to %re%#re the s%ect#tor or re#$er )or the %erce%tion o) # @ork o) #rt. +nly h#l) o) the t#sk o) criticis' is #esthetic; the other h#l) is %e$#gogic#l #n$ %ublic. he critic #%%ro#ches the #ver#ge 6consu'er8 o) #rt! )or inst#nce! olstoyJs hero in !he $reutzer onata+ #t the troubleso'e %oint @hen he is un$er the inco'%rehensible #n$ )rightening s%ell o) the 'usic #n$ $oes not kno@ @h#t it @ill rele#se in hi'. he critic @ishes to be the org#ni(ing )orce! but enters the #ction @hen #rt h#s #lre#$y h#$ its victory over the hu'#n %syche @hich no@ seeks i'%etus #n$ $irection )or its #ction. he $u#listic n#ture o) criticis' obviously ent#ils # $u#listic t#sk. he criticis' @hich consciously #n$ intention#lly %uts #rt into %rose est#blishes its soci#l root! #n$ $eter'ines the soci#l connection th#t eAists bet@een #rt #n$ the gener#l #s%ects o) li)e. It g#thers our conscious )orces counter#ct or! conversely! to coo%er#te @ith those i'%ulses @hich h#ve been gener#te$ by # @ork o) #rt. his criticis' le#ves the $o'#in o) #rt #n$ enters the s%here o) soci#l li)e! @ith the sole %ur%ose o) gui$ing the #esthetic#lly #rouse$ )orces into soci#lly use)ul ch#nnels. Iveryone kno@s th#t # @ork o) #rt #))ects $i))erent %eo%le in $i))erent @#ys. Like # kni)e! or #ny other tool! #rt by itsel) is neither goo$ nor b#$. More %recisely! it h#s tre'en$ous %otenti#l )or either goo$ or evil. It #ll $e%en$s on @h#t use @e '#ke o)! or @h#t t#sk ' sign to! this tool. o re%e#t # trite eA#'%le:

# kni)e in the h#n$s surgeon h#s # v#lue co'%letely $i))erent )ro' th#t o) the s#'e kni)e the h#n$s o) # chil$. 4ut the )oregoing is only h#l) the t#sk o) criticis'. he other h#l) consists in conserving the e))ect o) #rt #s #rt! #n$ %reventing the re#$ s%ect#tor )ro' @#sting the )orces #rouse$ by #rt by substituting )or its %o@er)ul i'%ulses $ull! co''on%l#ce! r#tion#l,'or#l %rece%ts. 2e@ un$erst#n$ @hy it is i'%er#tive not only to h#ve the e))ect o) #rt sh#%e #n$ eAcite the re#$er or s%ect#tor but #lso to eA%l#in #rt! #n$ to eA%l#in it in such # @#y th#t the eA%l#n#tion $oes not )ill the e'otion. We c#n re#$ily sho@ th#t such eA%l#n#tion is in$is%ens#ble! our beh#vior is org#ni(e$ #ccor$ing to the %rinci%le o) unity! @hich is #cco'%lishe$ '#inly by 'e#ns o) our consciousness in @hich #ny e'otion seeking #n outlet 'ust be re%resente$. +ther@ise @e risk cre#ting # con)lict! #n$ the @ork o) #rt! inste#$ o) %ro$ucing # c#th#rsis! @oul$ in)lict # @oun$! #n$ the %erson eA%eriences @h#t olstoy @hen his he#rt is )ille$ @ith # v#gue! inco'%rehensible e'otion o) $e%ression! i'%otence! #n$ con)usion. :o@ever! this $oes not 'e#n th#t the eA%l#n#tion o) #rt kills the tre%i$#tion o) %oetry 'entione$ by Longinus! )or there #re t@o $i))erent levels involve$. his secon$ ele'ent! the ele'ent o) conserv#tion o) #n #rtistic i'%ression! h#s #l@#ys been reg#r$e$ by theoretici#ns #s $ecisively i'%ort#nt )or #rt criticis' but! o$$ly enough! our critics h#ve #l@#ys ignore$ it. *riticis' h#s #l@#ys #%%ro#che$ #rt #s i) it @ere # %#rli#'ent#ry s%eech or # non,#esthetic )#ct. It consi$ere$ its t#sk to be the $estruction o) the e))ect o) #rt in or$er to $iscover the signi)ic#nce o) #rt. Plekh#nov @#s #@#re th#t the se#rch )or the sociologic#l e.uiv#lent o) # @ork o) #rt is only the )irst h#l) o) the t#sk o) criticis'. 6 his 'e#ns!8 he s#i$ @hen $iscussing 4elinskii! 6th#t ev#lu#tion o) the i$e# o) # @ork o) #rt 'ust be )ollo@e$ by #n #n#lysis o) its #rtistic 'erits. Philoso%hy $i$ not eli'in#te #esthetics. +n the contr#ry! it %#ve$ the @#y )or it #n$ trie$ to )in$ # soli$ b#sis )or it. his 'ust #lso be s#i$ #bout '#teri#listic criticis'. In se#rching )or the soci#l e.uiv#lent o) # given liter#ry %heno'enon! this ty%e o) criticis' betr#ys its o@n n#ture i) it $oes not un$erst#n$ th#t @e c#nnot con)ine ourselves to )in$ing this e.uiv#lent! #n$ th#t sociology 'ust not shut the $oor to #esthetics but! on the contr#ry! o%en it @i$e. he secon$ #ction o) '#teri#listic criticis' 'ust be! #s @#s the c#se @ith '#ny critic,i$e#lists! the ev#lu#tion o) the #esthetic 'erits o) the @ork un$er investig#tion ... he $eter'in#tion o) the sociologic#l e.uiv#lent o) # given @ork o) liter#ture @oul$ be inco'%lete #n$ there)ore i'%recise i) the critic )#ile$ to #%%r#ise its #rtistic 'erits. In other @or$s! the first action of materialistic criticism not only does not eliminate the need for the second action+ but re%uires it as a necessary and indispensable complement.8 - si'il#r situ#tion #rises @ith the %roble' o) #rt in e$uc#tion: the t@o %#rts or #cts c#nnot eAist in$e%en$ently. Cntil recently! the %ublic #%%ro#ch to #rt %rev#ile$ in our schools #s @ell #s in our criticis'. he stu$ents le#rne$ or 'e'ori(e$ incorrect sociologic#l )or'ul#s concerning '#ny @orks o) #rt. 6-t the %resent ti'e!8 s#ys 7ershen(on! 6%u%ils #re be#ten @ith sticks to le#rn Pushkin! #s i) they @ere c#ttle her$e$ to the @#tering %l#ce! #n$ given # che'ic#l $issoci#tion o) :2< inste#$ o) $rinking @#ter.8 It @oul$ be un)#ir to conclu$e @ith 7ershen(on th#t the syste' o) te#ching #rt in the schools is @rong )ro' beginning to en$. In the guise o) the history o) soci#l thought re)lecte$ in liter#ture! our stu$ents le#rne$ )#lse liter#ture #n$ )#lse sociology. ;oes this 'e#n th#t it is %ossible to te#ch #rt outsi$e the sociologic#l conteAt #n$ only on the b#sis o) in$ivi$u#l t#stes! to =u'% )ro' conce%t to conce%t! )ro' the Iliad to M#i#kovskiiK Iichen@#i$ see's to believe this! )or he cl#i's th#t it is i'%ossible #s @ell #s unnecess#ry to te#ch liter#ture in the schools. 