Chapter 2 Notes 2.

1-Atoms Ions o o o o Ion: have a charge (AKA electrolytes) Cations: Ions that have a net positive charge Anions: Ions that have a net negative charge. Electrolytes: are used to carry electoral charge across cell membranes; in this way, they serve as the source of electrical current in certain cells.

2.2-Molecules Free Radicals o Free radicals: An atom containing a single unpaired electron in an orbital of its outer shell. Free radicals are unstable are unstable molecules that can react with other atoms, through the process known as oxidation. When a free radical oxidizes another atom, the free radical gains an electron and the other atom usually becomes a new free radical. High reactive and effective against pathogens but are indiscriminate Free radicals can be inactivated by molecules that can donate electrons to free radicals without becoming dangerous free radicals themselves, examples are antioxidant vitamins A and C Covalent Chemical Bonds o Covalent bond: When one or more electrons in the outer electron orbitals of each atom are shared between the two atoms. o Polar covalent bonds: Due to the polarity in electron distribution just described, the more electronegative atom acquires a slight negative charge, whereas the other atom, have partly lost an electron, becomes slightly positive. Known as polar covalent bonds because atoms at each end of the bond have an opposite electrical charge. o Nonpolar covalent bonds: In such bonds, the electron are equally or nearly equally shared by the two atoms. Such that there is little or no unequal charge distribution across the bond. Molecular Solubility o Hydrophilic: Molecules having a number of polar and/or ionized groups will dissolve in water. The presence of ionized groups such as carboxyl and amino groups or of polar groups such as hydroxyl groups in a molecule promotes solubility in water. o Hydrophobic: Molecules composed predominantly of carbon and hydrogen are poorly or almost completely insoluble in water because their electrically neutral covalent bonds are not attracted to water molecules.

o Amphipathic: Molecules that have a polar or ionized region at one site and a nonpolar region at another site. When mixed with water amphipathic molecules form cluster. The hydrophobic ends are oriented toward the interior of the cluster. o Lipophobic: Do not like lipids, they are usually water soluble and do not diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer (cell wall). o Lipophilic: Love lipids, they are fat soluble and allowed to diffuse easily across the cell membrane