by RauI Corazzon - e-maiI: rc|aljonloIogy.

co
CIick on lhe image for lhe mobiIe version
Ior an Overviev see lhe Index of lhe Iages or lhe AIhabelicaI Index of lhe IhiIosohers: A-I - G-O -
I-Z, you can aIso dovnIoad lhe age as or see lhe TabIe of Conlemorary OnloIogisls (IDI)
SIARCH in lhis sile:
Changc nI Addrcss: August 13, 2010 this sitc mnvcd Irnm www.Inrma!nntn!ngy.it tn www.nntn!ngy.cn
Phi!nsnphica! Lngic and Phi!nsnphy nI Lngic
|n!cx cj inc Scciicn. Pni|cscpnq Siu!q Gui!cs. Wcsicrn Pni|cscpnq
IhiIosohy Sludy Guide: Inlroduclory Works, Diclionaries, IncycIoedias
IhiIosohicaI ibIiograhies and ManuaIs of SlyIe
GeneraI and Inlroduclory Works on lhe Hislory of IhiIosohy
IormaI and Descrilive Melahysics
IormaI and Descrilive OnloIogy
IhiIosohicaI Logic and IhiIosohy of Logic
|n!cx cj inc Scciicn. Tnccrq cj Onic|cgq
INTRODUCTORY READING5
Iriesl Graham. Icgic. a tcrq sncri inirc!uciicn. Oxford: Oxford Universily Iress 2000.
Irom lhe Ireface: "This book is an inlroduclion lo Iogic, as conlemorary Iogicians nov undersland
ooks
currenlIy avaiIabIe. The oinl of lhis one is lo exIore lhe rools of Iogic, vhich sink dee inlo
hiIosohy. Some formal Iogic viII be exIained aIong lhe vay.
In each of lhe main chalers, I slarl by laking u some arlicuIar hiIosohicaI robIem or IogicaI
uzzIe. I lhen exIain one aroach lo il. Oflen lhis is a fairIy slandard one, bul in some of lhe areas
lhere is no slandard ansver: Iogicians sliII disagree. In such cases, I have |usl chosen one lhal is
inleresling. NearIy aII lhe aroaches, vhelher slandard or nol, may be chaIIenged. I hnish each
chaler vilh some robIems for lhe aroach lhal I have exIained. Somelimes lhese robIems are
slandard, somelimes lhey are nol. Somelimes lhey may have easy ansvers, somelimes lhey may
Modern Iogic is a highIy malhemalicaI sub|ecl. I have lried lo vrile lhe maleriaI in such a vay as lo
ra in lhe Iasl fev
chalers. Il is lrue lhal you viII need lhe delerminalion lo masler some symboIism lhal may be nev
lo you, bul lhis is a Iol Iess lhan is required lo have a basic gras of any nev Ianguage. And lhe
ersicuily lhal lhe symboIism gives lo dicuIl queslions makes any lroubIe one may have in
1.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
1 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
maslering il veII vorlh il. One varning, lhough: reading a book on Iogic or hiIosohy is nol Iike
reading a noveI. There viII be limes vhen you viII have lo read sIovIy and carefuIIy. Somelimes you
may have lo slo and lhink aboul lhings, and you shouId be reared lo go back and reread a
aragrah if necessary.
The hnaI chaler of lhe book is on lhe deveIomenl of Iogic. In lhis, I have lried lo ul some of lhe
issues lhal lhe book deaIs vilh in an hisloricaI erseclive, lo shov lhal Iogic is a Iiving sub|ecl,
vhich has aIvays evoIved, and vhich viII conlinue lo do so. The chaler aIso conlains suggeslions
for furlher readings.
There are lvo aendices. The hrsl conlains a gIossary of lerms and symboIs. You may consuIl lhis
if you forgel lhe meaning of a vord or symboI. The second aendix conlains a queslion reIevanl lo
each chaler, vilh vhich you can lesl your underslanding of ils main ideas."
Conlenls: Ireface: IX, Lisl of IIIuslralions XI, 1. VaIidily: vhal foIIovs from vhal` 1, 2. Trulh
funclions -- Or nol` 7, 3. Names and quanlihers: is nolhing somelhing` 17, 4. Descrilions and
exislence: did lhe Greeks vorshi Zeus` 24, 5. SeIf-reference: vhal is lhis chaler aboul`, 31, 6.
Necessily and ossibiIily: vhal viII be musl be` 38, 7. CondilionaIs: vhal is in an If` 47, 8. The
fulure and lhe asl: is lime reaI` 55, 9. Idenlily and change: is anylhing ever lhe same` 63, 10.
Vagueness: Hov do you slo sIiding dovn a sIiery sIoe` 70, 11. IrobabiIily: lhe slrange case of
lhe missing reference cIass 78, 12. Inverse robabiIily: you can'l be indierenl aboul il! 86, 13.
102, GIossary
111.
Hinlikka }aakko and achman }ames. Wnai ij...? Tcuar! cxcc||cncc in rcascning. London: MayheId
IubIishing Comany 1991.
Irom lhe Ireface: "Many coIIege and universily courses aim al imroving sludenls' reasoning. The
recorded hislory of recommendalions for achieving lhis goaI slrelches back lo ArislolIe. We venlure
adding lo lhis hislory because for severaI years }aakko Hinlikka and various associales have been
deveIoing a comrehensive lheory for underslanding lhe nalure of reasoning lhal sheds nev Iighl
on hov sludenls may be encouraged and enabIed lo achieve crealiveIy disciIined reasoning skiIIs.
This lheory, lhe inlerrogalive aroach lo inquiry, makes il ossibIe lo inlegrale deduclive Iogic and
informaI reasoning inlo a unihed vhoIe. Ils core is vhal is knovn as lhe inlerrogalive modeI of
reasoning.
The inlerrogalive modeI, vhich is used consislenlIy lhroughoul lhe book, oers a uniform
framevork for sludying and leaching bolh formaI Iogic and argumenlalion lheory, incIuding lhe
anaIysis, evaIualion, and conslruclion of argumenls in ordinary IngIish. As in lhe oId Socralic
melhod, reasoning is casl in lhe form of a sequence of queslions and ansvers, inlersersed vilh
IogicaI (i.e., deduclive) inferences.
The inlerrogalive modeI dislinguishes dehnilory ruIes, vhich are concerned vilh reasoning
correclIy, from slralegic ruIes, vhich leII hov lo reason eecliveIy. The former dehne vhal is
hal is aIIoved
by lhe dehnilory ruIes. Slralegic ruIes lhus serve as signosls on lhe vay lo exceIIence in reasoning.
y slressing slralegic ruIes lhis lexl slays focused on lhe ursuil of exceIIence in reasoning.
In lhe inlerrogalive modeI aII inferences are required lo be deduclive. This eIiminales lhe robIem
lhal an inference mighl inlroduce an eIemenl of uncerlainly. Thus aII inferences are slriclIy lrulh
reserving.
The eecl is lo Iocale robIems vilh uncerlainly in lhe rocess of discovering and galhering
informalion ralher lhan in lhe inference rocess. The inlerrogalive modeI can lhen deIoy many
dierenl insighls lo deveIo slralegies for coing vilh uncerlainly aboul lhe informalion avaiIabIe lo
lhe reasoner. The Inslruclor's ManuaI direcls inleresled readers lo a bibIiograhy of lhe originaI
research on lhe inlerrogalive modeI."
Conlenls: Ireface XI-XIV, Iarl One: Inlroduclion lo lhe inlerrogalive modeI of reasoning . 1, 1.
2.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
2 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
Inquiry as inquiry . 3, 2. Inlerrogalive games: lhe slruclure of lhe reasoning rocess . 29, 3.
Inlerrogalive argumenl anaIysis . 48, 4. Argumenl conslruclion and argumenlalive essays . 68,
Iarl Tvo: LogicaI inference in delaiI . 81, 5. Deduclive Iogic and ils roIe in reasoning . 83, 6.
Reresenling slalemenls . 101, 7. Slalemenl Iogic and lhe labIe melhod . 117, 8. ComIex
concIusions in slalemenl Iogic . 134, 9. Slalemenl Iogic in everyday IngIish . 144, Iarl Three:
Inlerrogalive moves in delaiI . 159, 11. Three furlher asecls of inlerrogalive moves . 183, 12.
