J

IRREGULAR SEAWAY
5.1 CLASSIFICATlON
f
In the preceding chapters ship motions due to long-
crested waves of regular sinusoidal form have been
tudied because these were all that could be handled
-
by analytical methods. However, a treatment of
hip motion purely for regular waves is, to a consider-
able extent, academic in nature, since an actual sea
does no1 have a regularly corrugated surface, and
the wave paltern is rather complex and extremely
irregular.
Although an actual sea surface is very irregular,
oceanographers have been able to predict by statistical
means how often various wave heigh1s may occur
over a certain period of time for a particular sea
urface of a given amount of energy. Sincc in an
irreglllar seaway the sea surface constantly changes,
a few new terms regarding wave height will be
defined in this chapter in order to perform a statistical
tudy of the seaway.
The irregular wave surface varies from time to
time and place to place, depending on the wind
speed or the Beaufort llumber, which is a means of
estimating and reporting wind speeds. This system
was devised in the early nineteenth century by
Admiral Beaufort of the British Navy. The sea state
is the condition 0 1' the surface of the seas
water, white caps). By observmg the
indivdual can derive a Beaufort number and hence a
WiN\ Pctllred in Fig. 5. 1 are some of the
various sea states and the wind speeds that ac-
company these states. These sea states arc als
described in Table 5. 1. ln the case of sinusoidal
waves the and so on remain the
same, but for an irregular seaway these properties
Chapter
Five
cons1antly change from time to lime and place to
place. For an irregular seaway the dislurbance of
the sea sllrface a1 any given point as a func1ion of
1ime is shown in Fig. 5.2a, where the following
ymbols are used:
r = wave eleva1ion (i.e. , ins1antaneous displacement
of the sea surface from the position of rest or
the reference line).
apparent wave amplitllde d iSlance of 1 he
crest of the wave from the posilion of rest or
the reference line)
i", = apparent wave height (i .e. , vertical distance
between a successive crest and a trough)
= apparent zero-crossing period elapsing
between two successive upward crossings of
zero in <\. record)
apparent period thc
occurrence of two succcssive crests)
The elevation of an irregular seaway is plottcd
to a base of x at.a given instant of timc in Fig. 5.2b
where:
tL,..): = apparent wavelength of zero up-crossing
betwcen adjacen1 zero up-
in the direction of advance)
(L,..)c = apparent wavelength between adjacenl crest
(i.e. , horizontal dislance belwcen adjacent
crcsts in the direction of ad vance)
The average wal'e height of an irrcgular scaw3
at a given time and 10 a given location of the sea 1
the arithmetic mean of lhc heights of a1l lhe
for a given set of observations, exceot wa ves les
lhan 1 f1 in height. The cl1l1rocterisf ic wal'e heighf ,
101
Figure 5.1 lII ustration of sea for various wind
(b) Twelve
knots. (c) Eighteen knots. (d) Thirty knots. (e) Forly knots.
knots. (g) Fifty knots. (h) Sixty-five knots.
(1) Seventy 1cnots. U) Ninety-five knots. (k) One
twenty knots.
lQ3
TABLE5.1 DEFINITIONS OF SEA CONDITIONS: WAVE AND SEA FOR FULLY ARISEN SEA
u
-
Sc. - G.n.r.1 W,nd Sc.
Sca (Beou.

Rang. W,nd fI.,gh, Mnt. M.ni.
S.... fort) criplion
(knolS' Rangc Prriod Wave.

Wind
(knolS' ^vcragc Sign,. PCJl ods mum
t kmLa Durallon
forcc ficanl [sec) En..gy (nlu.;..I, (hr unlc:ss
. Tcnlh
[n unlc mles) o.h.rwisc
olhcrwle tndl.
tndi.

Sc. Io k. I rrurror U Calm

Ihc Ligh. 1- 3 0.04 0.01 1.2 0.75 0,5 1010 18m,n

formcd. bUI wi.houl lit1 0.01

Small bu.
pr nounccd 810$SY 2 4- 6 1.9 1.3 6.7 fi 39 m,n
bUI do nOI
Largc bcson
10 br...k. Foam or 810ssy 3 G.n.l. 7- 10 85 0.8 I.l 1.6 08- s' 0 J2 2. 3 20 9.8 1.7
10 1. 1 1.8 2.3 1. 0 b.O 3. 2 27 10 2.4
wilhhorscs
12 1.6 2.6 3. 3 10 7.0 40 18
Sma.1I booom,ng 4 13.5 2. 1 3.3 4.2 14 7.6 5.1 3.6 52 24 4.8

f'"ly fr<quen. whu. 11..16 14 2. 3 3.6 4.6 1 5 7. 8 5,3 3.8 '9

n 5.2
16 2.9 47 6.0 2.11-8.8 6.0 4.3 71 40 6.6
18 3.1 5.9 7.5 2. 5- 10.0 6.8 4.8

ss 8.3
4 Mod.ra.c I 17- 21 19 4.1 6.6 84 2.8-10.6 7.2 5.1
"
6S 9.2

lon8 form: many whu. broezc 20 4.6 7.3 9,3 111- 11.1 7.5 5.4 111 75 10


22 5.5 8.8 11 .2 3.4- 12. 2 8.3 5.9 134 12
'0 form: Slrong 22. 27 24 6.6 10.S 13. 3 3.7-13.5 9.0 64 130 14
are morc ellcnsivc brccu 24.5 6,8 109 13.8 3.8- 13.6 9.2 164 140 15
6 (probably somc 26 7.1 12.3 1$,6 4.0- 14.S 9.8 1.0 188 180 17
u 8.9 143 18.2 4.5- 15.S 7.S 212 2.30 20
up. and whi.. foom 28- )) 30 10,3 16.4 4.7- 16.7 11.3 8.0 250 23
'0 bc blown galc 30.5 10.6 16.9 21.5 4.8- 17.0 11. 5 8.2 258 290 24
7 10 slrcak,s 810n8 IIIc oflhc 32 11.6 18.6 23.6 5.11- 17.5 12. 1 8.6 285

