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4 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

Each generation increases in reliability, speed, efficiency and ease of use and decreases in cost & size. The first Generation (1945 - 1955) - Very large computers made up of vacuum tubes and often programmed using wiring plugboards - Programmed using machine language - Mostly used for numerical calculations as wor ing out mathematical tables - !o "# The Second Generation (1955 - 1965) - Mainframes made up of transistors - Mainframes made up of transistors - $t first punch cards were used to provide input, then tapes were used %for batch processing& - 'sed $ssemblers and (")*)$! compilers for program writing -#imple batch processing was used with input files, programs and output on tape - #maller computers %e.g. +,M -./-& was used to read programs and data on punch cards on to input tapes and for offline printing - 'sed mainly for scientific and engineering applications - (M# %(ortran Monitor #ystem& and +,M +,#0# as "#s for handling 1obs %e.g. to read a 1ob and to run it& The Third Generation (1965 - 1980) -Mainframes based on small scale +2s were used. - 2apable of multiprogramming %running several 1obs at the same time& - (i3ed dis s were used and new 1obs on cards to be e3ecuted could be read on to the dis while e3ecuting other 1obs %spooling& - *hough the first models used multiprogrammed batch processing, to cater to increased response time, timesharing was introduced later %*ime-sharing #ystems& - 2omple3 "#s as "#456/ were used. - 'sed for various applications including scientific and business applications - Mini computers also appeared on the mar et which were used by small departments etc. and became the platform for '!+7. The Fourth Generation (1980 . . . ) - Mainframes, Minicomputers, 8or stations, Personal 2omputers %9es top and portable& based on V:#+ components - !etwor operating systems that facilitate file sharing, remote logging etc. and 2lient #erver computing. - 9istributed "#s that ma e use of multiple machines and processors to run applications.

- ;'+ based "# interfaces and applications. - Virtual Machines and !etwor 2omputers %!2s& Main Frame and Su er !om uters" *hey consist of terminals. they have time sharing facilities. #uper computer are high performance 2omputers. Micro !om uter" *hey are called des top computers. *hey are use for intensive calculations e.g. laptop computers, note boo , hand-held computer, Palm top computer. #edicated or S ecia$ %ur ose !om uters" *hey are called embedded %use for consumer good areas&. *hey are used in industry for controlling robots. +n these 2omputers, there are programs stored on a chip4micro chips, that can<t be changed. *hey are called firm base. !om uter !onnections" (&et'or( re)o$utions) +n the networ configurations main frame computers are used, using time sharing facilities e.g. personal computes, using land or local area networ .

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Micro !om uters" 'sed by one person at a time. *hey are also called wor station. $ll high and des top computer, are use for intensive computation. "ther e3amples are laptop computers, note boo , hand held %Palm top& computers. E3amples of Palm top computers are personal digital assistance, personal communicator. #edicated or S ecia$ %ur ose !om uters" *hese are called embeded computers e.g. they are used in enhanced consumers areas %super mar et& for calculating amount or for space inventory control. *hey are used in industry for controlling robots and computer numerical. !ontro$$in+ Manufacturin+ Machine" +n this, a program is stored on a micro chip which cannot be changed and it is called firm ware which mean a combination of hard ward and software.

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.mer+ence of &et'or(" +n main frames, time sharing is done by connecting terminals to 2P' of main frame that is called time sharing. $nother e3ample of networ is local area networ %:$!& in which P2<s are connected to each other. Many :$! are connected to each other it ma es 8$! %8ide area networ &.

0nternet" E3perimental networ s for internet begins in late 6/<s. +nternet became east to use with the development of www %world wide web&. +nternet has graphical user interface %;'+&. ,y means of internet, te3t information can be transformed into multi-media %sound, image, te3t&.

