PA L E O N T O L O G I C A L R E S E A R C H I N S T I T U T I O N

T H E S C I E N C E B E N E AT H T H E S U R FA C E

Understanding Drilling Technology

Introduction The Marcellus Shale is an unconventional natural gas resource found beneath the surface of Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, and New York. The natural gas found in the Marcellus Shale is requires unconventional methods of extraction, in this case high-volume, horizontal hydraulic fracturing, because of the way the natural gas is trapped in the formation. Until fairly recently, it was not economically feasible to extract the natural trapped in a tight shale like the Marcellus. In recent years, however, a new combination of existing drilling technologies horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing has emerged that makes this possible. Conventional Natural Gas Extraction Unconventional natural gas extraction is new to New York State, but gas has been produced

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A discussion of the technologies associated with unconventional natural gas drilling and how it compares to more familiar conventional drilling techniques.
by conventional drilling methods in New York since the 1800s. A conventional gas resource is usually one in which the gas forms in a specific rock unit, called a source rock (the Marcellus is a source rock), but migrates out of this rock unit toward areas of lower pressure. It is eventually trapped by an impermeable rock unit, called a reservoir or reserve. Sometimes the reservoir is a void created when a layer of rock has broken and moved beneath the surface; sometimes the reservoir is created when gas collects in the pore spaces in rock layers that have formed subterranean hills Conventional drilling techniques require geologists to find reservoirs of natural gas, and then drill down into them to extract the gas. Sometimes it is difficult or impossible to set up drilling operations directly above a natural gas reservoir. If the oil or gas deposit is located under an urban area, for instance, surface conditions would not allow drilling there. To get around this problem, conventional oil and gas wells can be drilled at various angles underground in a process called directional drilling. One version of directional drilling, horizontal drilling, starts with a vertical well bore (the hole the well makes under the surface) which is then angled until it is oriented horizontally. From there, the well can be drilled horizontally underground for

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thousands of feet. Horizontal drilling provides access to reservoirs that are too thin or compacted to be accessed with conventional vertical wells. Some directional wells have even been angled beyond horizontal, and have hooked back upward in order to access particularly difficult-to-reach oil or gas pockets. This is called fish hook drilling. Horizontal drilling is the type of directional drilling that is currently being used to access the natural gas in the Marcellus Shale in Pennsylvania, and that will be used to access the Marcellus Shale in New York if Marcellus wells are drilled. If a source rock does not have abundant natural pore space or fractures, the oil or gas may not be able to migrate from its source rock into a reservoir rock from which it can be easily extracted. To get around this problem, such tight source rocks are artificially cracked or fractured, by any of a variety of techniques, in order to stimulate well production. Fracturing source rock in order to increase gas well production in conventional resources has a long history in New York State. Beginning in the 1860s, the explosive nitroglycerin was used, sometimes illegally, to crack rocks in shallow wells. Since then, and throughout the United States, various fracturing fluids have been used to fracture rocks by hydrostatic pressure. These fracturing fluids, when under high pressure, either create or expand fractures in the rock, creating hydraulic fractures. The Marcellus Shale is one such tight source rock, so hydraulic fracturing is used to extract the natural gas from it. Hydraulic fracturing not used solely to increase connectivity of pore spaces in the rock to the well bore. It is also used to decrease the hydraulic pressure in the areas nearest a vertical well in order to minimize drilling

complications. It can also be used to increase the gas flow rate of vertical wells damaged by the buildup of scale (the accumulation of minerals in pipes and other equipment) or other materials.1 Unconventional natural gas drilling is considered unconventional because the natural gas has not migrated from the source rock into a reservoir, but remains trapped within the source rock. Extracting this natural gas requires 1) additional surface area contact between the well bore to the source rock, which is provided by drilling horizontal wells, and 2) the creation of pathways for the natural gas to flow out of the source rock and into the well, which is provided by hydraulic fracturing. It is the combination of tight source rock with the application of unconventional drilling technology (just hydraulic fracturing, just horizontal drilling, or a combination of both) that makes a resource unconventional. Either the gas resource itself or the technologies used to extract the gas can be referred to as unconventional. The remainder of this discussion will consider the unconventional natural gas drilling being used in the Marcellus Shale, which requires both horizontal drilling and hydraulic fracturing of a geologically unique reservoir rock to be economically viable. Unconventional and Conventional Well Drilling A Matter of Scale Vertical well operations differ from horizontal well drilling operations in scale. A vertical well pad (the area at the surface, surrounding the well bore that is used to conduct the drilling and hydraulic fracture activities) is smaller than a horizontal well pad a fraction of an acre to about 3 acres for a vertical pad and 3

