WASTEWATER COLLECTION SYSTEM MODELING AND DESIGN

Authors Thomas M. Walski Thomas E. Barnard Eric Harold LaVere B. Merritt Noah Walker Brian E. Whitman Contributing Authors Christine Hill, Gordon McKay, Stan Plante, Barbara A. Schmitz Peer Review Board Jonathan Gray (Burns and McDonnell), Ken Kerri (Ret.), Neil Moody (Moods Consulting Pty, Ltd.), Gary Moore (St. Louis Sewer District), John Reinhardt (Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection), Reggie Rowe (CH2M Hill), Burt Van Duin (Westhoff Engineering Resources)

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CHAPTER

13
Low-Pressure Sewers

Pressure sewers (also called low-pressure sewers) are similar to force mains (Chapter 4), but differ in that individual sewer pumping systems are located on the property of each customer. Low-pressure systems are usually installed where excavation is difficult because of rock, the ground surface is flat or nearly so, or there are long distances between customers. Any of these factors can make gravity sewers difficult and costly to install. Low-pressure sewers have both advantages and disadvantages compared to gravity sewers. The primary advantages are Lower cost of pipe network installation due to smaller piping and lowered excavation costs Greater flexibility in routing of piping Fewer manholes Reduced potential for infiltration and inflow. The primary disadvantages include Higher operation and maintenance costs for power, repair, and replacement of pumps Failure during power outages Maintenance of air-release/vacuum-breaker valves. Pressure sewers have become a popular solution for areas that lack the population density to support a traditional gravity sewer system and are also unsuitable for septic systems. They are especially attractive as a means of reducing both excavation costs and infiltration in areas with high water tables.

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13.1

Description of Pressure Sewers

The first pressure sewers in the United States were installed in Radcliff, Kentucky in the late 1960s. Although the system was eventually abandoned, it demonstrated that the concept could work (Clift, 1968). Fair had earlier proposed a system for hanging pressure sanitary sewers inside large storm or combined sewers (US Environmental Protection Agency, 1991). The technology in pressure sewers has improved, and they have become a reliable alternative to septic systems and conventional gravity sewers. The primary improvement was in the reliability of the small grinder pumps installed at each customer location. Rezek and Cooper (1985) reported that there were 78 pressure sewer systems in operation by the mid-1980s. Hundreds of pressure systems are currently in operation, including some that serve more 1000 customers (Feuss, Farrell, and Rynkiewicz, 1994; Farrell and Darrah, 1994). Pressure sewer systems consist of the following components, which are described in more detail in the sections that follow: Pumps move wastewater from the customers premises to the main Storage tanks hold wastewater when the pump is not running and provide submergence for the pump Service lines connect the grinder pumps to the main Pressure sewer main a larger pipe in the street or right of way Air-release valve releases trapped air from accumulation points in the network Discharge point transition point from pressure to gravity flow at the end of the pressure system. All pressure-system pumps collect water from a suction storage tank. The primary distinction is whether the tank is used for solids removal as well as providing suction head. Grinder pumps have a grinder, similar to a garbage disposal, to grind whatever is received in the storage tank before it is pumped. General Electric Company developed the first grinder pump in 1967 (Carcich, Hetling, and Farrell, 1972). Alternatively, pumps may be preceded by some type of solids-removal process, usually called septic tank effluent pump (STEP) systems. The earliest septic tank effluent pumping systems were documented by Langford (1977).

Pumps
Depending on the manufacturer, the pump mechanism in pressure sewer systems is either centrifugal or progressive cavity. Pumps for pressure sewer systems usually have a grinder reduce the size of solids. Some systems can use solids-handling pumps, which are designed to pass fairly large solids. The system head that the pump must overcome to discharge wastewater into the pressure sewer main can vary widely from low to high points in the system and from high- to low-flow periods. Installers do not want to keep a large inventory of pumps for different heads. Therefore, it is desirable to use pumps with a fairly steep pump-head characteristic curve (see Chapter 4 for a description of pump-head curves). Progressive-cavity pumps (also referred to as semipositive-displacement pumps) produce roughly the same discharge regardless of the head against which they pump

Section 13.1

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(i.e., they have very steep head characteristic curves). The head in the main affects the discharge from centrifugal pumps to a much greater extent. Progressive-cavity pumps can typically function with 1 to 11/2 hp (0.751.2 kW) motors. Centrifugal pumps function best with 2 hp (1.5 kW) motors so that they will work when the head in the main is high. Typical head characteristic curves for progressive-cavity and centrifugal pumps are shown in Figure 13.1. Single-family dwellings and small apartments use a single pump in the pump vault, referred to as a simplex unit. Large apartments, commercial buildings, and trailer parks use duplex units containing two pumps.