27
WIOd (Spondrin bcgins '0 bc
13.1 21.0 26.7 5.5- 18,S 12.8 9.1 322 420 30
36 14.R 23.6 30.0 5.8- 19.7 13.6 9.6 363 500
" h,gh Frcsh 34- 40 37 15.6 24.9 31.6 13.9 9.9 376 S30 37
811c 38 164 26.3 33.4 14.3 10.2 392 600 3.8
spindrfl. Th. form IS blown in wcll- 40 18.2 29.1 37.0 6,S- 21.7 15.1 10.7 444 710 42
markcd S1r..ks .Iong .hc dirCCl ion
.hc wond. Spray
42 1. 1 32.1 40.8 7- 23 IS,8 11.3 492 830 47
HiSh or fOl m Slrong
446 4 3385.5 2
44.7
iff
534 52
.Iong Ih. of tllc wind. s.. 811
48.9 7- 25 590 1110 57
41 - 37
bc8ins '0 roll. Visi bility
Very h'8h 40 26.2 41.9 53.2 7- $- 26 18. 1 12.9 63
hanglng crcst.. Thc resulling 10 Whol.. 48- 55 28.4 45.5 57.8 7- 5.27 18.8 13.4 1420
15 ln areal palches I1nd 1I blown 1ft ,.1. 5U 30.2 48.3 8- 28.2 19.4 736 73
dense whHe .lon8 .h. dircc. 52 30,8 49.2 8- 28.5 13.9 750 1610 75
tion of.he wind. On .he whol.. .hc 54 33. 2 53.1 67.4 8- 29.5 20.4 14.5 810

81
a whhc
9 appcarancc. Thc rolhn, 01
becomcs hC8Vy and shocklikc.

Exccpllonally h'8h
w" lI lon8 whllc 11 Storm- 56- 63 56 35.7 57.1 72. 5 8.5 ,31 21 .1 IS 910 2100 88
l)'lft8 in S9.5 40.3 64.4 81.8 10 32 22.4 985 2500 101
wlnd E.... )'Wllcrc
are blown ,nto frot h. ViSl bllity

..
f08m and spray. Sco 12 Hurri.
>
10 35 24.1 17.2
whllc with dnvon8 spray. canc. 64-11 >46.6 74.S 94,6
Kriously
For hurncanc wlnds (and oftcn whotc gale and durauons and art barel y 8tt .oncd. 8rc therdorc oot
I L. MoskoWIIZ and W Plerson of Th.
104
105 CLASSIFICATrON OF SEAS
Ti me


t
a) Irregular seaway plotted 10 the base
lime at a given polnt )(.
f
x

b) Irregular seaway plotted to tne base 01 )( at
a given instanl 01 time.
Fgure 5.2 (a) IrreguJar seaway a base of time at a given point x.
(b) IrreguJar seaway base of x at a given instant of time.
of the heights of the one-hundredth highest wave
for the same wave rccord.
The Wave Height Characteristic!: from
Records are obtained as shown in Table 5.2.
The a verage height, the significant height, the
Wave
Example 5.1
or signijcant wave (h...) 1/ 3' of an irregular
seaway at any given time and in a given location
in the sea is the arithmetic mean of the heights of the
one-third highes1. w!Yes for a given record. Ag"in,
waves less than 1 ft in are Sirnilarly,
the average of the 10% highest waves, (11,.,) 1/ 10' is
the average of the heights of the one-tenth highest
waves for the same observation, and the average
of the 1% highest waves, (h,.,) I/IOO' is the average
Q) x @ for
One-Hundredth
Highesl Waves'
Q) x @for
One-TeOl h
Highest Waves
Q) x @for
One-Third
Highesl Waves
Q) x @ Cumulative
Number of
Waves observed
Reading from
Top of2
@
Approximate
Percent
Number of
Waves Having
Heighls of Q)
TABLE5.2
Wave
Heighl
@
5( = 5 x 1)
5