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(our basic functions of computers are= -& +nput >& "utput 5& #torage .& Processing %perform arithmetic4logical operation on information& $ computer system is composed of devices which accomplish these above mention tas s. +n the world of computers, information is digital. +t means that information is made of discrete units %units that can be counted&. $ bit is the smallest unit of inform. +t can have two values on or off, one or zero, pulse or no pulse. ,inary means that ever number is represented by a uni?ue strings of / and -. ,its are processed as group. $ byte is eight bit. $#2++ code used eight bit codes to represent characters %>@6 uni?ue patterns&. Each $#2++ character represent - bytes. '!+ code uses > bytes or -6 bits per character and can represent 6@@56 distinct codes. $ group of byte can represent colours, sounds, value or an instruction in a program. S%..#" Clock Speed: +nternal timing device which synchronize the computer operations is called cloc speed. +t is measured in mega hertz. Registers: are memory locations built directly into 2P' that are uses to hold data, that are being processed by instructions. )egister is storage compartments inside 2P' for temporary holding numbers that are being manipulated. +t is measured in bits. Data Bus size: is the path way connecting micro processor to memory. /0S!" (/educed instruction set com utin+) +t is the name of a advance technology. %/0M6/8 ST,/6G. !,M%-T./ M.M,/8 (/6M)" )am is for volatile or primary memory. +n this memory patterns of electric current flowing through microscopic circuits in #i chips. Every memory location has an address that holds one byte. Memory have input and output storing information in input and output areas of memory.

!%- 6&# M.M,/8" 2P' is consists of single silicon chip. +t is also called microprocessor. +t is housed with other chips and electrical components on a circuit board, called the mother board. +t consists of two unit, one is controlled unit and other is arithmetic logic unit. !,M%6T07040T8" #oftware is written to run on a particular processor. Every processor have a built in instruction set. /,M (/ead ,n$* Memor*)" +t is microchip type of memory and not magnetic. +ts mean that it is a circuitary memory. 8hatever is stored in that you can<t change. +t contains startup instructions and other critical information for computer system. +t contain firmware programs called ,+"# %,asic +nput and output system&. +t contain startup instruction for computer. 7-S.S9 %,/TS 6&# %./0%5./64S" ,uses are the group of wires through which information travels between computer components. ,uses consists of A, -6, and 5> etc. group of wires. 8ider buses travel information faster. Ports are the soc ets on outside of computer chase to connect devices. +t may be part of 2omputer system or may be on a added circuit board.

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*here are three types of 2omputer Programs= -& $pplication Programs e.g. M# 8ord >& #ystem #oftware e.g. operating #ystem %9"#, 8indows& 5& 2ompiler and other translator program e.g. *urbo 2 2ompiler %transfer high level to low level language& Gi)in+ !om uter 0nstructions" 2omputer is a machine in which what we input it give output. +t needs an algorithm %algorithm is a set of step by step procedures for accomplishing a tas &. %ro+rammin+ 4an+ua+es" +n programming languages, machine language is consider a binary language. +t consist of combinations of zeros and one. ,inary language is very difficult to code. 5i+her 4e)e$ %ro+rammin+ 4an+ua+es" E3amples are ,asics, 2, 2obol, (ortran, Pascal. *hey are special languages with there own rules. *hey need translators or compiler to convert to the machine language.

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!6T.G,/0.S ,F 6%%40!6T0,&" a& 8ord Processing & 9es top publishing %e.g. M# 8ord, Photo #hop, 2orel 9raw&

b& #pread #heet %e.g. M# E3cel& c& 9ata bases for information storage & retrieved %e.g. M# access, 9base, (o3pro.& d& *elecommunication and networ ing software %e.g. :$!B #oftware C 2ircuit& e& 2omputer graphic applications %e.g. 2orel draw, photo shop& f& Multimedia and hyper media 1hat is Soft'are %ac(a+e" *he software pac age is a disc containing software which is to be installed. +t contain documentation, written manuals, on line documentation, other consideration are compatibility of hardware, compatibility of software and plateform. Plateform is hardware on which software runs or operating system on which software runs. 2haracteristics of good software products= +t built around visual mataphors of real world tools. +t e3tends human capabilities in same way ma ing them valuable as a tool. +ntegrated applications= +t means that it include several applications designed to wor together %e.g. Microsoft office& System Software: +t means that hardware and software applications4connection