200 1 - 2 hp Centrifugal STEP Pump 2 - 2 hp Centrifugal GP 3 - hp Centrifugal STEP 4 - 1 hp Progressive Cavity STEP 5 - 1 hp Progressive Cavity GP or STEP 6 - hp 7-Stage Submersible Water Well

175

150

125

Head, ft of Water

100

75

50

25

0 10 20 30 Discharge, gpm
US EPA, 1991

40

50

60

Figure 13.1 Typical head characteristic curves for various types of sewer pumps.

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Storage Tanks
Storage or holding tanks are usually located just outside the footprint of the structure being served, although in some instances they are placed in the basement or crawl space. The tanks are generally made of HDPE, fiberglass, or treated concrete. A typical home tank has a storage volume of about 47 gal (179 L) below the alarm level (the point at which a warning is sent that the tank is getting full). The pump is activated when sewage in the tank reaches a volume of 32 gal (121 L) and is turned off when the volume reaches 24 gal (91 L). This yields a volume of roughly 8 gal (30 L) to be pumped each cycle, leaving about 24 gal (91 L) in the bottom of the tank (e/one, 2001). This configuration allows for some submergence of the pump intake at the low level, as well as some freeboard to prevent flooding during power outages and malfunctions. A typical tank with pump is shown in Figure 13.2. A pump vault in a STEP system is shown in Figure 13.3.

Courtesy of Environment One Corp.

Figure 13.2 Engineering drawing and cutaway view of a pressure sewer pump system.

Service Lines
The service line connecting the pump to the main contains a check valve and a manual isolating valve. For residential customers, the service line is usually 1.25 in. (32 mm) and is made of plastic. The velocities in service lines are typically about 4 ft/s (1.2 m/s). The pressure in the system is usually about 35 psi (240 kPa) (Crites and Tchobanoglous, 1998; US Environmental Protection Agency, 1991). The discharge piping should be at least the same size as the pump outlet.

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Cover

Cover Junction Box Gate Valve

Discharge Inlet High Water Line Mercury Float Switch Quick Coupling Flexible Discharge Hose Alarm Level Pump On Level Pump Off Level Check Valve

Low Water Line Vault

Septic Tank
US EPA, 1991

Figure 13.3 Septic tank and pump vault in a STEP system.

Pressure Mains
The pressure sewer main in the street or right-of-way is usually plastic pipe, but, unlike gravity sewers, the slope of the line is not very important. The sizing of the pipe should be based on a hydraulic analysis to ensure that the pipe is large enough to carry the design flow without excessive head loss, yet small enough to maintain self-cleansing velocities.

Air-Release/Vacuum-Breaker Valves
High points along a pressure sewer system can collect pockets of gases, so combination air-release/vacuum-breaker valves should be placed at these locations. A typical combination valve is shown in Figure 13.4. Gas pockets can collect not only at high points, but also in a downward-sloping closed pipe anywhere the slope increases significantly. The potential for collecting gas pockets can be estimated using Equation 12.12 on page 448. The engineer should look for high points in the system and install combination valves. These valves should also be installed every 2000 ft (610 m), even on lines without high points (e/one, 2000). Because these valves can become clogged with grease, maintenance is necessary to insure proper function.

Discharge Points
A pressure sewer system usually discharges to a gravity sewer at a manhole located at a high point. Alternatively, the pressure system may discharge to a pump station wet well or at the wastewater treatment plant.

