BIOLOGY NOTES FORM 4 BY IRFAN / NO COPYRIGHT INFRIGEMENT INTENDED

Biology Notes Form 4

---- BY IRFAN ----

Chapter 1: Cell structure and cell organization

The figure below shows the parts that can be found in the animal and plant cell. As youd know, cells can be divided into two parts, animal and plant cell and both of them have different cellular components and functions.

A Animal cell Plant cell

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Cell structures and functions

Cell membrane
A general term that refers to all membranes found inside the cell. The surface which encloses the content of a cell is called as plasma membrane Plasma membrane is made of proteins and phospholipids Forms a boundary which separates the content of a cell from the outer environment. Plasma membrane is a semi-permeable and acts as a selective-barrier. It regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cytoplasm.

Cell wall
Rigid outer layer that surrounds the plasma membrane. It is composed of cellulose, a tough and fibrous carbohydrate. The cell wall is permeable to all fluids (has tiny pores which allows substances to move freely in and out of the cell) Gives shape to a plant cell. Provides mechanical support. Protects the plant cell from rupturing due to the excessive intake of water.

Cytoplasm
Region between the nucleus and the plasma membrane. Consists of jelly-like matrix in which the organelles of the cell are suspended. Contains organic and inorganic substances. Acts as a medium for biochemical reactions in the cell. Provides substances obtained from the external environment to the organelles.

Nucleus
Appears as a large, dense, spherical organelle enclosed by a nuclear membrane. Contains nucleoplasm and a dark spherical structure (nucleolus). Chromatin, the form that chromosomes take when the cell is not dividing, is contained within the nucleoplasm. Chromosomes carry genetic information (for determination of characteristics and functions of a cell) Primary importance since it controls all the activities that take place in the cell. For example, the synthesis of the proteins is regulated by the coded information contained in the chromosomes.

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Vacuole
Fluid-filled sac which is surrounded by tonoplast (a semi-permeable membrane) The fluid contained in a vacuole is called as cell sap. Typical plant cell has a large central vacuole while a young plant has numerous smaller vacuoles. Freshwater microorganisms such as Paramecium sp. have contractile vacuoles and food vacuoles. The contractile vacuoles help to regulate water balance in those organisms. Acts as a storage place in a cell. Cell sap contains water, organic acids, sugars, amino acids, mineral salts, waste substances, pigments and metabolic by-products.

Mitochondria
Involved in cellular respiration. This process releases energy when food substances such as glucose are broken down with the help of enzymes present in the mitochondria. The energy is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphates) can be readily used by cells.

Ribosomes
Found attached to the surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum or suspended freely in the cytoplasm. Each ribosome consists of two sub-units, one small and one large, each of which comprises of a type of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein. Synthesis of proteins, such as enzymes takes place in ribosomes. Use information carried by the chromosomes to make these proteins.

Endoplasmic reticulum
Consists of a network of folded membrane forming interconnected tubules or sacs. Endoplasmic reticulum membrane is physically continuous with the nuclear membrane. There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER)

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER)

Rough ER has ribosomes attached to its surface. Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached to its surface. Most of the biochemical reactions of the cell take place on these membranes. Rough ER transports proteins that made by the ribosomes. The proteins that departed from the rough RR are enclosed in vesicles. These proteins can be transported from one part of the cell to another. Smooth ER is the site of important metabolic reactions, including synthesis of lipids and detoxification of drugs and poisons.

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Golgi Apparatus
Consists of a stack of flattened membranous sacs. Function as a processing packaging, transporting center of carbohydrates, proteins phospholipids and glycoproteins. Transport vesicles carrying products such as proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum fuse with the membrane of the Golgi apparatus and empty their contents into the membranous space. Proteins then are modified as they passed through the Golgi apparatus ( G.A: short form used in this note) G.A will then sort these products and package them into vesicles. Vesicles containing these products bud off from the G.A and travel to other parts of the cell/plasma membrane. Vesicles will then fuse with the plasma membrane before releasing their contents outside the cell.

Lysosomes
Membrane-bound sacs that contain hydrolytic enzymes. Hydrolytic enzymes digest/break down complex organic molecules such as proteins, lipids, polysaccharides and nucleic acids. Eliminate worn out mitochondria and other damaged organelles to enable a cell to renew itself. In the cells of certain organisms, lysosomes fuse with food vacuoles and dispense enzymes into these vacuoles to digest the contents of the vacuoles. This released nutrients needed by the organisms. Digest bacteria by breaking down the bacterial cell wall.