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7asic , eratin+ S*stem Functions *he main purpose of an operating system is to ma e the computer easier to use. *hat is, the software provides an interface that is more user friendly than underlying hardware. $s a part of this process, the operating system manages the resources of the computer in an attempt to meet overall system goals such as efficiency. *he operating system usually hides such comple3ities from the user. *he operating system supports a user interface that governs the interactions with programmers, operators, etc. *he user interface is what is usually described in response to the ?uestion, 8hat ind of operating system is thisD *he operating system also provides programs with a set of services that can aid in the performance of many common tas s. #uch service routines can be thought of as providing a run-time environment for the programs being e3ecuted. -& *ypes of "perating #ystems >& 'ser +nterface 5& )un-*ime Environment T* es of , eratin+ S*stems *he most common ways of classifying operating systems are based on the ind of user interface provided. "ne way of classifying operating systems is concerned with the number of users the system can support at one time.

$ single-1ob system is one that runs one user 1ob at a time. $ multiprogramming system permits several user 1obs to be e3ecuted concurrently $ multiprocessor system is similar to a multiprogramming system, e3cept that there is more than one 2P' available $ networ of computers may be organized in a number of different ways. Each computer may have its own independent operating system, which provides an interface to allow communication via the networ . $ user of such a system is aware of the e3istence of the networ . Ee or she may login to remote machines, copy files from one machine to another, etc. *his ind of system is often called a networ operating system. $ distributed operating system allows a more compiles type of networ organization. *his ind of operating system manages hardware and software resources so that a user views the entire networ as a single system. Eistorically, operating systems have also been classified by the type of access provided to a user. +n a batch processing system, a 1ob is described by a se?uence of control statements stored in a machine-readable form. *he operating system can read and e3ecute a series of such 1ob without human intervention e3cept for such functions as tape and dis mounting. $ time-sharing system provides interactive, or conversational, access to a number of users. *he operating system e3ecutes commands as they are entered, attempting to provide each user with a reasonably short response time to each command. $ real-time system is designed to respond ?uic ly to e3ternal signals such as those generated by data sensors. *he goal of a multiprogramming batch processing system is to ma e the most efficient use of the computer *he goal of a time-sharing system is to provide good response time *he goal of a real-time system is to provide a guaranteed response time to timecritical e3ternal events -ser 0nterface *he user interface provided by an operating system is designed to serve the needs of the various groups of people who must deal with the computer. +n a simple operating system, such as one designed for a personal computer, the user interface is also relatively simple. *he typical user of such a system is primarily concerned with running programs and managing files. *he interface is generally designed to be easy to use.

(or more comple3 systems, there may be a number of different user-interface languages. Menus and graphical interfaces are sometimes provided for occasional users of the system. *here may also be a more comple3 and more powerful command language that is intended for use by professional programmers and system manages. +n addition, there is usually a special language that is used to communicate with the operators of the computer. *he user interface of an operating system does not usually present ma1or technical problems. Eowever, the design of this interface is e3tremely important because it is the part of the system that is e3perienced by most users. $n operating system must also contain service routines to support the user interface. (or a personal computer, these might be simple routines to handle input from the eyboard and output to a display. +n more complicated systems, there may be interfaces to remote time-sharing terminals, remote printers, or remote sensing devices. *here may also be interfaces to other computers that are lin ed into a networ with the local system. /un-Time .n)ironment *he run-time environment contains a set of service routines that are available for use during program e3ecution. +t also provides facilities for managing the resources of the computing system, assigning these resources to user programs as needed. *he service routines can be thought of as defining an e3tended machine for use by programs during e3tended machineF they have no need to be concerned with the underlying real machine. *he e3tended machine is easier to use than the real machine would be. (or e3ample, the details of performing an +4" operation are much simpler. *he e3tended machine may also be more attractive in other ways. (or e3ample, +4" operations on the e3tended machine may appear to be less error than on the real machine. *he e3tended machine is sometimes referred to as a virtual machine. Eowever, the term virtual machine is also used in a different, although related conte3t. +n a multiprogramming operating system, the run-time environment also contains routines that manages the resources of the computer, allocating them to user 1obs as needed. *he run-time environment provides each user 1ob with the illusion of having its own separate e3tended machine, even though the underlying real machine is being shared among several users. Multiprocessor and distributed operating system provide a similar service for their 1obs.