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Air Release Arrangement Valve Box Arrangement Valve Box Arrangement

2 in. Valve, in. Hose Connection Nipple Arrangement Valve Box Valve Box Arrangement Locking Cover Arrangement Approved 18 to 24 Meter Box Standard Valve in. Varies with Sewer Box or PVC Riser Depth PVC Riser Full Ported 45 Ell Gate Valve of Appropriate Size Pressure Main Granular Material Standard Wye Fitting Valve Box Detail Valve Box Detail or Collector Air Release Detail Cover

Sewage Air Release Valve Optional Back Flushing Hose Approved Prefabricated Metal Fiber or Concrete 1 in. BlowOff Valve 2 in. Shut Off Valve 2 in. Minimum Clearance Slope Threaded Tee to Suit Inlet Pressure Sewer Main or Collector
US EPA 1991

Granular Material (8 in. Minimum Depth)

Figure 13.4 Typical air-release valve installations.

13.2

Estimating Flows
The rate of generation of wastewater in pressure sewer systems (e.g., 100 gpcd, 380 Lpcd) (GLUMRB, 1997) should be the same as in gravity-flow systems. However, because of the lower potential for I/I due to positive sewer pressures, some engineers use lower values, such as 5070 gpcd (190260 Lpcd), to model pressure sewer systems (Thrasher, 1988). Although these lower average inflow rates may be used, the ratio of peak inflow to average inflow will typically be higher in pressure systems since these systems tend to serve fewer customers.

Section 13.2

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473

Flows change gradually in gravity systems; however, the discharge from an individual customer in a pressure sewer system is zero until the water in the customers storage tank reaches a preset level, causing the pump to turn on. The customer then discharges to the sewer at a peak (or near-peak) flow rate for a short time, the tank drains, and the discharge drops back to zero. Much of the challenge of estimating flows in pressure sewers relates to predicting how many customers will be discharging to the system simultaneously (that is, how many pumps will be on at the same time). Research on contributions to pressure wastewater systems from individual homes has been published in numerous sources (Bennett, Lindstedt, and Felton, 1974; Jones, 1974; Watson, Farrell, and Anderson, 1967). Some more-sophisticated methods based on statistical analysis of water-use patterns from individual homes are given by Buchberger and Wu (1995) and Buchberger and Wells (1996). Although there is very little opportunity for infiltration and inflow to enter the system along the mains and service lines, pump vaults (tanks) do provide a potential avenue for flow increases during wet weather. These need to be inspected during installation to prevent connections from downspouts and French drains. Directly metering the flow from customers is difficult and expensive. If customers are suspected of discharging wet-weather flow to the system, a simple run-time meter can be placed on the pump to determine if the pumped volume increases significantly during wet weather.

Empirical Approaches
A detailed analysis of pressure-sewer flows is based on the probability that a given number of pumps out of the population are running at any one time. Therefore, peaking-factor formulas commonly used with gravity sewers, such as those of Babbitt (1953) or Harmon (1918), do not apply to pressure sewers. A simple rule of thumb for computing design flow in a pressure sewer uses equivalent dwelling units (determined based on the average load from a typical residence in the area of interest) and is given by (US Environmental Protection Agency, 1991) Q = 0.5 N + 20 where Q = design flow (gpm) N = equivalent dwelling units upstream (For flow in L/s, replace the constants 0.5 and 20 in Equation 13.1 with 0.032 and 1.3, respectively.) Alternatively, various sources have provided representative curves for determining design flow. Several such curves are plotted in Figure 13.5. Using data from a study in Albany, NY, e/one (2001) developed a table relating the number of pumps running at peak times to the total number of pumps. These values are listed in Table 13.1. (13.1)

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300 Barnes 0.5N + 20

F.E. Myers ASCE California 200 ASCE Northeastern U.S.

Flow, gpm

Environment One 100

Battelle

100

200

300

400

500

Equivalent Dwelling Units

US EPA, 1991

Figure 13.5 Various curves for estimating sanitary design flows.