Centrioles
A pair of small cylindrical structures located just outside the nucleus. Composed of a complex arrangement of microtubules. Form spindle fibers during cell division in animal cells. Not present in plant cells.

Chloroplasts
Typically lens-shaped. The membranous structures in the chloroplasts contain the green pigment called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll traps sunlight and converts light energy into chemical energy during the photosynthesis. The green color of plants comes from chlorophyll.

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-- Comparison between the structure of animal and plant cells

Animal cell
Absent

Structure
Cell Wall

Plant cell
Present

Irregular shape

Shape

Fixed shape

No

Vacuole

Yes

Present

Centrioles

Only present in lower plant forms/Absent Present

Absent

Chloroplasts

Present

Cytoplasm

Present

Present

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Present

SIMILARITIES
Organelles including nuclei, ribosome, Golgi apparatus, food storage and endoplasmic reticulum.

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CELL ORGANISATION

Amoeba sp.
Amoeba sp. is enclosed by the plasma membrane and is constantly changing shape as it meets obstacles and responds to stimuli. Adverse stimuli, such as acidic water or bright light, cause it to retreat. It moves by extending the temporary pseudopodia or called as false feet and anchoring the tips on the ground. This is followed by the flow of cytoplasm into the projected pseudopodia. The cytoplasm of Amoeba sp. is divided into two layers: ectoplasm (outer layer) while the inner layer is called endoplasm. The pseudopodia are also used for feeding. Amoeba sp. engulfs food by phagocytosis. Amoeba sp. is a holozoic organism which feeds on microscopic organisms such as bacteria. The presence of food causes it to advance by extending its pseudopodiaenclose the food which is then packaged in a food vacuole. The food vacuole fuses with a lysosome and the food is digested by a hydrolytic enzyme called lysozyme.

Gullet Food

The exchange of gases, nutrients and waste substances occur through the plasma membrane by diffusion. Amoeba sp. lives in freshwater, water diffuses into the cell by osmosis and fill the osmoregulation. When the vacuole is filled to a maximum size, it contracts to expel its contents from time to time. Amoeba sp. reproduces asexually by binary fission.

Binary fission in Amoeba sp.

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We are going to learn how paramecium feeds. Figure below shows a paramecium.

PARAMECI UM

Paramecia feed on microorganisms like bacteria, algae, and yeasts. To gather its food, the paramecium uses its cilia to sweep the food along with some water into the cell mouth after it falls into the oral groove. The food goes through the cell mouth into the gullet, which is like the stomach. When enough food has accumulated, it breaks away and forms a food vacuole. The food vacuole travels through the cell, through the back end first . As it moves along, enzymes from the cytoplasm enter the vacuole and digest it . The digested food then goes into the cytoplasm and the vacuole gets smaller and smaller. When the vacuole reaches the anal pore the remaining undigested waste is removed.

In the case of paramecium, ingestion is getting the food particle into the food vacuole. Digestion is the enzymatic breakdown of food. To destroy the digestion process to produce nutrients and absorbed by the paramecium.

Excretion Waste products for example carbon dioxide are excreted from the cell by simple diffusion. Control of water balance in the cell (osmoregulation) is aided by two contractile vacuoles, one at the anterior end and the other at the posterior end. This is necessary because water constantly enters the cell from the hypotonic environment by osmosis. a) Excess water in the cell enters the contractile vacuole by osmosis. b) The contractile vacuole enlarges.

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c) The contractile vacuole contracts and eliminates excess water to the surroundings. The contractile vacuoles periodically expand, filling with water and then contract to eliminate their contents to the exterior of the cell. Paramecium sp. reproduces rapidly by binary fission.

Cell specialization in multicellular organisms

Cells (red blood)

Tissues (blood)

Organs (heart)

Systems (Circulatory)

Multicellular organism

Zygote

Two Cells

Four Cells

Eight Cells

Embryo

White Blood Cells

Sperm cells

Nerve cells Red blood cells

White blood cells

Can change their shape to attack germs. To fight infections.

Red blood cells

Shaped like biconcave discs. Very flexible. Can move easily along the narrow blood vessels. Do not have nuclei to increase the surface area of the cell and allows oxygen to diffuse into the whole cell at a faster rate.

Nerve cells
Long, thin fibers called axons which conduct nerve impulses which carry nerve impulses throughout the body.

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Sperm cells
Have long tails and a high density of mitochondria to allow them swimming towards the ovum. Their heads contain one set of chromosomes which come from the male parent.