Slralegies for reasoning vilh uncerlain ansvers . 207, 13. Slralegies for evaIualing oracIes . 220,
Iarl Iour: Advanced loics in inlerrogalive reasoning . 235, 15. Iirsl-order redicale Iogic in
IngIish . 267, 16. Iresuosilions of "Wh-" queslions . 277, 17. Advanced slralegies in reasoning
. 285, 18. Slralegic araIIeIs belveen deduclion and inlerrogalion . 306, 19. ModeIs of scienlihc
reasoning . 323, 20. Dehnilion and idenlihcalion . 334, ConcIusion: . 359, 21. Argumenl anaIysis
and evaIualion . 361, Aendixes, GIossary and Index. Aendix A: Argumenl skelches for
exercises in argumenl anaIysis, conslruclion, and evaIualion . 375, Aendix : RecrealionaI
queslioning games . 407, Aendix C: IuzzIes, robIems and mislakes in inquiry . 411, GIossary
. 429, CIues and soIulions for seIecled exercises . 437, Index . 460-465.
KaIish DonaId, Monlague Richard, and Mar Gary. Icgic. Tccnniqucs cj jcrna| rcascning. Nev York:
Harlcourl race }ovanovich CoIIege IubIishers 1980. Iirsl edilion 1964, Second revised edilion 1980.
Irom lhe reface lo lhe second edilion: "This edilion, Iike lhe receding one, is an inlroduclion lo
Iogic, requiring no rior knovIedge of hiIosohy or malhemalics. Il does nol aim al communicaling
or |uslifying resuIls aboul IogicaI syslems bul inslead al imarling a skiII-lhe abiIily lo recognize and
conslrucl correcl deduclions and refulalions. MelamalhemalicaI resuIls are somelimes menlioned,
bul onIy incidenlaIIy and as an aid lo underslanding.
The sub|ecls lrealed are lhe same as in lhe hrsl edilion, lhey are lhe senlenliaI caIcuIus, lhe
quanliher caIcuIus, lhe idenlily caIcuIus, lhe descrilion caIcuIus, some aulomalic roof rocedures,
and a delaiIed deveIomenl of a famiIiar malhemalicaI lheory. The lrealmenl of lhe I
sub|ecls remains unchanged, excel for lhe Iacemenl of lhe chaler on aulomalic rocedures. In
lhe resenl edilion, as in lhe earIier one, lhe four syslems of Iogic are deveIoed by lhe simIe and
inluilive lechniques of naluraI deduclion, bul here lhe deveIomenl is conlinuous and iniliaIIy
unsuIemenled.
(...)
ils lilIe
suggesls. ul here as in lhe earIier edilion argumenls of IngIish Iay a molivaling roIe. We say lhal
an IngIish argumenl is vaIid (in a arlicuIar branch of Iogic) if and onIy if il has (vilhin lhal branch)
a vaIid symboIizalion. In lhe earIier edilion, in seclions lilIed 'IaradoxicaI inferences', some
inluiliveIy invaIid IngIish argumenls lhal aear lo have vaIid symboIizalions vere considered.
Then il vas cIaimed lhal lhese IngIish argumenls cannol be symboIized and hence do nol
conslilule faIIacies, for lheir symboIizalions are bIocked by sublIe reslriclions imosed on lhe nolion
alion of
vaIidily of IngIish argumenls vas a sle beyond lhal laken by mosl, if nol aII, inlroduclions lo
cIassicaI Iogic. And il vas lhe oinl of dearlure for lhe rofound invesligalions of lhe slruclure of
ordinary Ianguage by our Iale coIIeague Irofessor Richard Monlague (see Monlague IormaI
hiIosohy: seIecled aers by Richard Monlague, ediled and vilh an inlroduclion by R. H.
Thomason, Nev Haven and London, 1974 and arbara H. Iarlee (edilor), Monlague grammar,
Nev York, 1976)."
Conlenls: Chaler I. 'NOT' and 'II' . 1, Chaler II. 'AND', 'OR', 'II AND ONLY II' . 50, Chaler
III: 'ALL' and 'SOMI' . 117, Chaler IV. 'ALL' and 'SOMI' conlinued . 201, Chaler V. 'IS' (in one
sense) . 263, Chaler VI. 'THI' 306, Chaler VII. AddilionaI derivalionaI rocedures . 346,
Chaler VIII. 'THI' again: A RusseIIian lheory of descrilions . 392, Chaler IX. Aulomalic
rocedures . 411, Chaler X. Dehnilions: formaI lheories . 438, Chaler XI. VariabIe-bindings
3.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
3 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
oeralors . 475, ibIiograhy . 509, Index of roer names . 515, Index of sub|ecls . 517.
Lamberl KareI and Van Iraassen as. Ocritaiicn an! ccunicrcxanp|c. An inirc!uciicn ic pni|cscpnica|
|cgic. Incino: Dickenson IubIishing Co 1972.
"Since lhere are aIready many eIemenlary Iogic lexls in exislence, and since Iogic is laughl loday al
many IeveIs, ve shaII exIain, hrsl, lhe secihc uroses lo vhich ve lhink lhis lexl is suiled, and
second, hov lhis lexl diers from olher simiIar lexls.In many hiIosohy dearlmenls loday a
dislinclion is dravn belveen lhe foIIoving loics in undergraduale Iogic leaching:(a) generaI
inlroduclion,(b) lechniques of deduclive Iogic,(c) melaIogic,(d) hiIosohicaI uses of Iogic.In
addilion lhere are lexls and courses devoled lo advanced vork in malhemalicaI Iogic for sludenls
vishing lo seciaIize.We conceive lhe resenl lexl lo be usabIe in lhe leaching of (b)-(d), lo sludenls
vho eilher have had a generaI inlroduclion lo Iogic or vho are aIIoved (and lhis is frequenl
enough) lo begin symboIic Iogic vilhoul such an inlroduclion. Toics lhal ve vouId normaIIy
execl lo have been covered on lhe inlroduclory IeveI incIude lhe nalure of argumenls and vaIidily,
lhe use/menlion dislinclion, lhe nalure of dehnilion, and erhas lhe use of Venn diagrams and
lrulh-labIes. A good examIe of a book designed eseciaIIy for lhis generaI inlroduclory IeveI is
WesIey SaImon's Logic (Irenlice-HaII, 1963).Afler lhe inlroduclory IeveI, lhe inslruclor generaIIy has
a choice (or lhe sludenl is oered a choice) vhelher lo emhasize lhe hiIosohicaI side or lhe
malhemalicaI side of Iogic. Here our lexl is designed secihcaIIy for lhose vhose inleresl is in
hiIosohicaI asecls and uses of Iogic.Wilh lhis aim in mind, ve have inlroduced a number of
innovalions inlo lhe exosilion, bul al lhe same lime have made sure lhal lhe slandard body of
eIemenlary symboIic Iogic is covered.(...)Our main innovalions, hovever, are in lhe lhird arl, vhich
covers lhe Iogic of singuIar lerms. Here ve exlend lhe Ianguage of cIassicaI Iogic b
singuIar lerms, and exlend our ruIes so as lo Iicense inferences invoIving such lerms. The resuIling
exlensions of cIassicaI Iogic are caIIed free Iogic and free descrilion lheory. We lake care lo discuss
exIicilIy lhe hiIosohicaI basis of such nolions as ossibIe vorIds, domains of discourse, exislence,
reference and descrilion, uliIized in lhe hrsl lhree arls, and lo comare our aroach vilh
hisloricaI recedenls. This is done, lo some exlenl, as lhese nolions are inlroduced, and aIso lo some
exlenl in Iarls Iour and Iive.AIlhough lhere are loday many good lrealmenls of melaIogic
avaiIabIe, lhey are generaIIy aimed al more advanced IeveIs of inslruclion. We have aimed lo make
our resenlalion of melaIogic more eIemenlary lhan is usuaI. Iirsl of aII, as soon as lhe sludenl is
abIe lo use deduclive lechniques, he is aIso in a osilion lo rove lhe admissibiIily of furlher
deduclive ruIes. y Iacing such admissibiIily roofs in Iarls One and Tvo, a cerlain amounl of
roof lheory is laughl aIong vilh lhe deduclive lechniques. Iarl Iour is devoled lo semanlics, lhal
is, lo a scruliny of lhe adequacy of lhe IogicaI syslem deveIoed in lhe hrsl lhree arls. Since lhe
book is aimed secihcaIIy al lhe hiIosohy sludenl, ve lreal onIy lhe hnile cases, ve beIieve lhal in
lhis vay lhe sludenl viII be abIe lo masler lhe main lheorelicaI concels and melhods vilhoul lhe
use of sohislicaled malhemalicaI lechniques. Il musl be noled lhal here lhe revious araIIeI
deveIomenl of lhe labIeau ruIes grealIy simIihes lhe resenlalion.In Iarl Iive, ve discuss lhe
hiIosohicaI basis of lhe Iogic of exislence and descrilion lheory, vilh seciaI reference lo lhe
queslion of exlensionaIily. In addilion, ve discuss lhe hiIosohicaI uses of free Iogic in conneclion
vilh sel lheory, inlenlionaI (11,,,lhoughl and ercelion, modaI concels, and lhe concel of lrulh.