Table 13.1 Number of pumps operating during peak conditions (e/one, 2001).
Number of Pumps in System 1 23 49 1018 1930 3150 5180 81113 Max. Number of Pumps Operating Simultaneously 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Number of Pumps in System 114149 150179 180212 213245 246278 279311 312344 Max. Number of Pumps Operating Simultaneously 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

This table can be used to estimate the peak flow at any point in a system by counting the number of pumps upstream, looking up the number that are likely to run at any one time, and multiplying that value by the flow from a pump. Walski (2002) adapted these data to account for population and number of users per residence to derive the following expression for peaking factor:

Section 13.2

Estimating Flows

475

P 0.53 q + 0.71 q --1 n PF = ------------------------------------------------uP where PF q P n u = = = = = peaking factor average discharge from a single pump (gpm, L/min) population number of persons per pump average demand per capita (gpcm, Lpcm)

(13.2)

For a relation for peaking factor that is independent of units, Equation 13.2 can be rewritten as a + bP 0.53 PF = ---------------------------P where and
1.88 q 0.71 -- u b = --------------------------n

(13.3)

a = q/u

(13.4)

Values for q, u, and n vary depending on the system. Typical ranges are q = 915 gpm (3560 L/min), u = 0.0350.056 gpm (0.130.21 L/min), and n = 24 persons per pump. The value for a ranges between 200 and 500 and b ranges between 6000 and 20,000. The value of q is lower for systems with centrifugal pumps rather than positive-displacement pumps. During peak flow times, the pressure in the system increases; therefore, the flow from individual centrifugal pumps decreases accordingly. The plot in Figure 13.6, calculated using some typical values for the parameters, compares the peaking factors obtained from Equation 13.2 with those obtained by methods discussed in Chapter 6 for traditional gravity systems.

Poisson Distribution to Estimate Loads

One method commonly used in Europe to estimate the number of pumps running is based on the fact that the probability that any number of pumps are running simultaneously can be determined with the Poisson statistical distribution (Soderlund, Jonsson, and Nilsson, 1994). Given the probability that any one pump will run, the number of pumps in the system, and the an assumed number of pumps running, the probability that exactly that number of pumps is running is given by
N N rP rN r N! PP = -------------------------------- 1 Pr N r! N N r !

(13.5)

where

PP = probability that exactly Nr pumps are running simultaneously during the wastewater generation period N = number of pumps in the system Nr = number of pumps running simultaneously Pr = probability that a single pump is running

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Population 40 45

40 35 35 30 30
Peaking Factor
25

High High Low Low Babbitt Babbitt GLUMRB GLUMB

25
20

20
15

15 10
5 5 10

0 0
0 0 100 100 200 200 300 300 Population 400 400 500 500 600 600

Figure 13.6 Peaking factors for pressure sewers.

The probability that any single pump is running at a given time during the wastewater generation period is a ratio of the flow into the sump divided by the rate at which the wastewater is pumped out when the pump is running, which is given by Q in P r = -------Qp where Qin = effective inflow rate to the pump facility (gpm, L/s) Qp = pump discharge rate (gpm, L/s) (13.6)

A typical single-family pump discharge rate Qp is approximately 1015 gpm (0.61.0 L/s), depending on the type of pump and the location. The effective inflow rate Qin depends on the number of users at the location, the per capita wastewater flow production, and the number of wastewater-producing hours. It is given by Vw Nu Q in = -------------cf nh where Vw Nu cf nh = = = = (13.7)

volume of wastewater per inhabitant (gpcd, Lpcd) number of inhabitants per pump unit conversion factor (60 for gpm, 3600 for L/s) number of wastewater-producing hours per day, usually 812 (hr/d)

For typical values, such as three inhabitants per pump, 80 gpcd (300 Lcpd), and 10 wastewater-producing hours per day, the inflow rate to a single-residence pump may be 0.4 gpm (0.025 L/s). For a 15 gpm (1 L/s) pump, the probability that a single pump is running is approximately 0.025 during the 10-hour wastewater generation period, which corresponds to a pump running roughly 15 minutes per day.

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Figure 13.7 shows the probability of a given number of pumps running simultaneously for systems with 10 through 160 pumps for Pr = 0.2. Soderlund, Jonsson, and Nilsson (1994) recommend using the number of pumps running at a 10-percent probability for the design flow. A more useful value for design may be the cumulative probability of at least that number of pumps running, as shown in Figure 13.8. Overall, this method gives somewhat lower estimates of the number of pumps running than methods based on the Albany, NY, data (e/one, 2001).
100 90 Number of pumps in system 10 30 100 50 160 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Probability of Nr Running

80 70 60

Number of Pumps Running (Nr) if Probability of Operation = 0.2

Figure 13.7 Probability of Nr pumps running at one time.