32(=4x8)
lO
42
@
21( = 3 x 7)
100
lO
131
@
4
80
93

lO
287
4
44
75

102
@
4
39
30
25
2

@
4
40
31
25
2
SUM 102
G

E

106 IRREGULAR SEAWAY

average of the one-tenth and one hundredth highest
waves can be determined as fol1ows:
Solution:
From Table 5.2 the fol1owing data are obtained:
Average height = 287/ 102 =
Signilicant height = 131/ 34 =
(considering 1- x 102 or 34 waves)
Average of the one-tenth highest waves = 42/ 10 =
4.2 ft 1020r 10 waves)
Average of the one-hundred highest waves = 5/ 1 =
102 or 1 wave on1y)
Height of the highest wave = at 1east 5 ft
Note: in calculating the average of the one-third
highest waves of the total we need to consider only
102/ 3 highest waves. The results of the last
two rows plus waves from the third row of column
0> wi l1 be considered in the evaluation of the column
for the signilicant height, that is, f,., @. Similarly
in linding the average of the one-tenth highest waves,
only 102/ 10 (i.e., 10 out of 102 waves) should be
consiered for column (J). The value of the lifth row
0f colurnn <2> wi l1 give only 0> and therefore
another eight waves from the fourth row of the same
column are to be considered in the evaluation of (J).
Although. the bliliayij)r of a shio
wave
of the irregular seaway in a statistical
is standard practice in oceanography, I! more severe
is often considered for the
design.
5.2 IRREGULARITY OF THE SEA WA Y AND
THE mSTOGRAM
The degree of irregularity of a seaway can be deter-
, I f
Mean f. = 4'

TA8LE 5.3
Mcan Numbcr or
Elevalion Groups or Occurrencc
[rl]
1.5 10 2.5 26 13
2.510 3. 5 22 11
3. 5104.5 20 10
- 2.5 30 15
10 - 3.5 24 12
CIC.
mined by the shape o( a histogram, that is, a frequency
function for the individual wave characteristics at
a given time or in a given place. For the preparatioll
of the histogram the wave record is grouped into
equally spaced intervals of time, say 60 and the
ele.vations for all of these intervals are
tabulated in increasing order. 5.3). Next ,
the values of C are
the number in each elevation group
is divided by the total number in the sample. The
percentage. value in each group is then plotted a
shown in the histogram in Fig. 5.4.
Assume that we have an actual record of wave
elevations for 200 min, similar to Fig. 5.3. From the
wave record there are 26 intervals with mean eleva-
tions with mean elevation
of 2.5 to 20 intervals with mean elevations
of so on.
There are 200 one minute intervals. Experience
has shown that the histcgram of the wave elevation
takes the shape of a Gaussian or normal distribution
as shown by the dotted line in Fig. 5.4. Table 5.3
has been made for the histogram ofthe wave elevation.
Mean f. 3' Mean
60 sec

Figure 5, 3 wave clevations over a period of time,
" f
f h g
-:h
-
) "J


IRREGULARITY OF THE SEAWAY AND THE HISTOGRAM 107
of
- 10 - 8 - 4 - 2

2
Figure 5.4 Frequency function ofwave elevatlons.
Similarly, a histogram or frequency function of
the apparent wave periods of an irregular seaway
can be prepared from a table in which all the t values
from the w.ave record are tabulated in order of
i!,1creasing period. The values of apparent period,
arc then grouped between 0.5 and 1.5 sec, 1.5
and 2.5 sec, and so on, showing the number of zero
up-crossings in each group. By dividing thc number
of zero up-crossings for each group by the total
number of zero up-crossings available from the
record, the percentage is calculated and drawn
as in Fig. 5.5a.
It has been found by taking innumerable wave
records that a comparatively regular seaway wi lJ
yield a high, narrow histogram, whereas an irregular
seaway will produce a low, wider histogram. The
locat.on of the center of gravity of the histogram
in relation to the y-axis lhe average vallle of
the apparent wave period T, that is,
T=
jpdR
'.vhere p is the percentage of occurrence.
Anolher way of using the histogram is to plot
the cumulative distribution diagram (see Fig. 5.5b)
by taking the cumulative number of
that fall a series of increasing values of T,
h.." or r
a
, converting them to percentages, and drawing
them against the base values. The significanl value
or lheaverage value ofthe one-tenth or one-hundredth
highest values can be readily obtained by using the
cumulative distribulion.
lt has been found by expcrience that the theoretical
Rayleigh curve fits the histograms for the wave
height (double amplitude) very well. The Rayleigh
distribulion is expressed by the following equation:
2H

where p(H
i
) is the probability density per foot or
the percentage of times that any particular wave
height Hi will appear, with 0 < p < 1. If p = 0, Hi
will never whereas p = 1 means that H; will
occur with every experiment. Furthermore, FI2 is
the average of all the wave heights squared (i .e., lhe
square of wave heights), defined by
;.2 L[(Hy xf(H
i
)]

L[J(Hi)]
where f(H
i
) is the number of Hi'
This is very easily illustrated in Example 5.2.
Example 5.2
The following wave heights were recorded over a
24 hr period:
Hcighl 5- 10 10- 15' 15- 20 20- 25
umbcr of wavcs 5600 960 320
Plot the wave height histogram along with the
theoretical Rayleigh distribution.
Solution:
The hislogram data are shown in Table 5.4.
The values of column (3), obtained by dividing
@) by 5, which is the interval of wave height record,
determine the ordinates for the wave histogram.
Note, however, that, when the wave records are

108 IRREGULAR SEAWAY
20%
T
10')(,
6 7 8 9 10 11

a) 01 apparem wave periods
100 ')(, C
50')(,
12 0 sec
T
A
o 2 3 4 E 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
b) Cumulative distribution diagram
Figure 5.5 (0) Histogram of apparent wave periods. djstribution diagram.
grouped into 1 ft intervals, column G> wiII have the TABLE 5.4 IUSTOGRAM DATA
same values as @.
A sample calculation for Rayleigh distribution
Wave Mean Occur- Percent Percent
is as folIows. The mean square of wave heights is
Record Height rence Occurrence Occurrence
H,
)
per Foot
fj2 =

Height
I:[j(H;)J

(2.W x 5600 + (7.5)2 X (12.5?