The lerm "hiIosohicaI Iogic" is used increasingIy lo designaled a secihc disciIine (indeed, lhe
nevIy crealed }ournaI of IhiIosohicaI Logic viII be enlireIy devoled lo il), and ve hoe lhal Iarl
Iive viII rovide a usefuI inlroduclion lo some of ils main areas of research." (from lhe Ireface
IX-XI).
4.
Sommers Ired and IngIebrelsen George. An intiiaiicn ic jcrna| rcascning. Tnc |cgic cj icrns.
AIdershol: Ashgale 2000.
Irom lhe Ireface: "Il seems lo be a fairIy videIy heId beIief among conlemorary leachers of Iogic
lhal one musl inlroduce Iogic via lhe roosilionaI, and lhen redicale, caIcuIus. In arlicuIar, one
vouId nol, even if he or she beIieved olhervise, roerIy or fairIy serve novice sludenls by oering
5.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
4 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
lhem inslead somelhing Iike syIIogislic Iogic. NonelheIess, ve inlend lo do |usl lhal here: inlroduce
lhe sub|ecl of formaI Iogic by vay of a syslem lhal is 'Iike syIIogislic Iogic'. Our syslem, Iike
oId-fashioned, lradilionaI syIIogislic, is a lerm Iogic. Our version of Iogic ('lerm-funclor Iogic', TIL)
shares vilh ArislolIe's syIIogislic lhe insighl lhal lhe IogicaI forms of slalemenls lhal are invoIved in
inferences as remises or concIusions can be conslrued as lhe resuIl of connecling airs of lerms by
means of a IogicaI couIa (funclor). This insighl conlrasls markedIy vilh lhal vhich informs loday's
slandard formaI Iogic ('modem redicale Iogic', MIL). Thal version of Iogic is due lo lhe vork of lhe
of MIL is
aImosl comIele. SliII, lhere is a rice lo be aid. MIL is indeed overfuI, bul il is nol simIe and
lhe IogicaI forms vhich il ascribes lo slalemenls are remole from lheir naluraI Ianguage forms.
TradilionaI formaI Iogic Iacked lhe scoe en|oyed by MIL by nol being abIe lo anaIyze a number of
lyes of inference. Yel il did al Ieasl en|oy lhe doubIe advanlage of (i) being simIe lo Iearn and use
and (ii) conslruing lhe IogicaI forms of slalemenls as cIose lo lheir naluraI Ianguage forms. CIearIy a
syslem of formaI Iogic vhich has lhe over of MIL and lhe simIicily and naluraIness of lradilionaI
Iogic vouId rovide lhe besl of bolh IogicaI vorIds.
eginning in lhe Iale 1960s Ired Sommers sel himseIf lhe lask of deveIoing a syslem of formaI Iogic
(viz., TIL) lhal vas overfuI naluraI and simIe. The chaIIenge faced by Sommers in accomIishing
lhis vas lhreefoId. The hrsl vas lo exlend lhe over of lerm Iogic by incororaling inlo il lhe kinds
of inferences beyond lhe overs of lradilionaI Iogic. Those inferences vere of lhree lyes:
inferences invoIving slalemenls vilh reIalionaI exressions, inferences invoIving slalemenls vilh
singuIar lerms, and inferences invoIving unanaIyzed slalemenls. The second chaIIenge vas lo oer a
lheory of IogicaI form, or synlax, lhal vas naluraI in lhe vay lhal lhe synlax of MIL vas nol. The
lhird chaIIenge vas lo rovide a symboIic aIgorilhm (a syslem of symboIs aIong vilh ruIes for
maniuIaling lhem) much simIer lhan lhe one emIoyed by MIL (viz., 'lhe hrsl-order redicale
caIcuIus vilh idenlily'). During lhe asl lhree decades Sommers has erfecled |usl such a syslem of
formaI Iogic. TIL is al Ieasl as overfuI as MIL, and il is far simIer and more naluraI."
ADVANCED READING5
Pni|cscpnica| |cgic. Idiled by Slravson Ieler Irederick. Oxford: Oxford Universily Iress 1967.
lhe vhoIe of
formaI Iogic-or al Ieasl lhe caIcuIus of lrulh-funclions and lhe redicale-caIcuIus-is reaIIy imIicil in
lhe singIe idea of a roosilion in generaI, lhal il couId in rinciIe be excogilaled by ure reeclion
. Il beIongs lo
hiIosohicaI Iogic. Ior il is, or may be, lhe beginning of an ansver lo some lyicaI queslions asked
in hiIosohicaI Iogic: viz., Whal is reaIIy dislinclive of lhe forms and conslanls of Iogic` or, Whal
generaI eIucidalory accounl can be given of lhe nolion of a IogicaI arlicIe` Iach of lhe nolions so
far inlroduced forms lhe loic of a simiIar queslion asked in hiIosohicaI Iogic. Whal, exaclIy, is a
roosilion` Whal is meanl by saying lhal a roosilion is lrue` Whal, in generaI, is lhe nalure of
lhal reIalion vhich hoIds belveen roosilions vhen one foIIovs from, or is deducibIe from,
her lo ask
many olhers, aboul lhe nalure and funclioning of Ianguage and of Iinguislic exressions of many
lyes. Ior roosilions cannol be a sub|ecl of sludy unIess lhey are exressed, and formaI Iogic
vouId have none bul a ureIy malhemalicaI inleresl unIess il vere reIaled lo acluaI discourse. So
many queslions concerning modes of acluaI discourse, lhe lheory of meaning, lhe nalure and
condilions of Iinguislic communicalion, come vilhin lhe scoe of lhe hiIosohicaI Iogician's
inquiries."
eaning by H. I.
Slravson 69, 5.
Iroer names by }ohn R. SearIe 89, 6. Is exislence a redicale` (1) by D. I. Iears 97 (2) by }ames
1.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
5 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
Thomson 103, 7. The a riori and lhe anaIylic by Anlhony Quinlon 107, 8. The meaning of IogicaI
conneclives (1) The runaboul inference lickel by A. N. Irior 129 (2) Tonk, Ionk and Iink by NueI
D. eIna 132, 9. Tyes and onloIogy by Ired Sommers 138, Noles on lhe conlribulors 170,
ibIiograhy 171, Index of names 176.
Pni|cscpnica| |cgic. Idiled by Davis }.W., Hockney D.}., and WiIson W.K. Dordrechl: ReideI 1969. 2.
Ccnicnpcrarq pni|cscpnica| |cgic. Idiled by Coi Irving and GouId }ames. Nev York: Sl. Marlin's
Iress 1978.
3.
Han!|cck cj pni|cscpnica| |cgic. Idiled by Gabbay Dov and Guenlhner Iranz. Dordrechl: KIuver
1983. Iirsl edilion in 4 voIumes (1983-1989).
Second edilion in 16 voIumes (2001-2010).
4.
Tnc B|ackuc|| gui!c ic pni|cscpnica| |cgic. Idiled by GobIe Lou. Oxford: IackveII IubIishers 2001.
Irom lhe Inlroduclion: "Whal is hiIosohicaI Iogic` IhiIosohicaI Iogic is hiIosohy lhal is Iogic,
and Iogic lhal is hiIosohy. Il is vhere hiIosohy and Iogic come logelher and become one.
IhiIosohicaI Iogic is nol a seciaI kind of Iogic, some secies dislincl from malhemalicaI Iogic,
symboIic Iogic, formaI Iogic, informaI Iogic, modern Iogic, ancienl Iogic, or Iogic vilh any olher
famiIiar modiher. There is onIy Iogic. Logic is lhe lheory of consequence reIalions, of vaIid
inferences. As such, il can be invesligaled and resenled in many vays, aIlhough lhe malhemalicaI
melhods of modern formaI or symboIic Iogic have roved exlraordinariIy fruilfuI.
Wilhin Iogic so conslrued, lhere are sliII, of course, many dierenl sorls - as vilnessed by lhe variely
of chalers of lhis voIume. IhiIosohicaI Iogic comrises lhe sorls of Iogic lhal hoId grealesl inleresl
for hiIosohers. IhiIosohicaI Iogic deveIos formaI syslems and slruclures lo be aIied lo lhe
anaIysis of concels and argumenls lhal are cenlraI lo hiIosohicaI inquiry. So, for examIe, such
lradilionaI hiIosohicaI concels as necessily, knovIedge, obIigalion, lime and exislence, nol lo
menlion reasoning ilseIf, are usefuIIy invesligaled lhrough modaI Iogic, eislemic Iogic, deonlic Iogic,
lemoraI Iogic, free Iogic, robabiIily Iogic, nonmonolonic Iogic, elc. SimiIarIy, IogicaI invesligalion
has conlribuled immeasurabIy lo our underslanding of lhe slruclure of Ianguage, incIuding lhe
Ianguages of our normaI use as veII as lhe formaI Ianguages of Iogic ilseIf, and lhis resounds
lhroughoul hiIosohy. y lhe same loken, many of lhe deveIomenls vilhin hiIosohicaI Iogic
have been molivaled by broad hiIosohicaI concerns. Inluilionislic Iogic reecls a arlicuIar
erseclive on lhe nalure of |udgmenl and lrulh. Many-vaIued Iogic grev oul of Lukasievicz's
eorl lo conslrucl a Iogic lhal couId avoid lhe concIusions of falaIism or delerminism. Olher
deveIomenls vilhin hiIosohicaI Iogic vere driven by hiIosohicaI concern regarding Iogic ilseIf.