"n some systems, the user programs can call operating system functions by referring directly to fi3ed location in memory. "n more advanced systems, the user generally re?uest operating system functions by means of some special hardware instruction such as a supervise call%#V2&. E3ecution of an #V2 instruction generates an interrupt that transfers control to an operating system service routine. $ code supplied by the #V2 instruction specifies the type of re?uest. "n a typical machine, the generation of an interrupt also causes the 2P' to switch from user mode to supervisor mode. +n supervisor mode, all machine instructions and features can be used. Most parts of the operating system are designed to run supervisor mode. +n user mode, however, some instructions are not available. *hese might include, for e3ample, instructions that perform +4" functions, set memory protection flags, or switch the 2P' from one mode to another. )estricting the use of such privileged instructions forces programs to ma e use of the services provided by the run-time environment. *hat is, user programs must deal with the e3tended machine interface, rather than utilizing the underlying hardware functions directly. *his restriction also prevents user programs from interfering, either deliberately or accidentally, with the resource management functions of the operating systems. Privileged instructions and user4supervisor modes %or their e?uivalents& are a practical necessity for a system that supports more than one user at a time.

3arious %arts of , eratin+ S*stem $n operating system for large scale contains many millions of lines of instructions written by programmers. *o ma e operating systems easier to write, they are constructed as a series of modules, each module responsible for one function. *ypical modules in a larger multi user "# could be= -& Gernel %also now as the e3ecutive& >& Process Manager 5& #cheduler .& (ile Manager 1) /ea$ Time .:ecuti)e ((erne$)" #ome of the functions perform by it are i& #witching b4w program ii& Eardware device controls programming iii& Memory Management iv& Process Management v& #cheduling

vi& +nter process communication vii& Processing of e3ceptions and interrupts ;) %rocess Mana+er" $ process is the unit of wor in a system. #uch a system consists of a collection of processes, some of which are operating system processes and the rest of which are user processes. $ll these processes can potentially e3ecute concurrent, by multiple3ing the 2P' among them. *he operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management= - *he creation and deletion of both user and system processes - *he suspension and resumption of processes <) Schedu$er" $ process migrates between the various scheduling ?ueues throughout its lifetime. *he operating system must select, for scheduling purposes, processes from these ?ueues in some fashion. *he selection process is carried out by the appropriate scheduler. 4) Fi$e Mana+er" $ file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. 2omputers can store information on several different types of physical media. Magnetic tape, magnetic dis , and optical dis are the most common media. *he operating system implements the abstract concept of a file by managing mass storage media, such as tapes and dis s, and the devices which control them. $lso, files are normally organized into directories to ease their use. (inally, when multiple users have access to files, it may be desirable to control by whom and in what ways files may be accessed. *he operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file management. - *he creation and deletion of files - *he creation and deletion of directories - *he support of primitives for manipulating files and directories - *he bac up of files on stable %nonvolatile& storage media. Thread" $ thread is a part of a process. $ process can consists of several thread, each of which e3ecute individually e.g. one thread could be fresh or handled screen refresh and drawning, another thread printing, another thread the mouse and eyboard. *his gives good response time for comple3 programs. 8indow !* is an e3ample of an "# which support multi-threading. Mu$ti-%rocess ,S" #ome systems runs only a single process at a time, other system runs multiple process at