@ @ SUM
x 1920 + (17.5)2 x 960 + (22.5)2 x 320

2.5

35 7

5- )0 7.5
45 9
= 73.72 ft
2 10- 15 12.5 1,920 12 2. 4
15- 20 17.5 960 6 1. 2
Thus the root mean (rms) of wave heights
20- 25 22.5 320 2 0.4
= H =
SUM
Now, according to the theoretical Rayleigh distri-
r.
'

4
IRREGULARITY OF THE SEAWAY AND THE HISTOGRAM 109
TABLE 5.5
Wave Record

5- 10
10- 15
15- 20
20-25
Mean
Heighl, H,

2.5
7.5
12.5
17.5
22.5
Rayleigh
Ord. p(H,)
0.0623




bution in (5.1), the probabily for a wave height of
2.5 ft is
2(2.5) _
e
73.72
= 0.0623 or 6.23%
Similarly, the other probability values are calcu-
lated as shown in Table 5.5, and plotted in Fig. 5.6.
Note: The total area under the Rayleigh distribution
curve should equal 1.0 (i.e., the total probability
should be 1.0).
From 5.6 we have
Area from 2.5 to 22.5 = t hL Product, using the
Simpson rule for integration
x 1 +
Area from 0 to 2.5
Total area
x 4 + 0.0407 x 2 +
x x 1)
=0.92
[5(0) + 8(0.0623)
using the
rule fo[ integration
= 0.08
= 0.92 + 0.08 = 1.0
which should be the probability for all waves.

.<::

>
'"

g 20
From its definition one can see being the
average over the entire area of the sea, should very
close\y represent the average energy of the sea, that is

+ h:'1 + .:.)
8 8 ,. ...', . .....
= Energy (5.2)
Therefore, if the area under the histogram curve i
known, one can directly relate H to the Rayleigh
distribution formula and determine from this the
probability of occurrence of different wave heights.
Thus the probability that h> Hj is
fllj 2H
_ 1 .:.'.'J ,, - H/l n
'
I ^
JO
p{h> Hj
= e-
m1fl1
For example, if Hj = 10 ft , then p = e- (I00J7 3.72) =
0.258. There is a probability of 0.258 that the wave
height will be greate"r than H
j
or other
out of a number of waves N, Ne- /HIH' waves will
be higher than H i'
From such a formulation one can find the average
wave height, or the average height of the one-third
highest waves, or the average height of the one-tenth
highest waves, and so on. For example, in the preced-
ing example the average wave height is
(H)O = 0.89(jj 2)1 12 (5.3a)
the average height of the one-third highest waves i
(H)I /3 = 1.4J(jj 2) 1/2 (5.3b)
and the average height of the one-tenth highest wave
IS
(H)I /1 0 = 1.80(iP}1/2 (5.3c)
These expressions are vaJid, however, only if the
Rayleigh distribution is correcl. Some correction
are required if the actual distribution differs from
Rav!eigh distribution
E
B
C
10
2
u
s
c

u

...
10 15
Wave height [ ft )
Figure 5.6 Wave bistogram and lheorelical Rayleigh dislribuliot1 .
'
110 IRREGULAR SEAWAY
TABLE 5.6
Heighl Number
[fl] of Waves
Cumulalive
Numberof
Waves
@
Number x
Heighl
:: Q) x0 Q) 0
2.5
7.5
12.5 1,920
17.5 960
22.5 320


14,720
15,680





720
SUM
A verage wa ve height is
According to the Rayleigh distribution, average wave
height is 0.89 x 8.59 = One can see that thc
theoretical Rayleigh distribution fits the example
rather wel l.
The histograms as described above can define
only one characteristic of the irregular seaway,
namely, either period, height, or amplitude. Only
the wave energy spectrum method of describing a
seaway takes into account both the frequency and
the wave amplitude. This is discussed in the following
sect lOn.
the Rayleigh one, as will be shown later.
Table 5.6 has been compiled in accordance with 5.3 WA VE SPECTRUM
Table 5.4 in order to compare the actual values of
the average wave heights with those by the An irregular wave pattern can be generated if a large
Rayleigh law. number of sinusoidal waves of different wavelengths



V V V
0.6
r. = 2.5 ft
= 0.8
r. = 2 h
L 1264.53 ft

1. .. = 562.02 ft

Lw = 316.13 ft
x
L = 202.33 ft

A combination
AII Four
Wave$
x
\ ,
\ I
(c )

',
1
..
,.
',,
',
/

1
.EE-
-
...

Figure 5.7 Addition of four sinusoidal waves.