100

Probability of Nr or Greater Running

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5

Number of pumps in system 10 30 100 160

10

Number of Pumps Running (Nr) Probability of operation = 0.2

Figure 13.8 Cumulative probability or Nr or more pumps running.

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13.3

Pressure Sewer Design Considerations

The design of a pressure sewer requires a layout of the piping, which should preferably be done on a CAD- or GIS-based map, much like any other sewer design. The use of an electronic base map makes it much easier to import the geometry and distances into the model for hydraulic calculations. If necessary, the design can be based on paper maps or drawings, but then the representation of the system in the model will not be exactly to scale; therefore, the modeler must input pipe lengths manually. The key design parameter for pipe sizing is the velocity. For the system to work effectively, the velocity at peak flow should be kept below 5 ft/s (1.5 m/s) (Hydromatic Pumps, 2001), although there are some situations, such as short runs of pressure pipe, in which higher velocities can be tolerated. More important, velocity should be greater than 2 ft/s (0.6 m/s) in all pipes for at least some part of the day to prevent solids deposition. The European Standard for pressure sewers, EN 1671, states that a minimum velocity of 0.7 m/s (2.2 ft/s) must be achieved at least once every 24 hours (CEN, 1996). Periodic flushing is recommended when this velocity cannot be maintained. The pipe bore must be the same size as the pump outlet or larger. The standard also states that detention time in the system should be less than 8 hours. Oversizing of pressure sewers (e.g., due to assuming that all pumps are running at once) is discouraged, as it has been documented that grease and fibrous material can then block the pipe (Carcich, Hetling, and Farrell, 1972). The sizing of individual pumps is based primarily on the peak flow from that customer or group of customers. Individual home pumps are usually sized for 1015 gpm (0.71.0 L/s). The methods described in Chapter 6 and the fixture unit method described by American Water Works Association (2003) can be used to determine peak flow in commercial and industrial buildings. With positive-displacement pumps, standard pumps can operate with line pressures as high as 60 psi (475 kPa) at low points, and standard pumps will still operate. However, the pressure in the main must be considered when selecting centrifugal pumps. High-horsepower pumps with large impellers may be required at low points. There is no minimum pressure that must be maintained in the system. If the hydraulic model predicts negative pressures (see Modeling Pressure Sewers on page 479), this is an indication that a combination valve may be needed at that location to prevent air blockage or pipe collapse. Many of these situations are a result of pumping downhill and can be avoided if the pressure sewer terminates at a high point. These issues are discussed in Chapter 12 with respect to force mains, and in this regard, pressure sewers act as force mains. It is usually desirable to draw a profile of the ground and pipe. The profile views from computer models can provide insight into pressures along the line. It may be better to use gravity sewers in areas with long stretches of downhill slope and only use pressure sewers in the portions of the system where the terrain undulates. Although the gravity section may have a higher construction cost, it should be easier to operate and does not require replacement and repair of pumps. An example of a mixed gravity and pressure system uses pressure sewers on one side of a drainage divide, but switches to a gravity sewer on the other side to flow down to the plant, as shown in

Section 13.4

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479

Figure 13.9. Additional information about pressure sewer design can be found in Thrasher (1985) and Flanigan and Cadmik (1979), as well as in manuals provided by pump manufacturers (e/one, 2000; Hydromatic Pumps, 2001).
Pressure Sewer North of Divide Drainage Divide

Gravity Sewer South of Divide

Gravity Pipe Pressure Pipe To Treatment

Figure 13.9 Mixed gravity and pressure sewer system.