once. Most computer system are single processor based, and a processor can only e3ecute one instruction at a time. Processor of computer runs one process for short period of time, then is switch to rent process, as the processor e3ecute millions of instructions per second, this give the appearance of many processes running at once. +n a computer system which support more than one process at once, some mechanism must by use to switch from one to another tas . *here are two main method use to perform this switching. "ne is co-operative switching and other is pre-emptive switching. !onte:t S'itchin+" #witching the 2P' to another process re?uires saving the state of old process and loading the saved state for the new process. *his tas is nown as a conte3t switch. +ts speed varies from machine to machine, depending on the memory speed, the number of registers which must be copied, and the e3istence of special instructions. *ypically, the speed ranges from - to -/// microseconds. 2onte3t-switch times are highly dependent on hardware support. (or instance, some processors provide the multiple sets of registers. *he more comple3 the operating system, the more wor must be done during a conte3t switch. *ime spent that a process runs for before being conte3t switch is called a time slice. S!5.#-40&G" 9eciding which process should run ne3t is called #cheduling, and can be done n a wide varieties of ways. Co-operative Schedulers are very simple, as the processes are arranged in Hround robinH ?ueue. 8hen running give up itself, it goes to end of the ?ueue. Process at top of ?ueue is then run, and all process in the ?ueue move up one place. Pre-emptive Scheduling a real time cloc which generates interrupts at regular intervals e.g. every - hundred of a second. Each time an interrupt occurs, processors switch to another tas . #ystem employing this type of scheduling assigns priorities to each processes, so that some may be e3ecuted fre?uently than others. 4oaded , eratin+ S*stem" ".# can be loaded in two ways into computer memory= -& +t is already present in )"M >& +t is loaded from disc when computer is turned on. +f ".# is already present in )"M, for system li e industrial, controller, petrol pumps etc., it will gain control immediately the processor is powered on, for more comple3 system ".# is usually stored on secondary media such as disc, and loaded into )$M when computer is powered on. $dvantages of this type of system is that changes to ".# are easier to ma e and implement.

#0FF./.&T T8%.S ,F ,%./6T0&G S8ST.M ".# are divided into categories which defines their characteristics. Modern may use combination of those described below= 1) 7atch ,.S" +t is the Earliest type of ".#, allowed only one program to run at a time. Programs was entered entered into 2omputer then run till completed. 9ata used by program could not be modified while program was running. $ny error in program4data means starting all over again. ;) 0nteracti)e ,.S" *his allow modification and entry of data while program is running, *ypical system are = $ir line reservation. <) Time Sharin+=Mu$ti -ser ,.S" *ime sharing, or multi tas ing is a logical e3tension of multiprogramming. Multiple 1obs are e3ecuted by the 2P' switching between them, but the switches occur so fre?uently that the users may interact with each program while it is running. $ time shared operating system allows the many users to share the computer simultaneously. #ince each action or command in time shared system tend to be short, only a little 2P' time is need for each user. $s the system switches rapidly from one user to the ne3t, each user is given the impression that he has his own computer, whereas actually one computer is being shared among many users.

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+nternational standard organisation develops a model which promotes a networ protocol Model proposed that all networ protocols %algorithm& should consist of seven distinct layer. -& Each layer should performed each define function of set of related tas s. >& Each layer on one system communicates with the e?uivalent layer on other systems. 5& Each layer may have it own protocols, or may be a logical segmentation. .& :ayer boundaries should be chosen so that there is only small amount of information flow across the boundary. (ollowing the +nternational #tandard "rganization, we refer to the layers with the following descriptions= 1. %h*sica$ 4a*er" *he Physical layer is responsible for handling both the mechanical and electrical details of the physical transmission of a bit stream. $t the physical layer, the communicating

systems must agree on the electrical representation of a binary / and -, so that when data are sent as a stream of electrical signals, the receiver is able to interpret the data properly as binary data. *his layer is implemented in the hardware of the networ ing device. ;. #ata-$in( $a*er" *he data-lin layer is responsible for handling the frames or fi3ed length parts of pac ets, including any error detection and recovery that occurred in the physical layer. <. &et'or( 4a*er" *he networ layer is responsible for providing connections and for routing pac ets in the communication networ , including handling the address of outgoing pac ets, decoding the address of incoming pac ets, and maintaining routing information for proper response to changing load levels. )outers wor s at this layer. Connectionless mode C!": +n 2: mode, only a datagram service is provided, similar to the postal letter service. !o one guarantees that data arrive in same order in which they have been sent, and every intermediate system is allowed to discard pac et, if there are insufficient resources available to deal with e.g. buffer are full. +n 2: mode system. +n 2: mode system, high layers have to deal with rese?uencing. )e-transmission of lost pac ets e.g., where a reliable data stream is re?uired. 4. Trans ort 4a*er" *he transport layer is responsible for low-level access to the networ and for transfer of messages between the clients, including partitioning messages into pac ets, maintaining pac et order, controlling flow, and generating physical addresses. 5. Session 4a*er" *he session layer is responsible for implementing sessions or process-to-process communications protocols. *ypically, these protocols are the actual communications for remote logins, and for file and mail transfers. 6. %resentation 4a*er" *he presentation layer is responsible for resolving the difference in formats among the various sites in the networ , including character conversions, and half duple3-full modes %character echoing&. >. 6 $ication 4a*er" *he application layer is responsible for interacting directly with the users. *his layer deals with file transfer, remote-login protocols, and electronic mail, as well as with schemas for distributed databases.