WAVE SPECTRUM 111
and heights are superimposed on each other. The
resulting wave shows no definite pattern for either
wave height , wavelength, or wave period. This is
i1Iustrated in Fig. 5.7 by considering four sinusoidal
waves, each having its own particular wavelength
and wave height. The combination of four waves,
shown in Fig. 5.7e, is of extremely irregular shape
in regard to both wavelength and wave height.
Not only does the superposition of many sinusoidal
waves create an extremely irregular seaway, but also
the pattern of the seaway is never repeated from
one time to another. There is, however, only one way
to take into account the irregularity of the waves,
and that is to determine the total energy. This is
obtained by adding together t he energies of all of the
small, regular sinusoidal waves that produce the
eaway by their superposition. The severity of the
seaway is then measured by the total energy content
of all the waves present.
As mentioned in Section 3.7, the energy of a
sinusoidal wave is given a!:
1P9(:
per square foot of sea surface. Therefore the total
energy per square foot of surface of all the waves,
with amplitudes (0" ( 02' ... '(0.' is given by

+ (;2 + ... +{;J

Thus any given be described by the
energy distribution versus the different frequencies
(or wavelengths or wave periods) for various wave
components. The frequency distribution of energy
is called the energy speclrum for the particular seaway,
as illustrated in Example 5.3.
Example 5.3
Find the energy distribution of an irregular seaway
composed offour di fTerent waves having the following
characteristics :
,
a

LIt
e
- -
i
n
vgob i-
-
l

234
J265 562 316 202

SolUlion :
The circular frequency expression is

from which
=0.8
and = sec -
I
Thus the total energy per square foot of the wave
surface

1 +

) C
J
++

-)H
3
5lh

za2
'
,

g
-
22.
-
2nuU

Ta
E


800
ZB
:l

300
200

o
= bandwidth
= 0.2
624

\\Area = 31 .2 Ib/ft
0.6
Circular

Figure 5.8 Energy spectrum for four waves.
0.2 0.4 1.0

112 JRREGULAR SEAWAY

Il---
-u
u

[sec I J
Figure 5.9 Approach toward fina[ spectrum.
where pg = 62.4 1b/ ft
3
for fresh water.
The distribution of this total energy according to
the frequency of waves is given in Fig. 5.8, where the
ordinates are obtained by dividing the individual
energy content by the bandwidth, which is 0.2 in
this particular example.
waves, having all different wavelengths and very
small amplitudes, as Fig. 5.9 shows.
The energy spectrum in Fig. 5.10 covers the entire
range of frequency; the bandwidth is decreased,
and the number of individual wave trains increases
until it reaches inrmity. At the same time the energy
content of each individual wave component is also
decreased; however, the total amount of energy
available in the seaway remains the same. This
continuous curve between = 0 and
actually represents the energy spectrum of the waves.
It is to be noted that for a given wind speed the
waves that are first generated are short; the longer
wavelengths are generated when the wind continues
to blow. U1timately aJully deueloped sea is produced
which is stable and does not change as the wind
continues to blow. Thus the energy spectrum also
changes continuously until a fully developed sea
is formed. During its growth longer waves are
produced (i .e., the contributions from the shorter
Note that the dimension of energy (see Table 4.5)
is Ib-ft. Since the area under the total curve should
give this dimension, the ordinates represent
since the abscissa has the dimension of sec - 1.
The total area under the energy spectrum gives
the total energy of al1 the wave components. Note
that the energy due to each frequency has been given
a small bandwidth in order to obtain a continuous
curve, as shown by the dotted line of Fig. 5.8. Since
the real sea is made up of all frequencies and the
wave pattern itself is never the energy
has to be a continuous curve, composed of
the contributions of 1n infinite nlimber of regular



J
Figure 5. 10 Final energy spectrum.

Wave
Energy build-up of partially and rully seas.
of the new figure, generally denoted as mo , is Jater
multpLed by. pg to obtan the energy. The new
figure s called the wave spectrum, and the ordnate
are represented by the symbol whch s called
the spect/'al density ofwave energy. The wave spectrum
for example 5.3 s shown in Fig. 5. 13.
In Example 5.3
+ (;1 + (;J + (;)

+ (2.5)2 + 2
2
+ 12J
=
Therefore the total area under the wave spectrum
in Fig. 5.1 3 should have a value of 6.755, whch
when multpLi ed by pg, that is, about 62.4 lb/ft
3
(for
fresh water), gives the energy, which s 421.2 lb/ft
as before. As in the case of the energy spectrum, the
ordinates of the wave spectrum are obtained by
dividing the ndividual t(amplitude)2 .values by the
bandwidth, which is 0.2 n this particular example.
In conc\ usion t sbould be noted that there is a
lmit on the number of waves to be consdered in
obtanng the maxmum wave height from the
Rayleigh distrbuton. A1t hough we may obtain
a very hgh wave fthe wave record is made for a very
long time, the probabi Li ty of occurrence for the
extremely high wave is very low. Therefore often a
record of 1000 waves is considered to be sumciently
representative for the determination of the wave
spectrum, and the most probable" value of the
one-thousandth. highest waves is taken to be the
most probable largest value [152].
Sometimes it is not the number or observation
but the period of time that is considered io obtaioing
a wave record for statistical evaluation, for example,
frequencies become predominant), as is shown in
Fig. 5.1 1. This figure also shows that, along with
the generation of longer waves, the
of the energy spectrum shifts' toward the lower
frequency sde. This is also the case for a fully deve-
loped sea when it is experiencing increasing wind
speed. See Fig. 5.12.
We have seen that (5.4) repr<!sents the energy in
waves and that the area under the curve in Fig. 5.8
yields the quantity. Now, nstead of drawing
a spectrum as in Fig. 5.8 that is, from (5.4), one can
draw C( difTerent figure in which the ordnates repre-
sent
Figure 5.11 .
HC;, + C;1 + ... + C;.l
is divided out, and the area under the curve
(5.5)
AU
au