Epithelial cells
With simple glands are found in the intestines. To secrete mucus. Its layer is highly folded with the secretory cells arranged compactly to increase the surface area for mucus secretion.

Cell organization in animals

Epithelial tissue consists of one or more layers of cells. The cells of an epithelium are tightly interconnected and form a continuous layer overly body surfaces (skin and mouth are) and inner linings of cavities (digestive tract and lungs).Some epithelial tissues undergo changes to form glands (exocrine and endocrine glands). The structure of an epithelial tissue adapted to its function. Epithelial tissue on the skin forms protective barrier against infections, mechanical injuries and dehydration. Epithelial cells in the lining of the human intestines form mucus-secreting goblet cells which secrete mucus into digestive tract. The epithelial tissue that lines the trachea consists of elongated cells with hair-like projections called cilia.

Epithelial tissues are located at the lining of lungs, body cavities, heart and blood vessels. The epithelial cells line and the alveoli of the lungs and form the walls of blood capillaries. These cells are thin, flattened and arranged in a single layer. This adaptation allows the exchange of gases between the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries to take place efficiently.

Epithelial tissues at the surface of the skin and lining of the lining of the mouth and oesophagus.

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Form a protective barrier against infections, mechanical injuries, chemicals and dehydration. Also regulates body temperature.

At the lining of trachea so that food and air can easily enter

Consists of elongated cells with hair-like projections called cilia. They also secrete mucus. The mucus traps dust particles while the cilia sweep the impurities away from the lungs.

At the lining of the small intestine. The lining of the small intestine absorb nutrients after digestion is completed. Epithelial cells may undergo modification to form mucus-secreting goblet cells which secrete mucus into the digestive tract.

At the lining of kidney tubules, glands and ducts. Certain epithelial tissues are modified to form glands in the skin, for example, sweat glands and sebaceous (oil-secreting) glands.

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Muscle Tissues
Most abundant tissue in most animals. Made up of long cells called muscle fibres. There are three types of muscle tissues: smooth, skeletal and cardiac muscles.

Smooth muscles are found along the walls of the digestive tract, blood vessels, bladder and reproductive tract.

Responsible for the involuntary actions of the body. For example, when the smooth muscles of the intestine contract, food is moved along the digestive tract. Also responsible for the churning actions of the stomach and the constriction of the arteries. Smooth muscles contract more slowly than skeletal muscles but remain contracted for a longer period of time.

Skeletal muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton. Responsible for the voluntary movements of the body. Contractions of skeletal muscles produce movements of various body parts.

Cardiac muscles form the contractile wall of the heart.

Contract to pump blood to all parts of the body. Contractions of cardiac muscles are involuntary.

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Nerve tissue
Composed of neurones/nerve cells. Each neurone consists of a cell body and nerve fibres called dendrites and axons. Neurones are specialized to detect stimuli and transmit electrical signals called nerve impulses/muscles/glands. Nerve tissues control and coordinate activities of the body.

Connective tissue
Consists of various types of cells and fibres separated by an-extracellular matrix. Connect body parts and support the body. Widely distributed and has many functions.

Loose connective tissue

The most widespread connective tissue in the body. Binds epithelia to underlying tissues. Holds organs in place. Dense fibrous connective tissue contains a large number of collagenous fibres which are packed closely together. This type of connective tissue can be found in tendons (which connect muscles to bones) Ligaments (join bones together at joints).

Cartilage - Is a strong and flexible connective tissue which provides support to the nose, ears, covers the ends of
bones at joints. The discs between the vertebrate which act as cushions to absorb pressure are also made of cartilage.

Strong and yet flexible connective tissue. When the collagen fibres are densely packed, they form tendons and ligaments.

Bones - Consist of cells located deep in a matrix of collagen hardened by mineral deposits such as calcium. This
combination makes the bones harder than cartilage.

Provide protection to organs in the body and support the body.

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Blood
Has regulating, transporting and protective functions. Transports nutrients and oxygen to cells and removes carbon dioxide and waste products from the cells. Helps distribute heat throughout the body and contains regulatory substances such as hormones and enzymes.

Lymph - Consists mostly of fluid which diffuses out of blood capillaries.

Fat cells
Collectively called adipose tissue, are tightly packed. Can be found in the dermis of the skin. Adipose tissue stores energy and insulates the body.

Figure 1 shows a cross section of the human skin.