to 6 acres for a horizontal well pad. The size of the well pad in both horizontal and vertical drilling operations increases as on-site storage needs increase for equipment and fluid. The amount of water and chemicals used in a horizontal well that is hydraulically fractured is greatly increased (by up to 100-fold) over vertical wells that are hydraulically fractured. Vertical wells typically use 20,000 80,000 gallons of water for hydraulic fracturing, and New York State regulations state that any well fractured with more than 300,000 gallons of water is considered a high-volume well.2 Horizontal wells, however, use between 2 and 9 million gallons of water; 4.3 million gallons of water is the average in a Marcellus well in the Susquehanna River Basin of Pennsylvania.3 Hydraulic fracturing operations in both vertical and horizontal wells incorporate a variety of chemicals to enhance recovery of oil or gas. Just like the drilling process itself, the chemicals used have changed over time, largely through trial and error experimentation, but also through regulation. In the past, they have included acid, water and acid combined, squeeze-cement, napalm and gasoline, and a variety of gelled fossil fuels.4 Modern methods of hydraulic fracturing evolved in the 1960s with the advent of water-based gels that were used to carry proppant into fractures. Proppants are natural or manufactured (e.g., ceramic beads) sand grains that are used to hold open the fractures created during hydraulic fracturing. Adding proppants to the fracture fluid led to further experimentation with fluid viscosity. Surfactants and crosslinkers (chemical additives) were added to adjust the viscosity of the fluid in an attempt to optimize the amount of

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 1: A Comparison between Conventional and Unconventional Drilling Table

Well type Well pad footprint Road Construction Footprint Water required Chemicals required Time to drill well Hydraulic fracturing required Source rock Conventional Drilling vertical >1 acre to 3 acres Similar to unconventional drilling 20,000 to 80,000 gallons ~ 1 month sometimes large pocket of resource; easy to extract Unconventional Drilling horizontal 3 to 6 acres 5.7 acres 2 to 9 million gallons; average 4 million gallons ~ 3 months almost always resource scattered throughout rock, hard to extract

proppant carried into the fractures and the speed at which they were transported. For information on the chemicals used in Marcellus Shale hydraulic fracturing operations, please see Marcellus Shale Issue 7: Water Into the Wells. Eventually, the combination of these different methods created what is called high volume, slickwater, horizontal hydraulic fracturing, which is currently used in the Marcellus Shale and other tight shale gas plays (the area in under development by natural gas operators). High-volume, horizontal hydraulic fracturing is so named because it differs from other drilling methods in a few important ways. In this technology, a vertical well is drilled with a horizontal leg (or lateral) that runs parallel to the rock being drilled. Wells that travel horizontally through a gas-bearing layer require a higher volume of water to fracture, or crack, the rock than wells that only bore vertically; about 4.5 million versus 80 thousand gallons, respectively. The term slickwater refers to the combination of chemicals added to the fracturing fluid to modify its

viscosity, thus increasing the speed at which it travels in the well. Drilling a Well Drilling a well to extract natural gas from the ground may sound simple but it is not. Vertical or horizontal, hydraulically fractured or not, all gas well drilling requires a long series of usually complex steps. Before any drilling takes place, the well pad must be established, and be large enough to support all of the equipment needed to drill and hydraulically fracture a well. In the case of horizontal wells, a special drill bit is used to turn the drill at an angle at a predetermined depth, referred to as the kickoff point. To turn a well fully horizontal takes around 1000 vertical feet of drilling. As the well is being drilled, it is lined with steel casing in order to prevent collapse of the hole. Casings also prevent drilling fluids and gas from escaping through the sides of the well. Steel casing is inserted into the drilled hole, cemented in place, and then the well is drilled deeper with a slightly smaller drill bit. Then