6Shoul$ one te#ch liter#tureK8 he #sks. 6Liter#ture! like the other #rts! is o%tion#l. It re%resents #n entert#in'ent o) the 'in$. ... Is it necess#ry th#t stu$ents be t#ught th#t #ti#n# )ell in love @ith +negin! or th#t Ler'ontov @#s bore$! s#$! #n$ un#ble to love )oreverK8 Iichen@#l$ is o) the o%inion th#t it is i'%ossible to te#ch liter#ture #n$ th#t it shoul$ be t#ken out o) the school curriculu' bec#use it re.uires #n #ct o) cre#tivity $i))erent )ro' #ll the other sub=ects t#ught #t school. 4ut he %rocee$s )ro' # r#ther s.u#li$ #esthetic! #n$ #ll his @e#k s%ots beco'e obvious @hen

@e #n#ly(e his b#sic %osition! 61e#$! en=oy! but c#n @e )orce %eo%le to en=oyK8 +) course! i) 6to re#$8 'e#ns 6to en=oy!8 then liter#ture c#nnot be t#ught #n$ h#s no %l#ce in the schools F#lthough so'eone once s#i$ th#t the #rt o) en=oy'ent coul$ #lso he t#ughtG. - school th#t eli'in#tes lessons in liter#ture is boun$ to be # b#$ school. 6-t the %resent ti'e! eA%l#n#tory re#$ing h#s #s its '#in %ur%ose the eA%l#n#tion o) the content o) @h#t is being re#$. Cn$er such # syste'! %oetry #s such is eli'in#te$ )ro' the curriculu'. 2or inst#nce! the $i))erence bet@een # )#ble by ?rylov #n$ its ren$ition in %rose is *o'%letely lost.8 2ro' the re%u$i#tion o) such # %osition! 7ershen(on co'es to the conclusion: 6Poetry c#nnot #n$ 'ust not be # co'%ulsory sub=ect o) e$uc#tion; it is ti'e th#t it #g#in beco'e # guest )ro' %#r#$ise on e#rth! love$ by everyone! #s @#s the c#se in #ncient ti'es. hen it @ill once #g#in beco'e the true te#cher o) the '#sses.8 he b#sic i$e# here is th#t %oetry is # he#venly guest #n$ it 'ust be '#$e to resu'e the role it %l#ye$ 6in #ncient ti'es.8 4ut 7ershen(on $oes not concern hi'sel) @ith the )#ct th#t these #ncient ti'es #re gone )orever! #n$ th#t nothing in our ti'e %l#ys the s#'e role it %l#ye$ then. :e ignores this )#ct bec#use he believes th#t #rt is )un$#'ent#lly $i))erent )ro' #ll the other #ctivities o) '#n. 2or hi'! #rt is # kin$ o) # 'ystic#l or s%iritu#l #ct th#t c#nnot be recre#te$ by stu$ying the )orces o) the. -ccor$ing to hi'! %oetry c#nnot be stu$ie$ scienti)ic#lly.8 +ne o) the gre#test 'ist#kes o) conte'%or#ry culture!8 he s#ys! 6#%%lic#tion o) # scienti)ic or! 'ore %recisely! # n#tur#listic 'etho$ to the stu$y o) %oetry.8 hus! @h#t conte'%or#ry schol#rs consi$er to be the only %ossible @#y o) solving the ri$$le o) #rt is )or 7ershen(on the su%re'e 'ist#ke o) conte'%or#ry culture. 2uture stu$ies #n$ investig#tions #re likely to sho@ th#t the i cre#ting # @ork o) #rt is not # 'ystic#l or $ivine #ct o) our soul! I re#l #n #ct #s #ll the other 'ove'ents o) our bo$y! only 'uch co'%leA. We h#ve $iscovere$ in the course o) our stu$y th#t # cre#tive #ct th#t c#nnot be recre#te$ by 'e#ns o) %urely conscious o%er#tions. 