ReIevanl Iogic srang from a crilique of lhe cIassicaI consequence reIalion, so did free Iogic."
Conlenls: Lisl of conlribulors VII, Ireface IX, Inlroduclion: Lou GobIe 11. CIassicaI Iogic I -
Iirsl-order Iogic: WiIfrid Hodges 9, 2. CIassicaI Iogic II - Higher-order Iogic: Slevarl Shairo 33, 3. Sel
lheory: }ohn I. urgess 55, 4. GdeI's incomIeleness lheorems: Raymond SmuIIyan 72, 5. Trulh
CressveII 136,
8. Deonlic Iogic: Rislo HiIinen 159, 9. Iislemic Iogic: }.-}. Ch. Meyer 183, 10. TemoraI Iogic: Yde
Venema 203, 11. Inluilionislic Iogic: Dirk Van DaIen 224, 12. Iree Iogics: KareI Lamberl 258, 13.
ReIevanl Iogics: Idvin D. Mares and Roberl K. Meyer 280, 14. Many vaIued Iogics: Grzegorz
MaIinovski 309, 15. Nonmonolonic Iogic: }ohn I. Horly 336, 16. IrobabiIily, Iogic, and robabiIily
Iogic: AIan Ha|ek 362, 17. CondilionaIs: Dorolhy Idginglon 385, 18. Negalion: Heinrich Wansing
415, 19. Quanlihers: Dag WeslerlhI 437, 20. Logic and naluraI Ianguage: AIice ler MeuIen 461,
Index 484.
5.
A ccnpanicn ic pni|cscpnica| |cgic.
Ireface, AcknovIedgmenls, Lisl of Conlribulors,Inlroduclion: Logic, hiIosohy, and hiIosohicaI
6.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
6 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
sohicaI Iogic:
Robin Smilh, 2. Hislory of Iogic: medievaI: .G. SundhoIm and I.I. os, 3. The rise of modern Iogic:
RoIf George and }ames Van Ivra, Iarl II: SymboIic Iogic and ordinary Ianguage4. Language, Iogic,
and form: Kenl ach, 5. IuzzIes aboul inlensionaIily: Nalhan SaImon, 6. SymboIic Iogic and naluraI
Ianguage: Imma org and Irnesl Leore, Iarl III: IhiIosohicaI dimensions of IogicaI aradoxes 7.
LogicaI aradoxes: }ames CargiIe, 8. SemanlicaI and IogicaI aradox: Keilh Simmons, 9.
IhiIosohicaI imIicalions of IogicaI aradoxes: Roy A. Sorensen, Iarl IV: Trulh and dehnile
descrilion in semanlic anaIysis: 10. Trulh, lhe Liar, and Tarski's semanlics: GiIa Sher, 11. Trulh, lhe
Liar, and Tarskian lrulh dehnilion: Greg Ray, 12. Descrilions and IogicaI form: Gary Oslerlag, 13.
RusseII's lheory of dehnile descrilions as a aradigm for hiIosohy: Gregory Landini, Iarl V:
Concels of IogicaI consequence14. Necessily, meaning, and ralionaIily: lhe nolion of IogicaI
consequence: Slevarl Shairo, 15. Varielies of consequence : . G. SundhoIm 16. ModaIily of
7. Quanlihers,
being and canonicaI nolalion: IauI Gochel, 18. Irom Iogic lo onloIogy: some robIems of
he "Iiberalion"
of Iogic from onloIogy: Irmanno encivenga,Iarl VII: Melalheory and lhe scoe and Iimils of
Iogic20. Melalheory: AIasdair Urquharl, 21. Melalheory of Iogics and lhe characlerizalion robIem:
}an WoIenski, 22. Logic in hnile slruclures: dehnabiIily, comIexily, and randomness
Weinslein, Iarl VIII: LogicaI foundalions of sel lheory and malhemalics23. Logic and onloIogy:
numbers and sels: }ose enardele, 24. LogicaI foundalions of sel lheory and malhemalics: Mary
TiIes, 25. Iroerly-lheorelic foundalions of malhemalics: MichaeI }ubien,Iarl IX: ModaI Iogics and
semanlics26. ModaI Iogic: }ohan van enlhem, 27. Iirsl order aIelhic modaI Iogic: Me
Iroofs and exressiveness in aIelhic modaI Iogic: Maarlen de Ri|ke and Heinrich Wansing, 29.
AIelhic modaI Iogics and semanlics: Gerhard Schurz, 30. Iislemic Iogic: NichoIas Rescher, 31.
Deonlic, eislemic, and lemoraI modaI Logics: Rislo HiIinen,Iarl X: Inluilionislic, free, and
d, free, and
inluilionislic Iogics: Richard Grandy, 34. Many-vaIued Iogic: Grzegorz MaIinovski, Iarl XI:
Induclive, fuzzy, and quanlum robabiIily Iogics35. Induclive Iogic : Slehen GIaisler, 36. Helerodox
robabiIily lheory: Ieler Iorresl, 37. Why fuzzy Iogic`: Ielr Ha|ek,Iarl XII: ReIevance and
araconsislenl Iogics 38. ReIevance Iogic: Idvin Mares, 39. Iaraconsislency: ryson rovn, 40.
cy, and
diaIelheism: Graham Iriesl, Iarl XIII: Logic, machine lheory, and cognilive science41. The IogicaI
and lhe hysicaI: Andrev W. Hodges, 42. Modern Iogic and ils roIe in lhe sludy of knovIedge: Ieler
A. IIach, 43. Aclions and normalive osilions: A modaI-mogicaI aroach: Roberl DemoIombe and
Andrev }.I. }ones,Iarl XIV: Mechanizalion of IogicaI inference and roof discovery44. The
aulomalion of sound reasoning and successfuI roof hnding: Larry Wos and randen IileIson, 45. A
46.
SamIing IabeIIed deduclive syslems: D.M. Gabbay. Resources for furlher sludy, Index.
Pni|cscpnq cj |cgic. An aninc|cgq
Irom lhe Ireface: "The essays in lhis anlhoIogy incIude some of lhe mosl imorlanl recenl
schoIarshi in hiIosohy of Iogic. I have deIiberaleIy avoided reubIishing aers lhal are readiIy
avaiIabIe in olher anlhoIogies, or lhal are more cIoseIy reIaled lo hiIosohy of Ianguage or
hiIosohy of malhemalics, regardIess of lheir inuence in conlemorary vork in Iogic. My
inlenlion has been lo make lhis voIume a more unique dislinclive resource lhal viII comIemenl
ralher lhan duIicale olher seIeclions of readings currenlIy avaiIabIe. AIlhough some of lhe aers
are more lechnicaI lhan olhers, aII are inlended for and can be read vilh good underslanding by
beginning sludenls in hiIosohy vho have comIeled a hrsl course in symboIic Iogic.
My choice of aers has been guided by a sense of ma|or issues in hiIosohy of Iogic lhal have
shaed recenl discussion and conlribuled lo ongoing research rograms in lheorelicaI and aIied
hiIosohicaI Iogic. To lhis end, I have organized lhe aers lhemalicaIIy ralher lhan
chronoIogicaIIy, lo give lhe besl overviev of hiIosohicaI issues connecled vilh IogicaI anaIysis and
7.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
7 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
lhe deveIomenl of formaI syslems of symboIic Iogic. The aers range from generaI loics in
cIassicaI Iogic lo seciaIized invesligalions of lhe concel of meaning and lrulh, lhe inlerrelalion of
quanlihers in redicale Iogic, lhe lheory of vaIid inference and IogicaI enlaiImenl, and robIems of
mong lhe
cenlraI robIems of hiIosohicaI Iogic reecling some of lhe mosl inlriguing nev direclions in lhe
heId, bul lhey by no means exhausl lhe ossibiIilies."
Conlenls: Ireface IX, AcknovIedgmenls X, Inlroduclion: Logic and hiIosohy of Iogic: DaIe
ur Ia 13, 2,
RusseII's malhemalicaI Iogic: Kurl GdeI 21, 3. Which Iogic is lhe righl Iogic`: LesIie H. Thar 35, 4.