another, slimmer casing is hung in the deeper well hole and cemented in place.4 Guiding shoes on the ends of the casing help the lengths of casing move down the well safely, and a spring-like centralizer positions the casing in the center of the well hole. Eight types of cement are classified by the American Petroleum Institute (API) for use in well casings. This classification system was designed to address quality concerns such as poor raw ingredients, and the cement chosen is commonly mixed with cement additives that modify its setting time and density. The cement is pumped down the well inside the casing. When it reaches the bottom of the hole, it flows out and back up the space between the casing and the drilled well, the area called the annulus. To ensure that the cement in the casing is pushed fully into the annulus, a wiper plug is inserted behind the wet cement to force the cement out of the well bore, clean the inside walls of the casing, and separate the cement from additional drilling muds. After the wiper plug is inserted, drilling muds (substances that lubricate the drill bit and make drilling easier and faster)are pumped into the well to continue to force the cement into lining the outside of the casing wall.5 Marcellus wells are drilled and cased in multiple stages. This process is called a casing program. The first piece of casing, called the conductor pipe, has the largest diameter. Its primary job is to prevent the collapse of the top of the well. It also prevents exchange of fluids between the well and nearby shallow water and gas reserves and provides a path for drilling muds. Blowout preventers (valves that help regulate erratic pressure changes that can be found while drilling) are attached to this level of casing.5

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Surface casing is the next level of casing, and is commonly around 13 inches in diameter. Its job is similar to the conductor pipe; it prevents contamination of groundwater by drilling muds and keeps sediment from caving into the well. Intermediate casing, which is typically 8 5/8 inches in diameter, is added to mitigate potential problems at greater depths, like areas of unusually high pressure (due to shallow gas pockets). The last casing to be inserted into the well is thinnest in diameter (between 2-4 inches) and is called the production casing. It is run through the length of the well that will be producing natural gas. Because casing lines the entirety of the well, it must have holes punctured into it in order for natural gas to have a pathway into the well. These holes are created by perforation guns (perf guns) that are positioned in the lateral part of the well with a wire line or drill pipe and guiding wheels. There are many varieties of perf guns, but they all function in a similar way. Once in position, the perf gun shoots small projectiles (called shaped charges), which are essentially armor-piercing bullets, directly into the casing. These charges punch through the steel casing and cement-filled annulus. After the well has been completed, the gas company runs a series of pressure tests, commonly called shut ins, on the well. These tests, which usually last 72 hours, assess whether the newly drilled well was drilled and cased correctly. After these tests, a device known as a Christmas Tree is placed on the top of the well at the surface. This device allows gas to be pumped into production pipelines. It also monitors production and holds the regulating blowout valve that is designed to control erratic pressures in the well and to seal the well in an

emergency.

greater than for vertical wells. The direction and length of the Unconventional Natural Gas lateral (horizontal part of the well) Extraction depends on the local geology, the Fossil fuel extraction by convenamount of land available to the tional means is very costly. Fewer driller, and the available technolthan 50% of oil and gas wells ever ogy. Laterals in shale gas wells have drilled in the U.S. have become com- commonly been around 4,000 to mercially successful. This is because 5,000 feet in length, but companies many turn out to have little or no oil are expected to increase the length of or gas that can be extracted economi- laterals in the Marcellus as the limits cally. Some of them are truly dry of the technology are more widely holes while others have oil or gas, tested. The directions in which the but the source rock was damaged laterals extend from the vertical part during drilling, lowering permeabilof the well bore are determined as ity near the well, or were otherwise a result of analysis of the current less prolific than originally thought. underground stresses and the preNew drilling techniques were dicted effects of existing and stimuoriginally developed in an effort to lated fractures. In the Marcellus, gas extract more resources from those companies are directionally drilling conventional wells in a second or laterals in the north-northwest and third drilling attempt. These techsouth-southeast directions.6 For niques, known as secondary or more information on why laterals tertiary recovery, received the first are drilled in this direction, please hydraulic fracturing treatments. refer to our pamphlet Marcellus Shale Later, the technology, combined with Issue 5: Jointing and Fracturing in the horizontal drilling, became useful for Marcellus Shale. recovering fossil fuels in impermeable, unconventional reservoirs. The Hydraulic Fracturing Process Hydraulic fracturing, specifically The Horizontal Drilling Process the high volume, slickwater, horizonHorizontal drilling in and of itself tal fracturing used in the Marcellus is not highly controversial. Because Shale, is the process of forcing liquid horizontal wells are so much longer, into the gas-bearing rock unit under however, they are drilled by larger high pressure to fracture the rock pieces of equipment, take more time adjacent to the well. These fractures to drill, and require more hydraulic form pathways for the natural gas fracturing fluid to be stimulated trapped in the rock to escape via the successfully. During this process, a well bore. Hydraulically fracturing a far greater amount of rock must be horizontal well in the Marcellus Shale drilled through, which generates requires about 4.5 million gallons of more cuttings (a mixture of coarse water, which is mixed with a variety chips and finer particles of rock that of chemicals and sand. The chemicals are produced as the well is drilled) the fracture process by doing things that must be disposed of from a like keeping the fractures free of horizontal well compared to a vertibacteria and transporting the sand cal well. And the length of time a grains. Various-sized sand grains, horizontal well is in the development called proppant hold open the fracphase and therefore the total local tures created by this process. To learn impact of drilling can be much more about the chemicals required