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*ransmission media refers to medium which carries signal from sender to receiver.

2opper based wire is the most common form of wire and is used for virtually all lin s e3cept for long distance. Media often introduces unwanted changes to the signals, which limit and fre?uency range of signals which can be transmitted. "pen wire seldom nowadays. +t has been replaced by microwave system or newer technologies. *wisted pair wire are most common form of wires used today to connect telephone subscriber to e3changes %switching centers and wire buildings&. *wo insulated wires are twisted around each other, and combine with other into a wire. *wisting wire is started to be a favourite choice for inter connecting computers on a local area networ . +n general each twisted pair supports a single voice channel. *wisted pairs are used in :$! as several ratings, categories 5 as a speed rating of -/M bits4sec that is speed of ether net where as category @ as a speed rating of -//, bits4sec.8ires are provided with ground shield which help to reduce signal interference from e3ternal sources, this ma ing signal travelling round the cable less inclined to alteration. *wisted is provided in two form -& #hielded twisted pair >& 'nshielded twisted pair %'*P& 'nshielded twisted pair is a predominant wire used today. *wo conductors are coated with a plastic sheet then twisted around each other to ma e multi pair wire. *wisting of wires around each other helps to reduce unwanted signals being induced in the wires. +t is use for telephone wiring inside the buildings, as telephone wires which lin s customer houses and building to telephone e3changes, and for implementing :$!. '*P has advantages of - 2heap to install - easy to terminate 9isadvantages= - limited in distance - very noisy disadvantages - #uffers from interference !o-a:ia$ 'ire" 'ntil recently co-a3ial wire e3tensively used to support long distance lin . *oday it is being replaced by microwave, satellite or fiber optic lin s. 2o-a3ial wire is a two wire conductor with the larger band width than twisted pair wire. +t is used in television, radios and ethernet based :$!. Each co-a3ial wire support about 6/ channels. +ts most popular form );-@A$' wire commonly called thin ethernet. *hin ethernet is cheap to install and it has a speed of -/ billion bits per second. Each end of wire is terminated using a @/ ohm terminator.

2o-a3ial wire is used e3tensively in data communication and networ ing. $ centre conductor is separated from an outer conductor by an insulating media. 8ire cannot be crushed or bent sharply, as it damages the insulation between conductor and thus alter electrical characteristics of wire. +t is used for :$!, lin ing computer together. !etwor ing protocol commonly used with co-a3ial wire is ethernet, which describes how data is formated and transmitted along a shared system. 2o-a3ial wire has the advantages of cost less to install, confirms to standard, widely used. +t<s disadvantages are -& limited in distance >& limited in number of connections 5& terminations and connections must be done properly. Micro 1a)e" Micro wave is a radio system uses very high fre?uencies to send and receive data. ,ecause of the high fre?uencies involve stations are located about 5- m and in line of sight %visible to each other&. *hey have sufficient band width capacity to support a large number of voice channels and > or more *V channel. Micro wave has advantages of medium capacity, medium cost, can go long distance. +t<s disadvantages are noise interference, geographical difficulties due to line of sight re?uirements. Fi?er , tic 1ire" *his is made from strands of silicon %glass&, coated with a plastic sheet. *his signals are converted to light pulses before being sent. Each fiber optic strand can support thousands of speech channel, and multiple *V channel simultaneously. +t is used mainly for long haul lin s and inter continental lin s. $ strand of #i glass fiber %thinner than a human hair& is coated with a refractive surface. 8hen light provided by laser is shown into the strand, it travels along fiber strand, the refractive layer prevents it from s ipping. +t is used for long haul transmission lin s, high speed data lin s from computers and information service to home. (iber wire have advantages of higher capacity, resistance to interference, can go long distances. +t<s disadvantages are = costly and difficult to 1oin. Sate$$ite" ;round stations with large dishes communicate with a communication satellite in ;eostationary orbit around the earth. Each channel is managed by a trasnponder which can receive thousands of speech channels and about . *V channel simultaneously. 2ost of satellite lin s is still very e3pensive about .bI per transponder. #atellite systems are comprises of ground based transmitter and receiver dishes with an orbital satellite circuit called transponder. #ignals are transmitted to satellite which relays it bac to ground station.