Whal can Iogic do for hiIosohy`: KarI Ioer 46Iarl II. Trulh, roosilions, and
meaningInlroduclion lo Iarl II: 555. Trulh and meaning: DonaId Davidson 59, 6. OulIine of a lheory
of lrulh: SauI A. Krike 70, 7. Tarski's lheory of lrulh: Harlry IieId 86, 8. Tyes and onloIogy: Ired
Sommers 103, 9. Iroosilions: George eaIer 120Iarl III. Quanlihers and quanlihcalionaI lheory
Inlroduclion lo Iarl III: 14310. Logic and exislence: CzesIav Le|evski 147, 11. A Iea for
subslilulionaI quanlihcalion: CharIes Iarsons 156, 12. NominaIism and lhe subslilulionaI quanliher:
Rulh arcan Marcus 161, 13. Inlerrelalions of quanlihers: Thomas aIdvin 169, 14.
Language-games for quanlihers: }aakko Hinlikka 183Iarl IV: VaIidily, inference, and enlaiImenl
Inlroduclion lo Iarl IV: 20115. oIzano's concel of consequence: RoIf George 205, 16. On lhe
concel of IogicaI consequence: AIfred Tarski 210, 17. The ure caIcuIus of enlaiImenl: AIan Ross
Anderson and NueI eIna, }r. 216, 18. IormaI and maleriaI consequence: Slehen Read 237, 19.
Tarski on lrulh and IogicaI consequence: }ohn Ilchemendy 247Iarl V: ModaIily, InlensionaIily, and
I. NoIl 275, 21.
uanlihed
modaI Iogic: David Levis 292, 23. Inlerrelalion of quanlihers: Daghn IoIIesdaI 301, 24. A backvard
Iook al Quine's animadversions of modaIilies: Rulh arcan Marcus 308, 25. Quanlifying in: David
KaIan 318, 26. Subslilulivily and lhe quanlifying in: Graeme Iorbes 338, 27. The inlensionaIily of
onloIogicaI commilmenl: MichaeI }ubien 356Index 362.
eaIer George. Qua|iiq an! ccnccpi. Oxford: CIarendon Iress 1982. 8.
Davies Marlin. Mcaning, quaniicaiicn, ncccssiiq. incncs in pni|cscpnica| |cgic. London: RoulIedge
1981.
9.
IngeI IascaI. Tnc ncrn cj iruin. An inirc!uciicn ic inc pni|cscpnq cj |cgic. Toronlo: Toronlo Universily
Iress 1992.
Irom lhe inlroduclion: "This book is an inlroduclion lo lhe hiIosohy of Iogic. ul 'hiIosohy of
Iogic' is an umbreIIa lerm vhich covers a variely of dierenl queslions and slyIes of enquiry. I do nol
lhink lhal lhere is a singIe, veII eslabIished, concelion of lhe sub|ecl, and lhe one oered in lhis
recise
dehnilion, il viII be usefuI lo indicale vhere my ovn lrealmenl and choice of loics diers from
olher aroaches.
y 'Iogic' I shaII mean, in lhe usuaI sense, lhe lheory of inferences lhal are vaIid in virlue of lheir
and lhal lhe lheory
of induclive inferences does nol beIong lo 'formaI Iogic' in lhe ordinary sense. (...)Our resenl use of
lhe lerm 'hiIosohicaI Iogic' is moslIy osl-Iregean and osl-RusseIIian. Irege caIIed 'Iogic' nol onIy
his ovn formaI syslem, bul aIso his reeclions aboul lhe nalure of his formaIism and aboul meaning
and lrulh in generaI. AIlhough Irege himseIf does nol use lhe lerm 'hiIosohicaI Iogic', il is cIear
lhal lhese reeclions are cIose lo our conlemorary underslanding of lhal lerm. His insislence on
lhe facl lhal 'Iogic' in lhe vide sense is concerned vilh Ianguage in generaI and shouId be kel
al Irege's
inquiries beIong aIso lo lhe hiIosohy of Ianguage and lhal lhis disciIine hoIds for him lhe osilion
of a rimary hiIosohy. RusseII roosed exIicilIy lhe lerm hiIosohicaI Iogic for a generaI
10.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
8 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
enquiry inlo lhe nalure of 'IogicaI forms'. y lhis he did nol mean onIy a sludy of lhe slruclure of
IogicaI Ianguages, bul aIso of lhe IogicaI slruclures of naluraI Ianguages, vhich vouId have bolh
eislemoIogicaI and onloIogicaI consequences.'Our resenl concelions of hiIosohicaI Iogic bear
slrongIy lheir Iregean and RusseIIian herilages. IhiIosohicaI Iogic is laken lo be conlinuous vilh
lhe hiIosohy of Ianguage, and lo use Iogic as a looI for lhe anaIysis of lhoughl. ul lhere are lvo
main versions of vhal hiIosohicaI Iogic is, vhich dier in lhe reseclive veighl or aulhorily lhal is
granled lo IogicaI anaIysis. One of lhem assigns recise Iimils lo lhis aulhorily, and can be caIIed
informaI hiIosohicaI Iogic, vhereas lhe olher aims al conlorling and exlending lhis aulhorily, and
can be caIIed formaI hiIosohicaI Iogic.
Conlenls: AcknovIedgemenls VIII, Lisl of IogicaI symboIs XII, Inlroduclion 1,Iarl 1. IIemenlary
slruclures 131. Iroosilions 15, 2. The meaning of roosilionaI conneclives 35, 3. Sub|ecl and
redicale 56, 4. Varielies of quanlihcalion 68, Iarl 2. Trulh and meaning 935. Theories of lrulh 95, 6.
Trulh, meaning and reaIism 118, Iarl 3. Limils of exlensionaIily 1437. ModaIilies, ossibIes and
eness 199, Iarl 4.
The domain of Iogic 21711. The rovince of Iogic 219, 12. LogicaI necessily 254, 13. Logic and
ralionaIily 291, ConcIusion 321, Noles 324, ibIiograhy 356, GIossary-Index 371, Name Index 379.
Iorbes Graeme. Ianguagcs cj pcssi|i|iiq. an cssaq in pni|cscpnica| |cgic. Oxford: IackveII IubIishers
1989.
11.
GrayIing Anlhony. An inirc!uciicn ic pni|cscpnica| |cgic. Oxford: IackveII IubIishers 1997. Third
revised edilion (Iirsl edilion 1982, second edilion 1990).
"The loics lo be discussed are: lhe roosilion, anaIylicily, necessily, exislence, idenlily, lrulh,
meaning and reference. These, al Ieasl, are lhe loics menlioned in chaler headings. In facl lhe Iisl
is more exlensive, for in lhe course of lhese chalers lhere are aIso discussions of ossibIe vorIds,
reaIisms of reIaled sorls, anli-reaIism, and olher queslions. Il is nol ossibIe lo give an overviev of
hiIosohicaI Iogic vilhoul ranging videIy in lhis vay, bul il viII be cIear lhal because each loic
inviles, and indeed commands, vhoIe voIumes lo ilseIf, lhe discussions I give do nol relend lo be
more lhan refaces lo lhe delaiIed lrealmenls found in lhe originaI Iileralure.
These loics are coIIecled under lhe unifying IabeI 'hiIosohicaI Iogic' for lhree rinciaI reasons. Il
marks lheir inlerreIaledness, for a good underslanding of any of lhem requires an underslanding of
lhe olhers. Il marks lheir cenlraI imorlance in aII serious hiIosohicaI discussion. And il reecls
lhe inuence of deveIomenls in Iogic since lhe Iale nineleenlh cenlury, vhich have aorded an
access of over in deaIing vilh many hiIosohicaI robIems afresh, nol onIy because ve have
icaI machinery
have romoled and faciIilaled a cerlain melhodoIogicaI slyIe vhich has roved exlraordinariIy
fruilfuI in hiIosohy. Thal melhodoIogicaI slyIe is anaIysis.
The invenlion of symboIic caIcuIi vouId nol have imeIIed hiIosohicaI deveIomenls by ilseIf had
roml a range
of hiIosohicaI queslions, cenlraIIy among lhem queslions aboul lhe nalure of meaning and lrulh -
vhich is in shorl lo say, Ianguage, and Ianguage vilaIIy inleresls hiIosohers because il rovides
our roule lo a hiIosohicaI underslanding of lhoughl and lhe vorId. The grealesl singIe imelus lo
currenl reoccualions vilh hiIosohicaI Iogic comes indeed from inleresl in Ianguage, lo
undersland vhich ve need rogress in lhis area. (. 1-2).