13.4

Modeling Pressure Sewers

The fundamental hydraulic concepts involved in modeling pressure sewers are the same as those of force mains and pump stations. The primary difference between the two types of systems is that, with a pressure sewer, each customer has their own storage tank and pump; thus, the pressure system pump stations are smaller and much more numerous. While a manual or spreadsheet hydraulic analysis may be sufficient for a system with only a few customers, a hydraulic analysis model becomes necessary as the number of customers and the complexity of the system increase. Of course, if the pressure sewers are integrated into a system with gravity sewers, then a hydraulic sewer model that can handle both types of flow is necessary if all sewers are to be analyzed simultaneously. A typical model of a pressure sewer discharging into a gravity sewer at a high point is shown in Figure 13.10. Pressure sewers can be modeled using different levels of detail, depending on whether the modeler is interested only in the overall sizing of mains or in pump cycling and the unsteady nature of the flows. Most design work can be done with a steady-state model, whereas operational studies typically require extended-period simulations. Three basic modeling options, in order of increasing complexity, are described on the following pages.

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Gravity sewer

Pressure sewer

Figure 13.10 Pressure sewer discharging to a gravity sewer.

In all three of the options described, the modeler should look for situations where the pressures at low elevations are too high during peak flow conditions. Excessively high pressures may be unavoidable at very low elevations. In such cases, pipe with a higher pressure rating and/or a pump with a higher head may be required in some locations. If the high pressures are due to a steep system head curve, larger piping may be needed downstream. Model runs should also be checked to insure that velocities of at least 2 ft/s (0.7 m/s) are achieved at least once daily.

Modeling to Size Pressure Mains

If the modeler is simply trying to size the pressure mains as part of a system design, a steady-state simulation that omits individual customer pumps is often sufficient. Peak system loads are modeled by allocating multiple users to model junction nodes, much as multiple users are placed at junction nodes in water distribution models or at manholes in gravity sewer models. The corresponding peak loads are entered as known inflows. Model nodes need only be placed at pipe intersections and changes in diameter, and at system low points and high points (which correspond to combination-valve locations) to check pressures. The modeler reviews the results to evaluate head losses and velocities, and sizes the pipes accordingly. If local high points exist along the pressure sewer, the modeler must be aware that the pressure calculations may not be accurate. The model may report an unrealistic negative pressure (HGL dropping below the pipe) when, in actuality, a combination valve prevents the negative pressure from occurring. If a negative pressure is computed, the combination valve at this location cannot be modeled as a simple junction node. Instead, the pipe on the upstream side of the valve may be modeled as terminating in a reservoir open to atmospheric pressure and set to a hydraulic grade elevation equal

Section 13.4

Modeling Pressure Sewers

481

to the elevation of the valve. An inflow equal to the discharge into the reservoir is then placed on the junction node representing the downstream side of the valve. For alternative modeling techniques that can be applied in this situation, Modeling a Pipeline with Multiple High Points on page 444.

Representing All Service Connections as Nodes

At an intermediate level of detail, the modeler can represent each service line (e.g., house connection) as a junction node. This network configuration can be used with a steady-state run to identify the pump head required at any service connection. Determining the head at service nodes is not a major issue for positive-displacement pumps (which have steep performance curves) if the maximum pressure required is below the pumps threshold, but it can be important for centrifugal pumps. In the steady-state model, nodes representing services with pumps running are assigned fixed inflows. By varying the number of pumps running at one time (i.e., the number of services with inflows), the modeler can determine the pressure range for any number of pumps and select the needed pump head and horsepower. Table 13.1 provides guidance on the number of pumps assumed to be running during a peak condition. A model with all service connections represented as nodes can also be used with extended-period simulation runs to provide information on unsteady flows and how the system performs over time. With an extended period simulation, inflows and dimensionless flow patterns should be assigned to reflect the changing on/off status of the pumps.

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Because the pumps themselves are not included, an extended-period simulation with this level of detail can only be used to assess system operations insofar as the pumping rates can be assumed to be relatively unaffected by fluctuations in tank level and discharge pressure. This assumption generally works well for positive-displacement pumps, but is less accurate for centrifugal pumps. In addition to simulating normal operations, the modeler can examine extreme situations such as all pumps turning on simultaneously following an extended power outage. When the system is being initially filled, transients can damage piping, so velocities should be kept below 1 ft/s (0.3 m/s) during filling to prevent water hammer (Hydromatic Pumps, 2001).