*he foot print coverage of a satellite is very large, covering thousands of s?. m. #atellite system have the advantages of low cost per user, high capacity, very large coverage. +t<s disadvantages are high installed cost in launching a satellite, receivers and decoders re?uired.

!hanne$ ,r+ani@ation 9ata may be send between > points in > ways. :ets consider sending A bit of digital data. *hese bits can be send al one parallel or one after the other serial. %ara$$e$ Transmission" Each bit uses a separate wire to transfer data on a parallel lin s, a separate line is use as a cloc signal. *his serves to inform the receiver when data is available. +n addition another line may be used by the receiver to inform the sender that data has been used and is ready for ne3t data. Parallel transmission is ?uic er than serial one, because more than one bit is send at a time. parallel transmission is good for short lin s, an e3amples are found in all computers. *he address, data and control buses, which interface the processor to other peripheral inside the computer are all parallel buses. +n addition most printer on computers %:P*-4:P*>& %are line printers& use parallel interface commonly called centronic interface. +n serial transmission each bit is send over a signal wire on after the other. !o signal lines are use to convey cloc timing information. *here are two ways in which timing information is in coded with the signal so that sender and receiver are synchronised, wor ing on save data at same time. +f no cloc information is send, receiver can mis-interpretate ariving data due to bits being lost going too slow. 2ommon standard for serial communication is )#>5>.

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.ditor" Editor are use to create te3t document. *hey provide facilities for load, editing, saving of source document, second change and replace te3t string character or words and third find, search for te3t string, character of words. Move, copy, delete bloc of te3t. Editor consists of two basic types -& line based >& #creen based 4ine 7ased .ditor" +t presents a single line for editing. $ll source program lines are referenced by line number, generated by the editor. Editing is perform on single line. :eft & right cursor ey may be used to get the line of te3t. e.g. 9"#

Screen 7ased .ditor" *hese provide many features, editing is perform using complete screen for e3ample more than one line. 2ursor may be moved in any of . directions, provision is made for scrolling the te3t when cursor e3ceeds the boundary of the displayed window. ,y displaying more than one line at a time, screen editor facilitate the speedy modifications re?uires for source document e.g. !ote Pad %ro+ram Trans$ation SeAuence" +n developing a software program to accomplish a particular tas , program developer chooses an appropriate language, develops an algorithm which is a se?uence of steps which when carried out in a order prescribed, achieve the desired result. +mplement this algorithm in selective language %coding&, then test and debug final result. *his is a maintenance phase. *he selected language is undoubtly need to be converted into binary bit pattern which ma e sense to the target processor %2P', the processor on which the software will be run&. *his process of conversion is called *ranslation. 6ssem?$er" $ssembler are programs which generate Machine codes instructions from a source code program written in assembly language. *he features provided by an assembler are= -& $llow programmer to use mnemonics %memory techni?ues to remember difficult name& when writing source code programs. >& Variables are represented by symbolic names, not as memory locations. 5& #ymbolic code is easier to read and follow. .& Error chec ing is provided. @& 2hanges can be ?uic ly and easily been incorporated with reassembly. 6& Programming techni?ues are included for e3pression evaluation. 5i+h 4e)e$ 4an+ua+es" +n high level languages, one english type statement represents se?uence of Machine code statements. Eigh level languages are useful in developing comple3 softwares as they support comple3 data structure and increase programmers productivity. +t also means that programmer does not need to learnt instruction sets of each computer being wor with. $ll E:: statements must be converted to Machine code in order for a processor to run them. *here are two ways in which E:: can be converted to Machine codes. Either at run time %interpreted& or before run time %compile&. 0nter reter" $ program that e3ecutesinstructions written in a high-level language. *here are two ways to run programs written in a high-level language. *he most common is to compile the programF the other method is to pass the program through an interpreter.