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Figure 1: Drilling and Casing a Well

Drill

Casing Centralizer

Cement Casing Annulus

Drill Hole

Guide Shoe

1
Drilling Muds Cement Wiper Plug

Empty Well Hole Cement New Drill Hole

4
First Casing

Cemented Casings Second Casing Third Casing Production Casing

7
The process of drilling and casing vertical and horizontal wells is the same in the initial drilling depths. 1) The drill initially bores into the ground. At this point the drill is lubricated with...and the drill hole is empty. 2) After the initial hole is drilled, a steel casing is inserted into the hole, guided by a springlike guiding shoe that positions the casing in the center of the hole. The space between the casing and the rock on the outside of the hole is called the annulus. 3) Cement is poured into the casing from the surface. It flows to the bottom of the hole and begins to infill the annulus. 4) When enough cement has been poured into the well to line the casing, wiper plugs are inserted into the casing to wipe the inside clean of wet cement. The plugs are pushed down by drilling muds, which are later used to lubricate the drill bit. The cement is allowed to dry. 5 & 6)The new well hole is now the only void space in the well. A drill is re-inserted into the well where it drills through a layer of cement and into deeper rock. 7) The process of drilling, casing, and cementing the casing is repeated with thinner and thinner casings that are intended to prevent any exchange between fluid flowing through the well and surrounding groundwater sources. The production casing lines the length of the well and is intended to be porous in the region where natural gas is to be extracted (in this diagram, the horizontal portion will undergo small blasts to puncture the steel and allow fracture fluid out and natural gas in).

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in high volume, slickwater hydraulic fracturing, see our pamphlet Marcellus Shale Issue 7: Water: Into the Wells. Because the horizontal portion of a Marcellus well is typically 4,000 to 5,000 feet in length, the well is hydraulically fractured section by section, a process called multi-stage hydraulic fracturing. The section farthest away from the vertical part of the well is fractured first, and then closed off from the remainder of the well. Then the process is repeated with the next section, and so on until the full lateral length of the well has been fractured. It has been common for a multi-stage fracture to have three or four sections of fracturing, but as lateral lengths of the wells increase, so could the number of stages in the full hydraulic fracture of a well. The actual process of fracturing occurs in three phases. First fracturing fluid, consisting of water and chemicals, is injected into the well, creating fractures near the well bore, although sometimes acidic or basic fluid precedes the fracturing fluid to break down natural cements in the rock or to mitigate buildup of mineral deposits.7 Second, more fracturing fluid is mixed with proppants and injected into the well. During this phase, the initial fractures are elongated and the proppants are forced into the fractures to hold them open after the pressure from hydraulic fracturing is released. Finally, the well is flushed out to remove the excess fracturing fluid from the well.5 In the Marcellus Shale, only around 9-35% of the fracturing fluids return to the surface.2 While the fate of the fracturing fluid that remains underground after the Marcellus Shale is fractured is not yet fully understood, geologists and engineers hypothesize that the remaining 70-90% of fracturing fluid