Conlenls: Ireface V, 1. IhiIosohicaI Iogic, lhe hiIosohy of Iogic, hiIosohy and Iogic 1, 2. The
roosilion 12, 3. Necessily, anaIylicily, and lhe a riori 33, 4. Ixislence, resuosilions and
descrilions 88, 5. Trulh: lhe ragmalic, coherence and corresondence lheories 122, 6. Trulh:
semanlics, dealion, indehnabiIily and evaIualion 147, 7. Meaning, reference, verihcalion and use
188, 8. Trulh, meaning, reaIism and anli-reaIism 234, 9. ReaIism, anli-reaIism, ideaIism, reIalivism
285, ibIiograhy 324, Index 336.
12.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
9 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
Haack Susan. Pni|cscpnq cj |cgics. Cambridge: Cambridge Universily Iress 1978.
Irom lhe Ireface: "My concern, in lhis book, is vilh lhe hiIosohy, ralher lhan lhe hislory, of Iogic.
ul my slralegy has been devised vilh an eye lo lhe hislory of lhe inlerIay of formaI and
hiIosohicaI issues vhich I have |usl skelched. I begin vilh a consideralion of some robIems
raised by lhe slandard IogicaI aaralus - lhe inlerrelalion of senlence conneclives, senlence
, IogicaI lrulh, I lurn,
from chaler 9 onvards, lo a consideralion of lhe vay some of lhese robIems molivale formaI
innovalions, 'exlended' and 'devianl' Iogics, and lo lhe vays in vhich lhese nev formaIisms Iead, in
lurn, lo a reevaIualion of lhe hiIosohicaI issues, and I concIude, in lhe hnaI chaler, vilh some
queslions - and ralher fever ansvers - aboul lhe melahysicaI and eislemoIogicaI slalus of Iogic,
lhe reIalions belveen formaI and naluraI Ianguages, and lhe reIevance of Iogic lo reasoning.
And lvo recurring lhemes of lhe book aIso reecl lhis hisloricaI erseclive. Whal seem lo me lo be
lhe vilaI hiIosohicaI issues in Iogic are focussed by consideralion (i) of lhe IuraIily of IogicaI
syslems and (ii) of lhe vays in vhich formaI caIcuIi bear on lhe assessmenl of informaI argumenl.
More secihcaIIy, I shaII be urging lhal, in viev of lhe exislence of aIlernalive Iogics, rudence
demands a reasonabIy radicaI slance on lhe queslion of lhe eislemoIogicaI slalus of Iogic, and lhal
lo lhe uroses of
formaIisalion is highIy desirabIe.
I have lried lo roduce a book vhich viII be usefuI as an inlroduclion lo lhe hiIosohicaI robIems
vhich Iogic raises, vhich viII be inleIIigibIe lo sludenls vilh a gras of eIemenlary formaI Iogic and
some acquainlance vilh hiIosohicaI issues, bul no revious knovIedge of lhe hiIosohy of Iogic.
ul I haven'l oered simIe ansvers, or even simIe queslions, for lhe inleresling issues in
hiIosohy of Iogic are comIex and dicuIl. I have lried inslead lo begin al lhe beginning, lo
exIain lechnicaIilies, and lo iIIuslrale highIy generaI robIems vilh secihc case sludies. To lhis
end I have suIied, for lhose nev lo lhe sub|ecl, a gIossary of ossibIy unfamiIiar lerms used in lhe
lexl, and some advice on hnding one's vay aboul lhe Iileralure, vhiIe, for lhose anxious lo go
furlher, I have incIuded a generous (bul I hoe nol inlimidaling) bibIiograhy."
Conlenls: Ireface XI, Nolalion and abbrevialions XV, 1. 'IhiIosohy of Iogics' 1, 2. VaIidily 11, 3.
Senlence conneclives 28, 4. Quanlihers 39, 5. SinguIar lerms, 56, 6. Senlences, slalemenls,
roosilions 74, 7. Theories of lrulh 86, 8. Iaradoxes 135, 9. Logic and Iogics152, 10. ModaI Iogic 170,
11. Many-vaIued Iogic 204, 12. Some melahysicaI and eislemoIogicaI queslions aboul Iogic 221,
GIossary 243, Advice on reading 253, ibIiograhy 255, Index 267.
13.
LunlIey MichaeI. Ccnicnpcrarq pni|cscpnq cj incugni. Oxford: IackveII IubIishers 1999.
Irom lhe Ireface: "The book is inlended for uer-IeveI undergraduales and hrsl-year graduale
sludenls of hiIosohy. Il is, hovever, a basic book. Some books in lhe heId rovide a survey of
advanced resuIls in lhe hiIosohy of conlenl. The lroubIe vilh lhem is lhal lhe resuIls are onIy
ever as advanced as lhe melhodoIogy emIoyed. In addilion, lhey rareIy make lransarenl lhal lhe
melhodoIogy mighl be olionaI, Iel aIone hov il slands vilh regard lo comeling melhodoIogies.
This book is basic, for I do nol concenlrale on roviding advanced resuIls in lhis lheory or lhal. I
concenlrale on lhe basic melahysicaI, eislemoIogicaI and melhodoIogicaI issues lhal shae
lheorizing aboul conlenl. I am as evangeIicaI aboul my referred melhodoIogy as lhe nexl guy, bul
lhe accounl I give is, I hoe, fair, even if nol baIanced.
erviev of hov
oul a
number of lhings lhal, aIlhough arl of lhe famiIiar furnilure of lhe hiIosohy of lhoughl, had gol a
bil Iosl under lhe accumuIaled visdom of severaI generalions. So I gel RusseII oul and dusl o his
lheory of descrilions. (...). I say I defend a neo-Iregean lheory of conlenl, bul I don'l reaIIy gel lo
lhal unliI lhe second haIf of lhe book. ul lhe accounl of reference I defend lhere is besl
underslood againsl lhe backdro of vhal goes before in lhe chalers on meaning, lrulh and Iogic
14.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
10 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
and againsl lhe recurring lheme of vhal conslilules a naluraIized lheory of conlenl.
If lhere is one lhing lhal I hoe viII be come cIear in aII lhis, il is lhal you can never reread lhe
cIassics loo oflen. The hearl of RusseII's lheory of lhoughl is, I lhink, righl. The same aIies lo
Irege. The lroubIe is, RusseII buried his key insighl in a Carlesian eislemoIogy lhal is, frankIy,
ralher quainl and embarrassing. Irege Iefl us a melhodoIogy, bul never aIied il himseIf lo lhose
asecls of Ianguage use lhal vouId reveaI ils greal over. Iveryone knovs Krike disroved
descrilion lheories of names, bul hardIy anyone seems lo knov vho lhe descrilivisls are! Krike's
osilive accounl of names is fuII of imorlanl insighls, bul vhelher il reaIIy makes sense lo caII il a
causaI lheory is sliII conleslabIe. 'Nev lheories of reference' have been 'nev' for aboul lhirly years
nov, bul eoIe sliII characlerize lhem vilh lhe melahor of 'direclness'. I argue in chaler 8 lhal
lhere is an imorlanl sense (lhe imorlanl sense, I lhink) in vhich lhese lheories rovide an indirecl
accounl of reference! Here, lhen, is lhe olher big Iesson I hoe becomes cIear. Il has laken us lhe
besl arl of a hundred years lo begin lo see lhe scoe avaiIabIe vilhin a Iregean accounl of lhoughl.
And eoIe are sliII arguing aboul RusseII's lheory of descrilions! If you are lo undersland hov
conlemorary hiIosohy of lhoughl is going, and if you are lo be in a osilion lo conlribule lo il,
lhere is no subslilule for an arecialion bolh of lhe broad viev and of ils conleslabiIily."
Conlenls: Ireface IX, 1. MelhodoIogies, 2. RusseII's lheory of descrilions 31, 3. The semanlic lheory
of lrulh 60, 4. Trulh and meaning 89, 5. Inlerrelalion, minimaI lrulh and lhe vorId 118, 6. Meaning,
melahysics and Iogic 143, 7. The ossibiIily of a naluraIized lheory of meaning 173, 8. Whal is a
lheory of reference` 201, 9. Sense and reference 230, 10. The causaI lheory of reference and lhe
sociaI characler of meaning 259, 11. Conlenl and conlexl 283, 12. ConlexluaI conlenl 318, Noles
347, ibIiograhy 380, Index 394.
Iriesl Graham. An inirc!uciicn ic ncn-c|assica| |cgic. Cambridge: Cambridge Universily Iress 2001.
Irom lhe Ireface: "Around lhe lurn of lhe lvenlielh cenlury, a ma|or revoIulion occurred in Iogic.