Detailed Models
At their most complex, models can include each individual pump and tank and can be analyzed with an extended-period simulation. Runs that simulate each pump provide insight into the range of conditions that the system will experience, including the rise and fall of water in the storage tanks, changing pump status, and fluctuations in pressure and flow. This type of model is also useful for designs with centrifugal pumps because their discharges may be significantly affected by fluctuating system conditions. A detailed model requires significantly more information, including Base loads and patterns for loading at storage tanks Volume and elevation data for individual storage tanks (may be modeled as small wet wells) Individual pump performance curves Junction node and pipe connecting the pump discharge to the pressure main for each service connection. Figure 13.11 is a model view of a small pressure sewer system with 10 pumps. The discharge point of this network is on the far right side. The pipes are annotated with the flow rate in gpm, and the nodes are annotated with the pressure in psi. The water level and pump status for every pump are explicitly considered in a model of this detail. Figure 13.12 shows the discharge at the downstream end of this system over a
Pressure Main Lateral Transition to Gravity Flow

Sump Pump

J-9 J-4

Switch Customer Direction of flow Nodes

Figure 13.11 Pressure sewer model with a pump and tank at each residence.

Section 13.4

Modeling Pressure Sewers

483

3-hour period. Note that, with such a small system, there is no flow in the pipes for much of the time. Figure 13.13 shows the pressure at nodes J-4 and J-9. J-9 is further downstream and at a higher elevation, so it has a lower pressure and less pressure variation. J-4 is further upstream and has a lower elevation, so the pressure is consistently higher than that of J-9. In general, the most-upstream nodes experience the greatest pressure variations.
50 45 40 35
Time (min)

Flow, gpm

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 30 60 90 Time, min 120 150 180

Figure 13.12 Plot of discharge versus time in a sewer model.

45 40 35 30
J-4 J-9

Pressure, psi Pressure, psi

25 20 15 10 5 0 0 30 60 90
Time, Time, min

120

150

180

Figure 13.13 Plot of pressure versus time in a pressure sewer model.

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References
American Water Works Association. 2003. Sizing Water Service Lines and Meters. Publication M-22. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association. Babbitt, H. E. 1953. Sewerage and Sewage Treatment. 7th ed. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Bennett, E., K. Linstedt, and J. Felton. 1974. Rural home wastewater characteristics. Proceedings of the National Home Sewage Symposium, American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Buchberger, S. G. and L. Wu. 1995. A model for instantaneous residential water demands. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 121, no. 3: 232. Buchberger, S. G., and G. J. Wells. 1996. Intensity, duration and frequency of residential water demands. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 122, no. 1: 11. Carcich, I. G., L. J. Hetling, and R. P. Farrell. 1972. Pressure Sewer Demonstration. US EPA, R2-72-091. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency. Clift, M. A. 1968. Experiences with pressure sewage. ASCE Sanitary Engineering Division 94, no. 5: 865. Alexandria, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers. Comit Europen de Normalisation (CEN). 1996. Pressure Sewer Systems, Outside Buildings. EN 1671. Brussels: Comit Europen de Normalisation. Crites, R., and G. Tchobanoglous. 1998. Small and Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems. New York: McGraw-Hill. e/one. 2000. Low Pressure Sewer Systems Using Environment One Grinder Pumps. Niskayuna, NY: e/one Corporation. e/one. 2001. Specifications for GP 2010. Niskayuna, NY: e/one Corporation. Farrell, R. P., and G. G. Darrah. 1994. Pressure sewers A proven alternative solution for a variety of small community sewage disposal challenges. International Symposium of Individual and Small Community Sewage Systems. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Agricultural Engineers. Feuss, J. V., R. P. Farrell. and P. W. Rynkiewicz. 1994. A small community success story. The Small Flows Journal 1, no. 1: 11. Flanigan, L. J. and C. A. Cadmik. 1979. Pressure sewer system design. Water and Sewage Works April: R25. Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of State Public Health and Environmental Managers (GLUMRB). 1997. Recommended Standards for Wastewater Facilities. Albany, NY: Great Lakes-Upper Mississippi River Board of State Public Health and Environmental Managers. Harmon, W. G. 1918. Forecasting sewage at Toledo under dry weather conditions. Engineering News Record 80: 1233. Hydromatic Pumps. 2001. Pressure Sewer Manual and Engineering Guide. Ashland, OH: Hydromatic Pumps. Jones, E. 1974. Domestic water use in individual homes and hydraulic loading and discharge from septic tanks. Proceedings of National Home Sewage Symposium, American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