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Systems
a) Each system consists of several organs that work together to carry out a living process such as digestion of food. b) A multicellular organism is made up of many systems. c) There are 11 major systems in humans. Integumentary system (physically separates the body from the external environment, protects the body against the mechanical injuries, microbial infection and dehydration) Circulatory system (delivers nutrients, respiratory gases and hormones to body cells / transports waste products to excretory organs) Endocrine system (coordinates body activities together with the nervous system) Lymphatic system (defends the body against the infections, returns the excess tissue fluid to the blood) Nervous system (detects stimuli, formulates responses, transmits nerve impulses and integrates the activities of other systems / controls physiological processes together with endocrine system) Digestive system (ingests and digests food, absorbs nutrients for use by the body and eliminates undigested material) Muscular system (contraction of muscles enables body movement) Excretory system (removes metabolic waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide / regulates the osmotic balance of the blood) Skeletal system (supports the body, provides sites for attachment of muscles, and protection for internal organs) Respiratory system (provides a surface area for gaseous exchange between the external environment, allows oxygen intake and carbon dioxide elimination) Reproductive system

Cell organization in plants

Plant cells also undergo cell specialization. Plant organs such as leaves, stems and roots are formed from two main types of tissues: a) The meristematic tissues b) The permanent tissues Meristematic tissues Consist small cells which have thin walls, large nuclei, dense cytoplasm and no vacuoles. Young, actively dividing cells which have not undergone differentiation. Apical meristems located at the tips of roots and the buds of shoots. Lateral meristems or cambia are found in the peripheral areas of secondary growth which makes it wider for support and strength in plants. Permanent tissues

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Mature tissues that have undergone types of permanent tissues: epidermal, ground and vascular tissues.

Epidermal tissue: Forms the epidermis, the outermost layer that covers the stems, leaves and roots of young plants. Covers the flowers, fruits and seeds. The walls of epidermal cells which are exposed to air are normally covered by a waxy, waterproof coating called the cuticle. a) Prevents the loss of excessive water through evaporation. b) Protects the plant from mechanical injury. c) Prevents invasion by disease causing microorganisms Most epidermal cells are flat and have large vacuoles. In roots, some of the epidermal cells have long projections called root hairs. Specialized structures increase the surface area for absorption of water and minerals. In leaves, the lower epidermis contains specialized cells, called guard cells, which surround the stomata. Ground tissue:

Parenchyma tissue Parenchyma tissue consists of thin-walled cells which are loosely arranged with spaces between them. Generally round and have large vacuoles. Least specialized cells and can be found in all the organs of a plant. Store products of photosynthesis such as sugar and starch. For example, the parenchyma tissue of sweet potatoes is packed with starch. The palisade mesophyll cells and spongy mesophyll cells in leaves are specialized parenchyma cells which contain chloroplasts and carry out photosynthesis. Gives support and shape to plants

Collenchyma tissue

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Have unevenly thickened cell walls, especially at the corners. Supports non-woody plants such as herbaceous, young stems and petioles (tangkai). Cell walls are thickened by cellulose and pectin. They are strong and flexible. Consists of elongated, polygonal cells.

Sclerenchyma tissue Much more rigid than collenchyma cells because they have cell walls which are uniformly thickened by lignin. Most of the cells are dead at maturity. Supports and strengthens the plant body and provides protection to the plant.

Vascular tissue

Xylem consists of tracheids and xylem vessels. These are long tubes joined together end to end, from the roots right up to the shoots. The cell walls of the xylem are thickened with lignin which prevents food substances from entering the cells. Consequently, the xylem tissue dies upon reaching maturity. When the cytoplasm disintegrates, a hollow tube is left behind. This feature allows water and minerals to flow easily through the xylem vessels.

Xylem conducts water and minerals from the roots to the leaves. It provides support and mechanical strength to plant.

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Phloem tissue consists of parenchyma cells, sclereids, sieve tubes and companion cells. The conducting cells of phloem are the sieve tubes which have pores at both ends, called sieve plates. Sieve tubes obtain nutrients and energy from the adjacent companion cells.

Phloem transports organic substances such as carbohydrates and amino acids from the leaves to storage organs and to growing parts of plants.

Organs and systems in plants

Examples of organs in plants are the leaf, stem, root and flower. Leaf is made up of ground tissues, epidermal tissues and vascular tissues. Systems in plants are not as specialized as those animals. Plants have fewer organs as compared to animals. Flowering plants consist of two main systems: a) Root system b) Shoot system The root system consists of all the roots of a plant. The shoot system consists of stems, leaves, buds, flowers and fruits. The stems and branches act as a support system for the plant by holding the leaves upright for maximum absorption of sunlight during photosynthesis. The flowers are involved in pollination. Lignin (wood structure which has xylem (for support) and phloem (for glucose) ) The leaves are made up of ground tissue, epidermal tissue, mesophyll tissue and vascular tissue. They form the main photosynthetic system. Photosynthetic system synthesizes organic compounds required for plant growth. The products of photosynthesis are transported via the vascular system (phloem) to other parts of plants. The reproductive system of plants consists of flowers which produce fruits and seeds after fertilization have taken place.