is trapped in the multiple, tiny fractures due to a combination of capillary action and the swelling of clays. In very small spaces the molecular attraction between water molecules and the molecules in the shale fractures can be stronger than other pressures acting on the water. This holds the fracturing fluid in the fractures and is referred to as capillary action. Clay can also trap the fracturing fluids because clay grains can absorb water, swell, and decrease permeability. Because many of the inorganic sediments that make up the Marcellus Shale are clay grains, geologists think that some of the fracturing fluid is absorbed by clay at depth. For these reasons, only a small portion of the fracturing fluid is returned to the surface during when the well is flushed out to remove excess fluid. 7,8,9 The characteristics of the target formation (the rock from which gas is being extracted) determine what specific techniques will be used to extract gas. Data must be collected for every new region and formation that is developed for gas drilling. The stresses on the rock at the depth of gas extraction and the rock permeability help determine what fluid and propping agent characteristics are needed to fracture wells most effectively. More, larger fractures yield more natural gas produced from the unit, but are costlier to create. It takes time to develop the information on each region, but eventually the engineers in charge of each well use the data to establish the optimum fracture treatment for each well.1 The effectiveness of a hydraulic fracture treatment can be measured using a combination of microseismic mapping in the field and measurements taken in the well (i.e. temperature, production, and video image logging) to supply information on fractures immediately near the well

bore, and modeling. These techniques can be very expensive, and are usually used in research wells to initially characterize a region being drilled in order to design the fracturing process for that region.1 Hydraulically fracturing horizontal wells requires a large quantity of water mixed with a variety of chemicals ranging from benign to toxic, and a portion of this fracturing fluid is returned to the surface. In addition to the chemicals used by the drilling industry, this flowback water can also contain a variety of heavy metals, salts, and naturally-occurring radioactive material found in the gas-bearing unit. Because of this, handling, treating, and disposing of contaminated flowback fluids has become an important issue in the Marcellus Shale. Options for wastewater currently include: deep fluid injection wells, where contaminated water is injected into a deep, impermeable formation and stored permanently; disposing in a wastewater treatment facility designed for flowback fluids; or onsite water treatment and recycling for additional hydraulic fracturing jobs by the industry. To learn more about wastewater treatment options, see our pamphlet Marcellus Shale Issue 8: Water: Out of the Wells. It is currently unclear how many times a well will be hydraulically fractured in the Marcellus Shale. A multi-staged hydraulic fracture of a well is typically considered one hydraulic fracturing event. Should a portion of the well become damaged or if the well performs beneath the expectations of the company, a portion of the well or the whole well may be hydraulically fractured again. To what extent this will occur is not yet known, as most wells in the Marcellus region are less than a few years old.

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Natural Gas Extraction and Transport: What happens when the gas leaves the well Once a Marcellus Shale natural gas well has been successfully drilled, natural gas is extracted, processed, and sold for profit. It is estimated that Marcellus Shale wells will produce economically valuable quantities of natural gas for at least 30 years. It is hard to predict, at this stage in Marcellus Shale gas development, the accuracy of that time frame. All gas wells produce the highest flow rates of natural gas in the first weeks of production, and this rate declines over time as the pressure in the gas-bearing unit declines. When a well is producing at rates so

low it is barely profitable, it is called a stripper well. Because no wells in the Marcellus Shale have been producing for an extended period of time, it is hard to estimate when they will no longer be economically viable. However, with each month analysts gather more data, and the predicted rate of decline, frequently called the decline curve, of Marcellus Shale gas wells can be more accurately estimated.5 Some of the first Marcellus wells that have been producing since 2004 in West Virginia currently show decline curves that suggest a given well will be profitable for around 20-25 years.7 If the gas being extracted from the Marcellus Shale is nearly free of impurities, it can be immediately

sold by the gas industry to the pipeline industry, transported to a final gas processing plant and placed on the market. If there is a high level of water or hydrocarbon liquids in the gas, or if the gas contains corrosive gases (like carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide), the gas must be processed in the field before being sold to the pipeline industry.5 Once the gas is of a high enough quality to be sold to the pipeline for final processing and sale on the market, it is collected by gathering lines which feed into compressor stations and metering sites. These stations connect to larger pipelines owned by pipeline companies who distribute and sell natural gas to utilities.