4ut! by est#blishing th#t the 'ost i'%ort#nt ele'ents in #rt #re subconscious or cre#tive! $o @e #uto'#tic#lly eli'in#te #ny #n$ #ll conscious 'o'ents #n$ )orcesK he #ct o) #rtistic cre#tion c#nnot be t#ught. his $oes not 'e#n! ho@ever! th#t the e$uc#tor c#nnot coo%er #te in )or'ing it or bringing it #bout. We %enetr#te the subconscious through the conscious. We c#n org#ni(e the conscious %rocesses in such # @#y th#t they gener#te subconscious %rocesses! #n$ everyone kno@s th#t #n #ct o) #rt inclu$es! #s # necess#ry con$ition! #ll %rece$ing #cts o) r#tion#l cogni(#nce! un$erst#n$ing! recognition! #ssoci#tion! #n$ so )orth. It is @rong to #ssu'e th#t the l#ter subconscious %rocesses $o not $e%en$ on the $irection i'%#rte$ by us to the conscious %rocesses. 4y org#ni(ing our conscious! @hich le#$s us to@#r$ #rt! @e insure # %riori the success or )#ilure o) the @ork o) #rt. :ence Molo(h#vy correctly st#tes th#t the #ct o) #rt is 6the %rocess o) our res%onse to the %heno'enon! #lthough it '#y never h#ve re#che$ the st#ge o) #ction. his %rocess ... @i$ens the sco%e o) our %erson#lity! en$o@s it @ith ne@ %ossibilities! %re%#res )or the co'%lete$ res%onse to the %heno'enon! th#t is! beh#vior! #n$ #lso h#s e$uc#tion#l v#lue ... Potebni# is @rong to tre#t the #rtistic i'#ge #s # con$ens#tion o) thought. 4oth thought #n$ i'#ge #re # con$ens#tion either o) the conscious @ith res%ect to the %heno'enon involve$ or o) the %syche! @hich issue$ )ro' # series o) %ositions %re%#r#tory to the %resent %osition. 4ut this gives us no right to con)use these biologic#l ele'ents! these %sychologic#l %rocesses! on the b#sis o) the v#gue #rgu'ent th#t both thought #n$ #rtistic i'#ge #re cre#tive #cts. +n the contr#ry! @e 'ust e'%h#si(e #ll their in$ivi$u#l %eculi#rities in or$er to un$erst#n$ e#ch #s # %#rt o) the @hole. he tre'en$ous strength th#t #rouses e'otions! ins%ires the @ill! )orti)ies energy! #n$ %ushes us to #ction lies in the concreteness o) the #rtistic i'#ge @hich is in turn b#se$ u%on the origin#lity o) the %sychologic#l %#th le#$ing to it.8 hese consi$er#tions nee$ one subst#nti#l correction i) @e 'ove )ro' the )iel$ o) gener#l %sychology into chil$ %sychology. When @e $eter'ine the in)luence eAerte$ by #rt! @e 'ust t#ke into #ccount the s%eci)ic %eculi#rities )#cing one @ho $e#ls @ith chil$ren. +) course this is # se%#r#te )iel$! # se%#r#te #n$ in$e%en$ent stu$y! bec#use the $o'#in o) chil$ #rt #n$ the res%onse o) chil$ren to #rt is co'%letely $i))erent )ro' th#t o) #$ults. :o@ever! @e sh#ll s#y # )e@ brie) @or$s on the sub=ect #n$ tr#ce # b#sic

line #long @hich chil$ %sychology intersects this )iel$. here #re re'#rk#ble %heno'en# in the #rt o) chil$ren. 2irst! there is the e#rly %resence o) # s%eci#l structure re.uire$ by #rt! @hich %oints to the )#ct th#t )or the chil$ there eAists # %sychologic#l kinshi% bet@een #rt #n$ %l#y. 62irst o) #ll!8 s#ys 4iihler! 