"HAva"
UHe

Au

Wave
Figure 5.12 Energy of fully seas ror
various wind speeds.
114 IRREGULAR SEAWAY
20
3 10

U> m - 5

Figure 5.13 Wave spectrum for.four waves.
the total number of waves passing a point within
an hour, or the total number passing a point during
a longer period of time. The total number of waves
is obtained by dividing 1 hr by the significant wave
period.
5.4 PREDICfION OF AN IRREGULAR
SEAWAY
To be able to define a seaway it is to take
sample records of the wave heights and the frequency
of the particular seaway concerned over a limited
period of time. Although the wave pattern wiU never
be repeated, the statistical characteristics of the sea
state, that is, the energy spectrum or wave spectrum,
wi11 remain the same. This is the advantage of statis-
tical investigations. In other words, the sinusoidal
components that approximate a record for a parti-
cular sea state are th same regardless of time and
place and differ from one record to another only in
the phase orientation, thereby keeping the energy
of the wave system constant.
Although a spectral density curve may be drawn
from just one wave record, it is often preferred to
obtain the average wave cbaracteristics for any given
area by taking many sarnples of wave records. The
spectral density curve may also be approximated
by an analytical expression probability
tbeory.
The procedure.for plotting a spectral density curve
to a base of wave frequency is illustrated below.
Let us suppose that a has been made of four
component waves of wave between
0.75 and 0:85 = 0.8 ::t 0.05); artd that
= 0.1 is the wave ampli-
tudes of the wave record are
(<1\ = 0.866, (01 = 1.414,
(a3 = 1.1 18, and (<lJ =
Thus

L
A
U

1
3
;
zezaE
CC
M
i
pu v&

L
V

LU T

and (;. = 0.50 ft2
Z 1.25 + 0.50 = 4.5 ft
2
and

Z cie
or the area under the curve over a certain bandwidth
is the sum of t(amplitude)2 values for all component
waves. Thus
= 2.25 ft2
PREDICTION OF AN IRREGULAR SEAWAY 115
Energy density S [ft2_secJ
f
Aegu lar wave
rms
61
f
Irregular wave
0.2 0.4 0.6
Circular
J
(b)
Figure 5.14. (a) Energy density for a particular frequency band. (b) Surface elevation at equal intervals of time.
which is the area under the energy density curve
for c
w
between 0.75 and 0.85 sec-
1
. Since w",=
0.1 sec-
1
that is. in our records
2.25
22.5 ftZ-sec
0.1
This value obtained for energy density has been
plotted in Fig. 5.14a.
Now the total energy E per square foot
of wa ve where mo is the the energy
density spectrum, or, dimensionally, E = (MC
3
)
(LT-
2
)(L
2
) or E = (ML T -
2
) for the total wave
surface. This 1s the dimensional expression for energy
as given in Table 4.6.
Nte that it is not the energy spectrum of the
seaway that has a Gaussia,n form; it is the seaway
record (histogram) for wave elevation that is Gaussian.
The histogram for the \vave heights of an irregular
seaway js considered to be more or less a Rayleigh
distribution. The energy spectrum may have any
functional form.
To use the principle of the energy spectrum for
studies, the quantitative values oJ the
wave spectrumJor diJJerent sea regions andJor diJJerent
c1imatic .conditions should be known.
Altbough there are differences between different
wave spectrum formulas, the ordinate of the curve
iS" generally taken as th spectrar density, which is
used to represent the full energy of the component
waves. Since the energy of the component waves
is directly related to the square of their amplitudes,
the spectral density can be reJerred directly to the
square oJ the amplitude oJ the waves. The notation
fr the spectral density is and the area under
the curve is equivalent to the statistical variance.
Furthermore the significant height is otained by
the relation
(h"')1 /3 = (hJ1 /3 = 4.0.Jmo
where
mo = I :t (5.6)
J 0
is the area under the curve of the wave spectrum.
The factor 4.0 is obtained on the basis that the
hjstogram for wave height follows the mathematical
approximation given by the Rayleigh distribution,
wh.ich characterizes a rather narrow wave spectrum.

= + (;2 + ...)
for the particular value of bandwidth w
w
' as men-
tioned before. The wave 5peclrum so obtained not
only gives the various average values (the significant
amplitude, average amplitude ofthe ooe-tenth highest
waves, etc.) but is also the extreme values,
as will be shown later.
The following useful information can be derived
from a wave spectrum:
a. The range of frequencies that are important for
the contribution of energy to the seaway.
b. The frequency at which the maximum energy is
supplied.
c. The content of energy at different frequency bands.
d. The existence of a swell at low frequencies.
116 lRREGULAR SEAWAY
TABLE 5.7
Amplilude Heighl
Average wave : 1. 25
Average of one-lhird highesl waves :
Average of one-lenlh higheSI wavcs : 2.55
Average of one-hundredlh highesl wa ves: 3. 34
From a known wave spectrum one can obtain the
wave amplitudes or heights by using the simple
formuJas given in TabJe 5.7. The area under a
wave spectrum, as described earJier, is