Figure 2: Highlighted Major Pipeline Infrastructure in the U.S.

US LNG Terminals Existing Under Construction Permitted

Note: pipeline systems in certain regions omitted for clarity.

Variously-colored grey lines represent pipeline systems that transport natural gas to recipients. The majority of natural gas is transported to the Northeast region of the U.S. because of heating demands and high population densities. Note that pipelines can only transport natural gas in one direction, and is usually transported from Texas and the Gulf of Mexico in the south, and from Canada in the north, with some LNG being imported in the NE and the rest imported through the G

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Interstate pipeline companies transporting natural gas are regulated by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) with help from the U.S. Department of Transportations Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA). Gathering lines that connect wells to pipeline companies are not regulated under FERC and PHMSA. Instead, these are regulated locally by a states Public Service Commission. See Figure 2 fot existing US pipeline infrastructure.

advantages to hydraulic fracturing property rights belong only to one with propane, including less truck company. The initial cost of propane traffic than is currently seen hauling is also much higher than water. As water, fewer chemical additives than a result, it may take years for wideis used in water hydraulic fracturspread industrial use of hydraulic ing, and no hydraulic fracturing fracturing with propane to occur. wastewater issues. However, there Certainly, as new technologies are also drawbacks to using liquid become available they bring with propane. Compressing large quantithem the potential for more efficient ties of propane on a regular basis natural gas extraction, but they also increases the potential for explosions bring forth a new set of environmenand fire. Propane, itself, is a fossil tal and other concerns that need to fuel that may need to be produced be considered. in larger quantities beyond existing production if it is to be directed to Summary Looking Ahead: More Technological hydraulic fracturing. Finally, financial The geological context of the Advances in Hydraulic Fracturing incentives may drive companies using Marcellus Shale plays an important Even as the technology associated propane to hydraulically fracture a role in the extraction of the unconwith unconventional gas drilling in well to drill more finely spaced verti- ventional natural gas resource stored the Marcellus Shale is being refined, cal wells instead of horizontal wells, within. The extraction, processing, newer technologies are also being de- which could dramatically increase the and transportation of that natural veloped and tested. A few companies amount of land altered by drilling in gas to its intended market is complex are experimenting with the technolthe region. and actively evolving. The techniques ogy used to hydraulically fracture a Currently, the process of hyrequired have environmental implicaformation with propane gas. Early draulic fracturing with propane is tions that are discussed in other patesting suggests that the quantity of not widespread, and the intellectual pers in this series and socio-political gas extractable from an unconvenGlossary tional unit using propane to hydrauAnnulus: The space between the casing and the drilled well. lically fracture a well is considerably Blowout preventer: A valve that helps regulate erratic pressure changes that more than with water-based hydraucan be found while drilling. lic fracturing technology. Capillary action: In very small spaces the molecular attraction between water In principle, the idea behind molecules and the molecules in the shale fractures can be stronger than other hydraulically fracturing a well with pressures acting on the water. This holds the fracturing fluid in the fractures and propane is based on the physical is referred to as capillary action. Centralizer: A spring-like centralizer positions the casing in the center of the properties of the propane, itself. Surwell hole. face tension is defined as the ability Casing Program: The multiple stages used to drill and case a well are colof a liquid to resist an external force. lectively called a casing program. Because propane has about ten times Conductor Pipe: The first piece of casing inserted into the well with the less surface tension than water, friclargest diameter. tional forces associated with pushing Conventional: A conventional gas resource is usually one in which the gas propane through a well are far lower forms in a specific rock unit, called a source rock, but migrates out of this rock than when pushing water through a unit toward areas of lower pressure. Cuttings: A mixture of coarse chips and finer particles of rock that are prowell.8,10 Propane is also eight times duced as the well is drilled. less viscous than water. Viscosity is a Directional drilling: A gas well that is not drilled vertically is drilled direcmeasure of a fluids internal friction tionally. (molasses has a high viscosity while Drilling muds: Drilling muds lubricate the drill bit and make drilling easier water has a low viscosity). Finally, liqand faster uid propane is also a less dense liquid Fish hook drilling: Wells that have been angled beyond horizontal, and have than water. hooked back upward in order to access particularly difficult-to-reach oil or gas There are a number of predictable