$n interpreter translates high-level instructions into an intermediate form, which it then e3ecutes. +n contrast, a compiler translates high-level instructions directly into machine language. 2ompiled programs generally run faster than interpreted programs. *he advantage of an interpreter, however, is that it does not need to go through the compilation stage during which machine instructions are generated. *his process can be time-consuming if the program is long. *he interpreter, on the other hand, can immediately e3ecute high-level programs. (or this reason, interpreters are sometimes used during the development of a program, when a programmer wants to add small sections at a time and test them ?uic ly. +n addition, interpreters are often used in education because they allow students to program interactively. ,oth interpreters and compilers are available for most high-level languages. Eowever, ,$#+2 and :+#P are especially designed to be e3ecuted by an interpreter. +n addition, page description languages, such asPost#cript, use an interpreter. Every Post#cript printer, for e3ample, has a built-in interpreter that e3ecutes Post#cript instructions. !om i$ers" $ program that translates source code into ob1ect code. *he compiler derives its name from the way it wor s, loo ing at the entire piece of source code and collecting and reorganizing the instructions. *hus, a compiler differs from an interpreter, which analyzes and e3ecutes each line of source code in succession, without loo ing at the entire program. *he advantage of interpreters is that they can e3ecute a program immediately. 2ompilers re?uire some time before an e3ecutable program emerges. Eowever, programs produced by compilers run much faster than the same programs e3ecuted by an interpreter. Every high-level programming language %e3cept strictly interpretive languages& comes with a compiler. +n effect, the compiler is the language, because it defines which instructions are acceptable. ,ecause compilers translate source code into ob1ect code, which is uni?ue for each type of computer, many compilers are available for the same language. (or e3ample, there is a (")*)$! compiler for P2s and another for $pple Macintosh computers. +n addition, the compiler industry is ?uite competitive, so there are actually many compilers for each language on each type of computer. More than a dozen companies develop and sell 2 compilers for the P2. 4in(ers" *he :in er is an application that you use to lin or 1oin together ob1ect modules that were created using $n assembler or compiler that creates +ntel "M(-@- ob1ect modules. "b1ect modules that are created by these applications are relocatable and cannot be e3ecuted by themselves. *hey must be converted into absolute ob1ect modules.

Programs you create using the $ssembler and the 2 2ompiler from (ran lin #oftware, +nc., must be lin ed using :in er. 0ou cannot e3ecute or simulate programs that are not lin ed. Even if they consist of only one source module. *he :in er will lin one or more ob1ect modules together and will resolve references from one to the other. *his allows you to create a large program that is spread over a number of source and ob1ect modules. +n brief, *he :in er performs the following operations= 2ombines several program modules into one module automatically incorporating modules from the library files 2ombines relocatable partial segments of the same segment name into a single segment $llocates and manipulates the necessary memory for the segments with which all relocatable and absolute segments are processed ;enerates code that interfaces with the )*7@- )eal-*ime Multitas ing "perating #ystems $nalyzes the program structure and manipulates the data memory using overlay techni?ues )esolves e3ternal and public symbols ;enerates the code necessary to switch code ban s when ban switched functions are invo ed. 9efines absolute addresses and computes the addresses of relocatable segments Produce an absolute ob1ect file that contains the entire program Produce a listing file that contains information about the :in 4:ocate procedure, program symbols, and cross reference of public and e3ternal symbol names 9etects errors found in the invocation line or during the :in 4:ocate run

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