= lno (5.8)

where mo is the value of wave eJevations squared,

or the root mean square (rms) value of the
wave elevations in an irregular seaway. The rms of
wave elevations from the zero line measured at
constant !J. l does not give the peak deviation (or
mean amplitude), but it does give a mean (statistical
average) of the deviations from the zero line i.e.,
mo = where n is the numberofmeasurements.
It is to be noted that !J. l shouJd be Jess than haJf the
minimum time between successive crests and n should
be Jarge [see Fig. 5.J4b]. Thus the area under the
wave spectrum yields the mean of the devia-
tions squared and hence the rms value
of
wave amplitudes or other averages are
multipJes, of rms (i.e., a constant x Such
muJtipJiers depend on the assumed probabiJity distri-
bution. For example, for the Rayleigh distribution
the amplitude and height of the average of all, the
one-third hjghest, the one-tenth highest, or the
one-hundredth hjghest waves I!re given in Table 5.7.
Also, ifthe wave height histogram follows the Rayleigh
distribution, the mean of the wave height squared
is related to the area under the wave spectrum as
H2 = 8mo
As the formulas of Table 5.7 have been derived
for a narrow Jrequency speclrum (i.e., for Rayleigl1
distribulion of the wave height histogram), oceano-
graphers have introduced a crrection factor (CF):
(5.9)
by which the above constants should be multiplied
to take into account the broadness of the spectrum.
The broadness parameler is found from the even
momems of the spectrum and is given by the expression
mnm. -
_ - '''2

mnln
0'114
(5.10)
where the moment of the area under the spectrum i
m
n
=
J 0
Here n is any integer, and I11n is the nth moment of
the area under the spectrum.
Note that the physical significance of 1110 and m
2
is that they represent the vertical velocity and vertical
acceleration of wave motion, respectively. The form
ofthe spectrum is completely determined by knowing
all the moments of the area of the spectrum about
the origin, as necessary for the broadness parameter
given in (5.10).
In the case of slVells, the high frequencies are not
very prominent and the height distribution (wave
height histogram) approaches the theoretical Rayleigh
law. 00 the other hand, in wind-gel/ eraled seas (wide
band spectra) the high frequencies are rather impor-
tant, and the wave height distribution approaches
the Gaussian law; hence the correction factor should
be used to find the statistical averages for wave
amplitudes or heights for wind-generated seas. Note
that the value of e usually lies between 0 and 1.0.
In general, the following factors determine the
hape of a wave spectrum:
a. Wind speed (the most significant parameter).
b. Wind duration.
c. Felch (distance over which the wind blows).
d. Location of other storm areas from which the
swell may travel.
The expression for the average number of zero
up-crossings per second, N 0 ' is also given in terms
of moments of the area under the spectrum:

(5. L2)
and the average zero-crossing is'given as

(5.1 3)
where the zero-crossing period is the average time
interval between s
l!
ccessive upward or downy..' ard
crossings of the line representing the mean water
level.
Also
,
the crest-to-c'est defined as

which is lhe average lime belween
or lroughs in lhe record.
In an irregular seaway, CreSls and lroughs occur
from lime 10 lime below and above, respeclively
lhe mean waler level; lherefore lhe Crest-lO-Cresl
period 1; has a value less lhan lhal of T: , which is
lhe zero-crossing period. Since does nol include
the effect of impOrlanl ripples, il is lherefore 'tonsi-
dered 10 be more closely relaled to visual eSlimates
of period than
Anolher impOrlant charaClerislic for lhe irregular
seaway is lhe average apparenl wavelenglh (L.J:
which is also defined in lerms oflhe speclral moments:

(5.15)
Standard Wave the
International Towing Tank Conference)
When the wave spectrum of a particular sea is not
a vailable, Inlernational Towing Tank Conference
(l ITC) spectral formulation should be used as
follows:
a.
w
(5.16)
Here is frequency in radians per
second, and A = 8.10 X 1O-
3
g
2
, where g is the
of gravity in appropriate units.
Also, is in cm
2
-sec units when B = 3.11 x
where H 1/ 3 is the significant wave height
in centimeters, or is in fe-sec units when
B = 33. 56/ (H) /3 ' where H 1/ 3 is the significant wave
heighl in feet.
b. If Slalistical information is available on both the
characteristic wave p"eriod and the significant wave
heighl, then
A = 173(H)J3 / TI4, B = 691/ T
1
4
where lhe significant wave period T
1
is given as

The data suggest that trus period can be taken
as the observed period.
Furthermore, the signi f1cant wave height is (H)I /3 =
4.0Jmo , that is, the significant height is 4.0 x variance.
c. Although a wide. variation in significant wave
heights exists for a given wind speed, the approximate
relationship between wind speed" and significant
PREDICTION OF AN IRREGULAR SEAWAY 117
heighl in the open ocean, to be used when only
wind speed is known, is tentalively defined by a
curve (Fig. 5.15) having the following ordinates :
Wind Speed
[knols]
20
30
40
50
60
Significanl Wave Height