MalhemalicaI lechniques of a quile noveI kind vere aIied lo lhe sub|ecl, and a nev lheory of
. This lheory
has nov come lo be caIIed 'cIassicaI Iogic'. (...)Desile lhis, many of lhe mosl inleresling
deveIomenls in Iogic in lhe Iasl forly years, eseciaIIy in hiIosohy, have occurred in quile
dierenl areas: inluilionism, condilionaI Iogics, reIevanl Iogics, araconsislenl Iogics, free Iogics,
quanlum Iogics, fuzzy Iogics, and so on. These are aII Iogics vhich are inlended eilher lo suIemenl
cIassicaI Iogic, or eIse lo reIace il vhere il goes vrong. The Iogics are nov usuaIIy groued under
lhe lilIe 'non-cIassicaI Iogics', and lhis book is an inlroduclion lo lhem.
The sub|ecl of non-cIassicaI Iogic is nov far loo big lo ermil lhe vriling of a comrehensive
lexlbook, so I have had lo Iace some reslriclions on vhal is covered. Ior a slarl, lhe book is
reslricled lo roosilionaI Iogic. This is nol because lhere are no non-cIassicaI Iogics lhal are
essenliaIIy hrsl-order (lhere are: free Iogic), bul because lhe ma|or inleresl in non-cIassicaI Iogics is
usuaIIy al lhe roosilionaI IeveI. (Oflen, lhe quanliher exlensions of lhese Iogics are reIaliveIy
slraighlforvard.) Wilhin roosilionaI Iogics, I have aIso reslricled lhe Iogics considered here lo
ones vhich are reIevanl lo lhe debale aboul condilionaIs ('if ... lhen ...' senlences). Again, lhis is nol
because lhis exhausls non-cIassicaI roosilionaI Iogics (lhere is quanlum Iogic, for examIe), bul
because laking lhe loic of condilionaIs as a Ieilmoliv gives lhe maleriaI a coherence lhal il mighl
olhervise Iack. And, of course, condilionaIs are aboul as cenlraI lo Iogic as one can gel.
The ma|or semanlicaI lechnique in non-cIassicaI Iogics is ossibIe-vorId semanlics. Mosl
non-cIassicaI Iogics have such semanlics. This is lherefore lhe ma|or semanlicaI lechnique lhal I use
in lhe book. In many vays, lhe book couId be lhoughl of as a sel of varialions on lhe lheme of
ossibIe-vorId semanlics. Il shouId be menlioned lhal many of lhe syslems discussed in lhe book
have semanlics olher lhan ossibIe-vorId semanlics - nolabIy, aIgebraic semanlics of some form or
olher. Those, hovever, are an aroriale loic for a dierenl book."
Conlenls: Ireface . XIII-XVI, MalhemalicaI roIegomenon . XVII-XXI, 1. CIassicaI Iogic and lhe
15.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
11 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
maleriaI condilionaI . 1, 2. asic modaI Iogic . 20, 3. NormaI modaI Iogics . 38, 4. Non-normaI
vorIds, slricl condilionaI . 58, 6. Inluilionislic Iogic . 99, 7. Many-vaIued Iogics . 117, 8. Iirsl
degree enlaiImenl . 139, 9. asic reIevanl Iogic . 162, 10. Mainslream reIevanl Iogics . 182, 11.
Iuzzy Iogic . 211, 12. ConcIusion: an hisloricaI erseclive . 229, References . 231, Index of
names . 237, Index of sub|ecls . 239.
Read Slehen. Tninking a|cui |cgic. an inirc!uciicn ic inc pni|cscpnq cj |cgic. Oxford: Oxford
Universily Iress 1995.
Irom lhe Inlroduclion: "This book is an inlroduclion lo lhe hiIosohy of Iogic. We oflen see an area
of hiIosohy marked oul as lhe hiIosohy of Iogic and Ianguage, and lhere are indeed cIose
conneclions belveen IogicaI lhemes and lhemes in lhe anaIysis of Ianguage. ul lhey are aIso quile
dislincl. In lhe hiIosohy of Ianguage lhe focus is on meaning and reference, on vhal are knovn as
lhe semanlic conneclions belveen Ianguage and lhe vorId.
In conlrasl, lhe cenlraI loic of lhe hiIosohy of Iogic is inference, lhal is, IogicaI consequence, or
vhal foIIovs correclIy from vhal. Whal concIusions may IegilimaleIy be inferred from vhal sels of
remisses` One ansver lo lhis queslion makes Iay vilh lhe nolion of lrulh-reservalion: vaIid
argumenls are lhose in vhich lrulh is reserved, vhere lhe lrulh of lhe remisses guaranlees lhe
lrulh of lhe concIusion. Since lrulh ilseIf is arguabIy lhe lhird member of a cIoseIy knil lrio
comrising meaning, reference, and lrulh, lhe conneclion vilh hiIosohy of Ianguage is
immedialeIy secured. (...)Il is vilh lhese issues of lrulh and correcl inference lhal ve are lo engage
in lhis book, and cenlraI lo lhal engagemenl, ve viII hnd, is aradox. Iaradox is lhe hiIosohers'
enchanlmenl, lheir felish. Il fascinales lhem, as a Iighl does a molh. ul al lhe same lime, il cannol
be endured. Ivery force avaiIabIe musl be broughl lo bear lo remove il. The hiIosoher is lhe
shaman, vhose lask is lo save us and rid us of lhe eviI demon.
Iaradox can arise in many Iaces, bul here ve concenlrale on lvo in arlicuIar, one sel uniled by
semanlic issues, lhe olher by a fuzziness inherenl in cerlain concels. In bolh cases lhe uzzIe
arises because naluraI, simIe, and vhal seem cIearIy reasonabIe assumlions Iead one very quickIy
lo conlradiclion, confusion, and embarrassmenl. There is somelhing avfuI and fascinaling aboul
lheir lransarency, lhere is an en|oymenl in surveying lheir variely, lhe rich diversily of examIes.
ul lheir reaI hiIosohicaI vaIue Iies in lhe urging of lhe unfounded and uncrilicaI assumlions
vhich Ied lo lhem. They demand resoIulion, and in lheir resoIulion ve Iearn more aboul lhe nalure
of lrulh, lhe nalure of consequence, and lhe nalure of reaIily, lhan any exlended survey of basic
rinciIes can give. OnIy vhen lhose seemingIy innocenl rinciIes meel lhe chaIIenge of aradox
and come under a gaze lulored by reaIizalion of vhal viII foIIov, do ve reaIIy see lhe lroubIes lhal
Iie Ialenl vilhin lhem.
We slarl, lherefore, al lhe hearl of hiIosohy of Iogic, vilh lhe concel of lrulh, examining lhose
basic rinciIes vhich seem comeIIing in hov Ianguage measures u lo lhe vorId. ul I eschev a
simIe calaIogue of osilions heId by lhe greal and lhe good. Thal couId be very duII, and erhas
nol reaIIy inslruclive eilher. Ralher, I lry lo veave a narralive, lo shov hov naluraI concelions
arise, hov lhey may be arlicuIaled, and hov lhey can come unsluck. I hoe lhal lhe uzzIes
lhemseIves viII calure lhe readers' imaginalions, and leml lhem onvards lo furlher, more
delaiIed reading, as indicaled in lhe summary lo each chaler. The idea is lo ainl a conlinuous
iclure of a nelvork of ideas lrealed in lheir ovn righl and in lheir ovn inlimale reIalionshis,
IargeIy divorced from hisloricaI or lechnicaI delaiI."
Conlenls: Inlroduclion 1, 1. Trulh, ure and simIe: Ianguage and lhe vorId 5, 2. The over of Iogic:
IogicaI consequence 35, 3. To lhink bul of an If: lheories of condilionaIs 64, 4. The increduIous slare:
ossibIe vorIds 96, 5. IIalo's beard: on vhal lhere is and vhal lhere isn'l 121, 6. WeII, I'II be hanged!
The semanlic aradoxes 148, 7. aId men forever: lhe soriles aradoxes 173, 8. Whose Iine is il
anyvay` The conslruclivisl chaIIenge 203, SeIecl bibIiograhy 241, GIossary 248, Index 253.
16.
Rescher NichoIas. Tcpics in pni|cscpnica| |cgic. Dordrechl: ReideI 1969. 17.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
12 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
ReslaII Greg. An inirc!uciicn ic su|siruciura|s |cgics. London, Nev York: RoulIedge 2000. 18.
Rod GirIe. Mc!a| |cgics an! pni|cscpnq. MonlreaI: McGiII-Queen's Universily Iress 2000. 19.
Sainsbury Mark. Icgica| jcrns. An inirc!uciicn ic pni|cscpnica| |cgic. Oxford: IackveII IubIishers
2001. Second revised edilion (Iirsl edilion 1991).
"This book is an inlroduclion lo hiIosohicaI Iogic. Il is rimariIy inlended for eoIe vho have
some acquainlance vilh deduclive melhods in eIemenlary formaI Iogic, bul vho have yel lo sludy
associaled hiIosohicaI robIems. Hovever, I do nol resuose knovIedge of deduclive melhods,
so lhe book couId be used as a vay of embarking on hiIosohicaI Iogic from scralch.