Regulating the Internal Environment

The cells of its body actually live within an internal environment. Internal environment refers to the conditions that exist within the body of an organism, particularly the composition of the interstitial fluid and blood plasma. The interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the cells.

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Figure above shows the internal environment of multicellular organisms

Blood

Fluid
Lymph

Tissue fluid

The physical factors and chemical factors of the internal environment must be maintained regardless of the condition outside the cells in order for the cells to function optimally. Physical factors: a) Temperature b) Blood pressure c) Osmotic pressure. Chemical factors: a) Salt (in our blood) b) Sugar content c) pH value

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment for the cells to function optimally. For example, the metabolism of the body is affected by the changes in the chemical factors such as glucose and oxygen levels and physical factors such as temperature and osmotic pressure. These changes are regulated by the

Positive feedback mechanism which will lead to death. The stimulus activates a response that increase the initial change instead of reversing it to the original state.

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homeostatic mechanisms which maintain the internal environment so that the metabolic processes can proceed at the optimum rates.

The importance of regulating an optimum internal environment

Enables organisms to live in a wider range of habitats. Enables metabolic activites and physiological processes to continue eventhough the external environment changes. Enables living organisms to control the metabolic rate according to their needs. Ensures a more efficient and optimum metabolism in the cell. Allows enzymes to function at an optimum rate. Systems involved Blood glucose level Nervous system Circulatory system Endocrine system Sensory system (skin) Types of regulation Regulate the heat loss and heat gain to maintain a stable body temperature at 37C.

Physical factors/chemical factors of the internal environment Body temperature

Endocrine system (pancreas) Circulatory system Digestive system (liver) Respiratory stsem Circulatory system Excretory system (kidneys)

Regulate the amount of water and dissolved substances (mineral salts) in the interstitial fluid and blood.

pH -

The pH of blood and interstitial fluid is maintained at a value of 7.4 by regulating the concetration of + hydrogen ions (H ), hydroxyl ions (OH ) and hydrogen carbonate ions (HCO3 ).

Appreciating the Uniqueness of the Cell

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DNA in the nucleus contains genetic information which determines the type of proteins to be synthesized. MRNA copies this information and moves to the ribosome (the sites of protein synthesis) and then moves to the RER (collect and transport the synthesized proteins in the form of vesicle which is called transport vesicle. The vesicle is budded off from the side of RER and travels to Golgi apparatus. The proteins are processed, modified and repackage as secretory vesicle, buds off and travels to plasma membrane to be released out of the cell.

Paper 1: Objective Questions

Instruction: Answer all questions. 1. Diagram 1 shows an animal cell. Which of the labelled parts A, B, C or D is not an organelle?

What is organelle Y? A Ribosome B Lysosome C Centriole D Golgi apparatus 4. Which of the following are the correct descriptions of nuclear envelope? I It is a dark and dense region II It contains genetic materials III It consists of inner and outer membranes IV It separates the contents between cytoplasm and nucleus A I and II C II and IV B II and III D III and IV

A Nucleus B Chloroplast C Mitochondrion D Rough endoplasmic reticulum

3. 2. Diagram 2 shows a plant cell. What is organelle X?

The following statements are about an organelle Y. Contain hydrolytic enzymes Destroys unwanted or worn out organelles

5.

Which of the following structures and functions of the cells is matched correctly?

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A Ribosome: Breakdown of unwanted organelles B Golgi apparatus: Packaging of proteins. C Centrioles: Synthesis of proteins. D Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Detoxification of drugs.

A Fluid in a cell B Fluid in an organelle C Fluid in the vacuole of a cell D Fluid that fills the spaces between cells

6.

The following equation shows a chemical reaction. Water + Carbon dioxide Glucose + Oxygen It occurs in. A Cytoplasm B Chloroplasts C Mitochondrion D Golgi apparatus

7.

Which organelle synthesises lipids? A Ribosome B Golgi apparatus C Rough endoplasmic reticulum D Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

8.

Internal environment consists of interstitial fluid and blood plasma. What is interstitial fluid?

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