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implications that are actively being studied by sociologists. References

1. Department of Energy, Hydraulic Fracturing Whitepaper, Appendix A, June 2004 2. Department of Environmental Conservation, Draft SGEIS on the Oil, Gas and Solution Mining Regulatory Program, September 2011 3. Susquehanna River Basin Commission, Frequently Asked Questions, http://www.srbc.net/programs/natural_gas_development_faq.htm. 4. King, Robert F., Morehouse, David F. Drilling Sideways-- A Review of Horizontal Well Technology and its Domestic Application. U.S. Department of Energy- Energy Information Administration April 1993. 26 January 2011 Http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_ gas/natural_gas/analysis_publications/ drilling_sideways_well_technology/pdf/ tr0565.pdf 5. Hyne, Norman J. Nontechnical guide to petroleum geology, exploration, drilling, and production. PennWell Books, 2001 6. Engelder, Terry, Gary G. Lash, and Redescal S. Uzcategui, 2009 Joint sets that enhance production from Middle and Upper Devonian gas shales of the Appalachian Basin, AAPG Bulletin; July 2009; v. 93; no. 7; p. 857-889 7. Conner OLaughlin, Camp, Dresser, and McKee. Personal communication,

pockets Gas play: The area in under development by natural gas operators. Horizontal drilling: A gas well that starts with a vertical well bore which is then angled until it is oriented horizontally. Intermediate Casing: This is typically 8 5/8 inches in diameter, and is added to mitigate potential problems at greater depths. Lateral: The horizontal portion of the well bore. Multi-stage hydraulic fracturing: A process by which a well is hydraulically fractured section by section. Production Casing: This is run through the length of the well that will be producing natural gas. Proppant: Natural or manufactured (e.g., ceramic beads) sand grains that are used to hold open the fractures created during hydraulic fracturing. Reservoir: An area of low pressure underground where gas has collected, trapped by a layer of rock the gas cannot penetrate. Scale: The accumulation of minerals in pipes and other equipment. Shoe: Guiding shoes on the ends of the casing help the lengths of casing move down the well safely. Source rock: A rock unit in which natural gas formed. Surface Casing: The level of casing after the conductor pipe, commonly around 13 inches in diameter. Target formation: The rock from which gas is being extracted. Tight: Source rock that does not have abundant natural pore space or fractures is considered tight. Unconventional: Refers to either the natural gas or the extraction process to retrieve the gas when the gas has not migrated from its source rock and requires a combination of drilling technologies to extract. Well bore: The hole the well makes under the surface. Well pad: The area at the surface, surrounding the well bore that is used to conduct the drilling and hydraulic fracture activities. Wiper plug: The wiper plug is inserted behind the wet cement to force the cement out of the well bore, clean the inside walls of the casing, and separate the cement from additional drilling muds.
July, 2011. 8. GasFrac Energy Services Inc., http:// www.gasfrac.com/ 9. Al-Mhaidib, A. I. (1997) Influence of Loading Rate on Undrained Bearing Capacity of a Model Pile in Clay proceedings of the Fourth Regional Conference on Geotechnical Engineering (GEOTROPIKA 97) , Johor Bahru, Malaysia, pp. 357-370. 10. Dictionary.com, 2011, http://dictionary.reference.com/ (accessed 2011)

Partnering Organizations include Funded by NSF GEO No.1016359. Cornell Cooperative Extension (naturalgas.cce. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions cornell.edu) or recommendations expressed in this New York State Water Resources Institute (wri.cormaterial are those of the author(s) and nell.edu), Cornell University Department of Earth do not necessarily reflect the views of the and Atmospheric Sciences, and Cornell University National Science Foundation. Agricultural Experiment Station. Authored by Trisha A. Smrecak and the PRI Marcellus Shale Team
Illustrations by J. Houghton unless otherwise attributed.

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