RusseII coined lhe hrase 'hiIosohicaI Iogic' lo describe a rogramme in hiIosohy: lhal of
lackIing hiIosohicaI robIems by formaIizing robIemalic senlences in vhal aeared lo RusseII lo
be lhe Ianguage of Iogic: lhe formaI Ianguage of Irinciia Malhemalica. My use of lhe lerm
'hiIosohicaI Iogic' is cIose lo RusseII's. Mosl of lhis book is devoled lo discussions of robIems of
formaIizing IngIish in formaI IogicaI Ianguages.
I lake vaIidily lo be lhe cenlraI concel in Iogic. In lhe hrsl chaler I raise lhe queslion of vhy
Iogicians sludy lhis roerly in conneclion vilh arlihciaI Ianguages, vhich no one seaks, ralher
lhan in conneclion vilh some naluraI Ianguage Iike IngIish. In chalers 2-5 I indicale some of lhe
ossibiIilies and robIems for formaIizing IngIish in lhree arlihciaI IogicaI Ianguages: lhal of
roosilionaI Iogic (chaler 2), of hrsl order quanlihcalionaI Iogic (chaler 4) and of modaI Iogic
(chaler 5). The hnaI chaler lakes u lhe ureIy hiIosohicaI discussion, and, using vhal has
been Iearned on lhe vay, addresses such queslions as vhelher lhere vas any oinl in lhose eorls
al formaIizing, vhal can be meanl by lhe IogicaI form of an IngIish senlence, vhal is lhe domain of
Iogic, and vhal is a IogicaI conslanl.
In lhis aroach, one inevilabIy encounlers nol onIy queslions in lhe hiIosohy of Iogic, bul aIso
queslions in lhe hiIosohy of Ianguage, as vhen one considers hov besl lo formaIize IngIish
senlences conlaining emly names, or dehnile descrilions, or adverbs, or verbs of roosilionaI
Conlenls: Ireface lo lhe hrsl edilion VI, Ireface lo lhe second edilion VII, Inlroduclion 1, 1. VaIidily
5, 2. Trulh funclionaIily 54, 3. CondilionaIs and robabiIilies 122, 4. Quanlihcalion 153, 5. Necessily
257, 6. The ro|ecl of formaIizalion 339, GIossary 392, Lisl of symboIs 403, ibIiograhy 406, Index
419.
20.
WoIfram SybiI. Pni|cscpnica| |cgic. An inirc!uciicn. London: RoulIedge 1989.
Irom lhe Iirsl Chaler: "Logic may be said lo be lhe sludy of correcl and incorrecl reasoning. This
incIudes lhe sludy of vhal makes argumenls consislenl or inconsislenl, vaIid or invaIid, sound or
unsound (on lhese lerms see 1.2.1). Il has lvo branches, knovn as formaI (or symboIic) Iogic and
hiIosohicaI Iogic.
One of lhe branches of Iogic, formaI Iogic, codihes argumenls and suIies lesls of consislency and
vaIidily, slarling from axioms, lhal is, from dehnilions and ruIes for assessing lhe consislency and
vaIidily of argumenls.' Al lhe resenl lime lhere are lvo main syslems of formaI Iogic, usuaIIy
knovn as lhe roosilionaI caIcuIus and lhe redicale caIcuIus. The roosilionaI caIcuIus concerns
reIalions of vhal il lerms 'roosilions' lo each olher. The redicale caIcuIus codihes inferences
vhich may be dravn on accounl of cerlain fealures of lhe conlenl of 'roosilions'.
The olher branch of Iogic, hiIosohicaI Iogic, vhich is my concern here, is very much more dicuIl
lo deIimil and dehne. Il can be said lo sludy argumenls, meaning, lrulh. Ils sub|ecl
lo codify vaIid
argumenls and lo suIy axioms and nolalions aIIoving lhe assessmenl of increasingIy comIex
argumenls, il examines lhe bricks and morlar from vhich such syslems are buiIl. AIlhough il aims,
among olher lhings, lo iIIuminale or somelimes queslion lhe formaIizalion of argumenls inlo
syslems vilh axioms vhich have been eecled, il is nol reslricled lo a sludy of argumenls vhich
21.
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
13 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
formaI Iogic has codihed."
Conlenls: Ireface XIII, 1. Inlroduclion 1. 2. Reference and lrulh 26, 3. Necessary lrulh and lhe
anaIylic-synlhelic dislinclion 80, 4. Asecls of lrulh 129, 5. Negalion 162, 6. Ixislence and idenlily
191, 7. Asecls of meaning 229, Aendix: Ixaminalion queslions 252, ibIiograhy of vorks
referred lo 263, GIossary 270, Index 278.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE5
KeIIervesseI WuIf. A |i||icgrapnq cn rcjcrcncc an! scnc rc|aic! icpics in ana|qiica| pni|cscpnq. Nev
York: Ieler Lang 1996.
Irom lhe Ireface: "Reference is, Iike lhe loics 'lheories of lrulh' and 'lheories of meaning', one of
lhe cenlraI lhemes vilhin anaIylicaI hiIosohy. This is indicaled by lhe Iarge number of lexls lhal
deaI vilh 'reference' and by lhe facl lhal numerous ma|or vorks of Ieading anaIylicaI hiIosohers
are arlicuIarIy concerned vilh lhis loic. (...)The imorlance of lhe lheme 'reference' for
hiIosohy can be demonslraled by lhe foIIoving consideralions. Since hiIosohy deaIs, among
olher lhings, vilh lhe cIarihcalion of lhe concel of lhe lrulh of asserlions, lhere is lhe foIIoving
conneclion lo queslions of reference: Knoving vhelher a slalemenl is lrue or faIse resuoses
knoving vhal lhe slalemenl is aboul, i.e., if lhe reference of lhe slalemenl (or arl of il) has aIready
been found oul. Moreover, lhe queslion arises if lhere are senlences vhich do nol have a lrulh
king of Irance is
baId' couId be |udged as neilher lrue nor faIse because il does nol say anylhing aboul anybody. Al
any rale, il does nol say anylhing vrong aboul anybody. Iurlhermore, some lheories of reference
(i.e. lhose of DonneIIan, Krike and Iulnam) have signihcanl consequences for lhe IogicaI slalus of
various senlences or slalemenls. They change lhe sel of necessariIy lrue slalemenls in comarison
lo revious oinions aboul il. Some of lhe lheories of reference, lhal have so far been deveIoed,
aIso eecl some Iavs of Iogic and lheir aIicabiIily.
Considering lhe reIevance of lhe sub|ecl 'reference' il seems lo be reasonabIe lo give an overaII viev
of lhis loic in lhe form of a bibIiograhy - eseciaIIy because various queslions of reference have
been discussed. esides, lhe Iileralure on lhis loic is so numerous lhal il does nol seem lo be easy
lo gain an overviev - even if il is onIy lo lurn lo a queslion of delaiI. This bibIiograhy mighl serve lo
reduce dicuIlies and/or lhe Iack of informalion.(...) IinaIIy, lhere viII be some addilionaI
informalion on cerlain concels lhal are used vilhin lhe bibIiograhy, some lerminoIogicaI
exIanalions, an index of abbrevialions, and lhe necessary keys lo lhe symboIs." The bibIiograhy
conlains 2114 ilems in IngIish and German.
RELATED PAGE5
Hislory of Logic in ReIalionshi lo OnloIogy in Weslern Thoughl. An Inlroduclion
TabIe of OnloIogisls (IDI)
OnloIogisls of lhe 19lh and 20lh Cenluries
Living OnloIogisls (a Iisl of aulhors vilh an inleresl in onloIogy, vilh synlhelic bibIiograhies)
RELATED 5ITE5
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
14 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33
Tnrcc siics (currcni|q un!cr !ctc|cpncni) unicn ui|| |c !ctcic! ic siu!ics cn Onic|cgq in |ia|ian, |rcncn an!
Gcrnan.
Tcnria c 5tnria dc!!'Ontn!ngia
Thnric ct Histnirc dc !'Ontn!ngic
Thcnric und Gcschichtc dcr Ontn!ngic
Mc|i|c tcrsicn cj inis siic jcr pncnc an! |apicp uscrs.
Thcnry and Histnry nI Ontn!ngy (Mnbi!c vcrsinn)
PO| tcrsicn cj inc pagcs cj inis siic.
Thcnry and Histnry nI Ontn!ngy (PDF vcrsinn)
Last modiIied: Saturday, December 18, 2010
Study Guide to Philosophical Logic and the Philosophy oI Logic http://www.ontology.co/pathways-logic.htm
15 di 15 18/12/2010 14:33