Problems

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Langford, R. E. 1977. Effluent pressure sewer systems. Proceedings of WPCF Annual Conference. Rezak, J. W. and I. A. Cooper. 1985. Investigations of Existing Pressure Sewer Systems. EPA/600/2-85/051.Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency. Thrasher, D. 1988. Design and Use of Pressure Sewer Systems. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 1991. Alternative Wastewater Collection Systems. EPA 625/1-91/024. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency. Walski, T. M. 2002. Estimating peaking factors for small diameter pressure sewers. Accepted for Keystone Water Quality Manager, Pennsylvania Water Environment Association. Watson, K. S., R. P. Farrell, and J. S. Anderson. 1967. The contribution of individual homes to the sewer system. Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation 39, no. 12: 2039.

Problems
13.1 List three advantages and three disadvantages of pressure sewers. 13.2 Of the two pump head curves in the figure, which is more likely to be a centrifugal pump and which is more likely to be a semipositive displacement pump?

Pump A

Pump B

Head, m

Flow, L/s

13.3 Using the Babbitt formula and the Great Lakes Upper Mississippi River Board formulas for peaking factors, determine the peaking factors they predict for the populations given in the following tables and compare with Equation 13.3 in this chapter. Use average typical values for q, n, and u.

486

Low-Pressure Sewers

Chapter 13

Peaking Factor Population 20 100 500 Babbitt GLUMRB Equation 13.3

Given an average daily flow of 70 gal/capita, what is the peak flow rate in gpm?
Peaking Flow, gpm Population 20 100 500 Babbitt GLUMRB Equation 13.3

Why are the peaking factors for pressure sewers from Equation 13.3 higher than those from the other two methods? 13.4 Consider the pressure sewer being shown in the figure, which is to be installed in an industrial area with insufficient slope for a gravity sewer. When operating, each pump discharges the flow listed in the table. The discharge manhole (R-1) water level is at an elevation of 16 ft.
J-2 P-2 P-1 J-1 J-8 J-7 P-7 P-8 J-3

J-4 P-3 P-4 J-5 J-6 P-5 R-1 P-6

a. Select a diameter for each pipe segment; possible diameters are 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 6, and 8 in. Assume a C-factor of 130 for each pipe. Find the velocity in the pipes and the pressure and HGL at the junctions indicated when All pumps are running. Only the pumps at J-1 and J-4 are running. The velocity should be about 4 ft/s when all pumps are running. The pressure should be less than 40 psi at all times. Complete the following tables.

Problems

487

All Pumps Junction J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 Ground Elev. ft 12 26 20 23 19 17 10 12 Pipe Elev., ft 7 19 15 18 14 12 5 7 Inflow, gpm 30 20 15 45 15 15 35 15 Pressure, psi HGL, ft

Pumps J-1 and J-4 Pressure, psi HGL, ft

Label P-1 P-2 P-3 P-4 P-5 P-6 P-7 P-8

Length, ft 225 165 350 425 180 270 605 420

Diameter, in

Velocity, All Pumps, ft/s

Velocity 2 Pumps, ft/s

b. Prepare a profile drawing of the piping from J-1 to R-1 showing pipe elevation, ground elevation, and the two HGLs. 13.5 A pressure sewer serves 45 homes (one pump per home) with an average daily load of 200 L/home, 10 hours of production per day, and a typical pump discharge of 0.8 L/s when the pump is running. a. Determine the probability that any pump is running. b. Determine the probabilities that zero, one, two, three, or four pumps are running. c. Determine the cumulative probability that zero, one, two, three, or four pumps are running.
.

Number of Pumps 0 1 2 3 4

Probability of Running

Cumulative Probability

d. What is the maximum number of pumps running, based on Table 13.1?