10
17.2
26.5
36.6
48.0
The wind speed" is taken to be that which is sensed"
by personnel on board ship.
Example 5.4
a. Using the formulation, plot a wave spectrum
for a wind speed of 31 knots.
b. Find the significant wave height from this spectrum
if the assumption that the wave height histogram
follows the Rayleigh distribution is not valid.
Solution :
Since wind speed. = 31 knots, the significant wave
height H 1/3 is 18.5 ft from Fig. 5.1 5. The spectral
density is


w
where A.= 8.10 x 1O-
3
g
2
= 8.385 ft
2
-sec, and B =
33. 56/(H) /3 = 0.09806.
Substituting the values of A and B, we obtain
Table 5.8 for the wave spectrum (see Fig. 5.16);
Table 5.9 has been prepared for the calculation of
the correction factor (CF) to be used for the broadness
ofthe wave spectrum.
The variance is then
x SUM
o
= t x 0.1 x 646.92 ft
2
=
Furthermore,
(H)J /3 = 18.50 ft
(H).ver.sc = 2.506 x 4.65 = 11. 67 ft
and
(H) 1/ 10 = 5.090 x 4.65 =
l .
N
'
IJ VS. wind speed:
ITTC standard wave spectrum
118
10
IRREGULAR SEAWAY
50
45

t:!
:t:
g35
3

m
..
.t:
25
z
c
'"
18.5
15
60 20 50
Wind speed [knots]
Significant wave height versus wind Figure 5.15
8.83
7.2 sec
=
= O. 1 132 sec - 1 Also
(H)1 /100 = = 6.671 x 4.65 =
m
2
= t x X SUM
2
=! x 0.1 x 327. 14
= 10.91 ft2/sec
2

X SUM
4
= t x 0.1 x 285.48

= 304.5 ft
Energy = pgmo = 62.4 x 21. 56 = 1342

(per
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
[sec 1 )
Wave Spectrum for a signifcant wave height of
0.6 0.4 0.2
60
o
o
50
30
20
40
10

Figure 5.16
119 IRREGULAR SEAWAY PREDl CTIO
from which the correction factor is
CF = (1 - e
2
)1 / 2

= 0.76

]
@
B
TABLE 5.8
W.,
(sec-1J

@
Finall y, the significant wave a-mplitude is
((0)1 /3 = 2jm; x CF = 2 0.76 = 7.5 ft
so that the significant wave height is
The average, significant, and other wave heights
are' obtained statistically by applying the correction
factor. However, the CF is taken to be 1.0 when
standard ITIC formulation is used for wave spectra
for a given significant wave height , since it is assumed
by ITIC that the wave height (double amplitude)
histogram follows the Rayleigh distribution.
5.5 MOST PROBABLE LARGEST WA VE
AMPLITUDE
The expected value of the most probable largest
amplitude in a record of n waves is obtained statisti-
as given by Ref. 139, using (5.17).. The most
probable largest amplitude is
o
0.02
17.80
55.97
50.68
33.22
20. 17
12.25
7.61
4.88
3.22
2. 19
1. 52
1.09
0.79
0.59
0.44

0.26
o
O
0.022
0.208
0.469
O.5
0.787
0.861
0.907
0.935
0.954
0.966
0.975
0.981
0.985
0.988
0.99 1
0.993
0.994
square foot of sea surface). Thus
@
61.286
12. 106
3.830
1. 569
0.757
0.408
0.239
0.149
0.098
0.067
0.047
0.034
0.026
0.019
0.015
0.012



x (5.1 7)
where n is the total number of observations, mo is
mnm. -
= "'0'''4 '''2

mnm
0'''4

)
.
i
-
ny
-
-
-
nu
-

.
.

.
?
o

.
.

-
-

TABLE 5.9 WAVE CHARACTERISTICS FROM ITTC STANDARD SPECTRUM, (11")1 /3 = 18.5 ft.
W ..
(SCC-
1
]

ProdUCl
(!l v (

Simpson's
Mulliplier

dw@@
ProdUCl
@)x(!)
@
Simpson's
Multiplicr

Z
w
..
ProdUCl
Q) x0
@
Simpson's
Multiplier
@

@

O
1.06
13.44
13. 18
31.88
16.54
32.36
15.22
28.28
13. 34
25.04
11.68
22.0
10.34
19.72
9.24
17.72
4. 16
142424242424242424
l
.
o

0.53
3. 36
6.59
7.97
8.27

7.6 1
7. 12
6.67
6.26
5.84
5.52
5. 17
4.93
4.62
4.43
4.16
s
l
3634l606764655030

aaaaaonual.-
-
2
.
Z1168036
327. 14 ft 2-sec - 1

5.70
55.96
36.50
65. 12
25.82
39.68
15.22
23. 60
9.28
14.80
5.96
9.80
4.04
6.84
2.86
4.92
1.04
SUM
2

2.85
13.99
18.25
16.28
12.91
9, 92
7.61
5.90
4.64
3.70
2.98
2.45
2.02
1.7 1
1.43
1.23
1.04
@

a
a
--

oooaooool-
-
--22234
646.92 ft l-sec

0.08

233.8R
101.36
132.88
40.34

15.22
19.52
6.44
8.76
3.04
4.36
1. 5
2.36
0.88
1.36
0.26
SUM
o

0.02

55.97
50.68
33. 22
iO. 17
12.25
7.61
4.8
3. 22
2. 19
1.52
1.09
0.79
0.59
0.44
0.34
0.26
120 IRREGULAR SEAWAY
TABLE 5.10
10


10.000

the area under the wave spectrum (variance), and
CF is the correction factor. (J - e
2
)1!2
For di fTerent values of n. Table 5.10 shows thc
results using (5.17).
For example, if the wave height (double
histogram follows the ideal ' Rayleigh distributioD
(which means that the correction factor is
then, for a value of mo = 80.70 ft
2
, out of 50
one would have an amplitude of or out ora
total of one should atlain an amplitudc
of
Statistical estimation of the most probable largest
values of wave amplitudes is useful in practical
consideration.