6is the )#ct th#t the chil$ very e#rly #$o%ts the correct structure! @hich is #lien to re#lity but re.uire$ by the )#iry t#le! so th#t he c#n concentr#te on the eA%loits o) the heroes #n$ )ollo@ the ch#nging i'#ges. It see's to 'e th#t he loses this #bility $uring so'e %erio$ o) his $evelo%'ent! but it returns to hi' in l#ter ye#rs. ...8 -%%#rently #rt $oes not %er)or' the s#'e )unction in # chil$ #s it $oes in #n #$ult. he best eA#'%le o) this is # chil$Js $r#@ing @hich in '#ny c#ses is on the bor$erline o) #rtistic cre#tivity. he chil$ $oes not un$erst#n$ th#t the structure o) # line c#n $irectly eA%ress the 'oo$s #n$ tre%i$#tions o) the he#rt #n$ soul. he #bility to ren$er the eA%ressions o) %eo%le #n$ #ni'#ls in $i))erent %ositions #n$ gestures $evelo%s very slo@ly in # chil$! )or v#rious re#sons. he %rinci%#l one is the )un$#'ent#l )#ct th#t # chil$ $r#@s %#tterns! not events or %heno'en#. So'e cl#i' the o%%osite! but they see' to ignore the si'%le )#ct th#t # chil$Js $r#@ing is not yet #rt )or the chil$. :is #rt is uni.ue #n$ $i))erent )ro' the #rt o) #$ults! #lthough the t@o h#ve one very interesting ch#r#cteristic in co''on. It is the 'ost i'%ort#nt tr#it in #rt #n$ @e sh#ll 'ention it in conclusion. +nly recently @#s it notice$ th#t cert#in #bsur$ities or #'using nonsense @hich c#n be )oun$ in nursery rhy'es by inverting the 'ost co''on%l#ce events %l#y # tre'en$ously i'%ort#nt role in chil$ #rt. Most )re.uently the re.uire$ or $esire$ #bsur$ity is #chieve$ in # nursery rhy'e by #ssigning cert#in )unctions o) ob=ect - to ob=ect 4! #n$ vice vers#. ... U he her'it #ske$ 'e ho@ '#ny str#@berries gro@ #t the botto' o) the oce#n. I #ns@ere$ hi': L-s '#ny #s there #re re$ herrings in the )orest.J o un$erst#n$ this nursery =ingle the chil$ 'ust kno@ the truth #bout li)e: herrings eAist only in the oce#n! #n$ str#@berries only in the )orest. :e begins to look )or the #bsur$ only @hen he is #bsolutely sure o) the )#cts.8 We! too! )eel th#t the st#te'ent! th#t this #s%ect o) chil$ #rt co'es very close to %l#y! is true; #s # '#tter o) )#ct! it gives us # goo$ eA%l#n#tion o) the role #n$ the signi)ic#nce o) #rt in # chil$Js li)e. 6We still $o not .uite un$erst#n$ the connection @hich eAists bet@een nursery rhy'es #n$ chil$Js %l#y. ... When ev#lu#ting books )or s'#ll chil$ren! critics )re.uently )orget to #%%ly the criterion o) %l#y. Most )olk nursery rhy'es $o not issue )ro' g#'es but #re %l#y! # g#'e in the'selves: # %l#y o) @or$s! # %l#y o) rhyth's! soun$s; ... these 'u$$les #l@#ys '#int#in so'e sort o) i$e#l or$er. here is syste' in this )olly. 4y $r#gging # chil$ into # to%sy,turvy @orl$! @e hel% his intellect @ork! bec#use the chil$ beco'es intereste$ in cre#ting such # to%sy,turvy @orl$ )or hi'sel) in or$er to beco'e 'ore e))ectively the '#ster o) the l#@s governing the re#l @orl$. hese #bsur$ities coul$ be $#ngerous )or # chil$ i) they screene$ out the re#l interrel#tionshi%s bet@een i$e#s #n$ ob=ects. Inste#$! they %ush the' to the )ore! #n$ e'%h#si(e the'. hey enh#nce Fr#ther th#n @e#kenG the chil$Js %erce%tion o) re#lity.8 :ere! too! @e observe the s#'e %heno'enon o) the $u#lis' o) #rt. In or$er to %erceive #rt! @e 'ust conte'%l#te si'ult#neously the true situ#tion o) things #n$ their $evi#tion )ro' this situ#tion. We c#n #lso observe ho@ #n e))ect o) #rt #rises )ro' such # contr#$ictory %erce%tion. Since #bsur$ities #re tools )or the chil$ to use in un$erst#n$ing re#lity! it beco'es su$$enly cle#r @hy the eAtre'e le)tists in #rt criticis' co'e u% @ith # slog#n: art as a method for building life/ hey s#y th#t #rt is buil$ing li)e bec#use 6re#lity is )orge$ )ro' the est#blish'ent #n$ $estruction o) contr#$ictions. When they critici(e the i$e# o) #rt #s the cognition o) li)e #n$ #$v#nce the i$e# o) # $i#lectic %erce%tion o) the @orl$ through '#tter! they re#ch #gree'ent @ith the %sychologic#l l#@s o) #rt. U-rt is #n origin#l! chie)ly e'otion#l ... $i#lectic #%%ro#ch to buil$ing li)e.U &o@ @e c#n envision the role o) #rt in the )uture. It is h#r$ to guess @h#t )or's this unkno@n li)e o) the )uture @ill t#ke! #n$ it is even h#r$er to guess @h#t %l#ce #rt @ill t#ke in th#t )uture li)e. +ne thing is cle#r! ho@ever: #rising )ro' re#lity #n$ re#ching to@#r$ it! #rt @ill be $eter'ine$ by the b#sic or$er o) the )uture )lo@ o) li)e. 6In the )uture!8 s#ys 2riche! 6the role o) #rt is not likely to ch#nge subst#nti#lly )ro' its %resent role.

Soci#list society @ill not be the #ntithesis o) c#%it#list society! but its org#nic continu#tion.U I) @e reg#r$ #rt #s #n e'bellish'ent or orn#'ent o) li)e! such # vie@%oint is #$'issible. :o@ever! it b#sic#lly contr#$icts the %sychologic#l l#@s o) #rt. Psychologic#l investig#tion reve#ls th#t #rt is the su%re'e center o) biologic#l #n$ soci#l in$ivi$u#l %rocesses in society! th#t it is # 'etho$ )or )in$ing #n e.uilibriu' bet@een '#n #n$ his @orl$! in the 'ost critic#l #n$ i'%ort#nt st#ges o) his li)e. his vie@ o) course co'%letely re)utes the #%%ro#ch #ccor$ing to @hich #rt is #n orn#'ent! #n$ thereby le#$s us to $oubt the correctness o) the #bove st#te'ent. Since the )uture h#s in store not only # re#rr#nge'ent o) '#nkin$ #ccor$ing to ne@ %rinci%les! not only the org#ni(#tion o) ne@ soci#l #n$ econo'ic %rocesses! but #lso the 6re'ol$ing o) '#n!8 there see's h#r$ly #ny $oubt th#t the role o) #rt @ill #lso ch#nge. It is h#r$ to i'#gine the role th#t #rt @ill %l#y in this re'ol$ing o) '#n. We $o not kno@ @hich eAisting but $or'#nt )orces in our org#nis's it @ill $r#@ u%on to )or' the ne@ '#n. here is no .uestion! ho@ever! th#t #rt @ill h#ve # $ecisive voice in this %rocess. Without ne@ #rt there c#n be no ne@ '#n. he %ossibilities o) the )uture! )or #rt #s @ell #s )or li)e! #re inscrut#ble #n$ un%re$ict#ble. -s S%ino(# s#i$! 6 h#t o) @hich the bo$y is c#%#ble h#s not yet been $eter'ine$.8

#ble o) *ontents