Figure 6.

19-7 ESSENTIALS Simple and Complex Reflex Pathways

E
S
T
KEY
Output Pathways Stimulus
Sensor
Sensory neuron
(input pathway)
CNS integrating
center
Endocrine
integrating center
Efferent neuron
Neurotransmitter
Neurohormone
Classic hormone
Target cell (effector)
Simple Endocrine
Reflex
Stimulus
Response
E
T
Example:
Insulin release
when blood
glucose increases
Figure 6.1-1 ESSENTIALS Communication in the Body
LOCAL COMMUNICATION
Gap junctions form
direct cytoplasmic
connections between
adjacent cells.
Contact-dependent signals
require interaction between
membrane molecules on
two cells.
Autocrine signals act on the same cell
that secreted them. Paracrine signals
are secreted by one cell and diffuse to
adjacent cells.
Receptor
Figure 6.1-2 ESSENTIALS Communication in the Body
LONG-DISTANCE COMMUNICATION
Endocrine System Nervous System
Long-distance signaling may be electrical signals passing
along neurons or chemical signals that travel through the
circulatory system.
Endocrine
cell
Cell
without
receptor
Cell
with
receptor Target
cell
No response
Response
Blood
Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands or cells into the
blood. Only target cells with receptors for the hormone respond
to the signal.
Neurohormones are chemicals
released by neurons into the blood
for action at distant targets.
Neurotransmitters are chemicals secreted by neurons that diffuse
across a small gap to the target cell.
No response
Response
Response
Cell
without
receptor
Cell
with
receptor
Target
cell
Blood
Neuron
Neuron
Electrical
signal
Figure 6.3 Target cell receptors may be located on the cell surface or inside the cell
Intracellular Signal Receptors
Four Categories of Membrane Receptors
Cell Membrane Receptors
Extracellular signal
molecule binds to a
cell membrane
receptor.
Binding
triggers
Rapid cellular
responses
Receptor
in nucleus
Receptor in cytosol
Lipophilic signal
molecules diffuse
through the cell
membrane.
Binding to
cytosolic
or nuclear
receptors
triggers
Slower responses
related to changes
in gene activity
Channel Receptor Receptor
ECF
Extracellular
signal
molecules
ICF
Enzyme G protein
Cell
membrane
Anchor
protein
Cytoskeleton
Ligand binding to
integrin receptors
alters the cytoskeleton.
Integrin receptor G proteincoupled receptor Receptor-enzyme
Ligand binding to a G protein
coupled receptor opens an ion
channel or alters enzyme activity.
Ligand binding to a
receptor-enzyme activates
an intracellular enzyme.
Ligand binding
opens or closes
the channel.
Receptor-
channel
Figure 6.5a Biological signal transduction (1 of 2)
Basic Signal Transduction
First
messenger
Transducer
Second
messenger
system
Targets
Signal
molecule
Membrane
receptor protein
Intracellular
signal molecules
Target
proteins
binds to
activates
alter
create
Response
Response
Figure 6.6c ESSENTIALS Signal Transduction
Second messenger pathways
ATP
GTP
Membrane
phospholipids
Adenylyl cyclase
(membrane)
Guanylyl cyclase
(membrane)
Guanylyl cyclase
(cytosol)
Phospholipase C
(membrane)
GPCR*
GPCR
Receptor-enzyme
Nitric oxide (NO)
Activates protein
kinases, especially PKA.
Binds to ion channels.
Activates protein
kinases, especially PKG.
Binds to ion channels.
Releases Ca
2+
from
intracellular stores.
Activates protein
kinase C.
Binds to calmodulin.
Binds to other proteins.
Phosphorylates
proteins. Alters
channel opening.
Phosphorylates
proteins.
Alters channel
opening.
See Ca
2+
effects
below.
Phosphorylates
proteins.
Alters enzyme activity.
Exocytosis, muscle
contraction, cyto-
skeleton movement,
channel opening.
*GPCR = G proteincoupled receptor. IP
3
= Inositol trisphosphage. DAG = idacylglycerol
Ca
2+

IP
3

DAG
cGMP
cAMP
Ions
Lipid-derived*
Nucleotides
SECOND
MESSENGER MADE FROM
AMPLIFIER
ENZYME LINKED TO ACTION EFFECTS
Figure 6.7
Tyrosine Kinase Receptor
Tyrosine kinase (TK) transfers a phosphate group from
ATP to a tyrosine (an amino acid) of a protein.
Signal molecule binds
to surface receptor
Tyrosine kinase on
cytoplasmic side
Phosphorylated
protein
+ ADP
ATP
ICF
Protein Protein
Active binding site
Cell
membrane
ECF
TK
R
L
Figure 6.8a (1 of 2)
GPCR-adenylyl Cyclase Signal Transduction and Amplification
One signal
molecule
GPCR
G protein
ATP
Adenylyl
cyclase
cAMP
Protein
kinase A
Phosphorylated
protein
Cell
response
Using the pattern shown in Fig. 6.6a,
create a cascade that includes ATP, cAMP,
adenylyl cyclase, a phosphorylated
protein, and protein kinase A.
Protein kinase A phosphorylates
other proteins, leading ultimately
to a cellular response.
cAMP activates protein kinase A.
Adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to
cyclic AMP.
G protein turns on adenylyl cyclase,
an amplifier enzyme.
Signal molecule binds to G protein
coupled receptor (GPCR), which
activates the G protein.
FIGURE QUESTION
CL-1 recepLor acuvaLed lnsulln secreuon from pancreauc
-cells: mechanlsm and glucose dependence
GLP-1 = glucagon-like
peptide 1
Figure 6.8b (2 of 2)
GPCR-phospholipase C Signal Transduction
Signal
molecule
Receptor
G protein
ER
Ca
2+
Ca
2+

stores
PLC
IP
3

PKC
DAG
Membrane phospholipid
Cellular
response
Phosphorylated
protein
Protein + P
i

KEY
PLC = phospholipase C
DAG = diacylglycerol
PKC = protein kinase C
IP
3
= inositol trisphosphate
ER = endoplasmic reticulum
Cell
membrane
Intracellular
fluid
Extracellular
fluid
IP
3
causes release
of Ca
2+
from
organelles, creating
a Ca
2+
signal.
DAG activates protein
kinase C (PKC), which
phosphorylates
proteins.
PLC converts membrane phospho-
lipids into diacylglycerol (DAG), which
remains in the membrane, and IP
3
,
which diffuses into the cytoplasm.
G protein activates
phospholipase C
(PLC), an amplifier
enzyme.
Signal molecule
activates receptor
and associated
G protein.
Figure 6.10 ESSENTIALS Summary Map of Signal Transduction
Figure 6.13
Target response depends on the target receptor.
!-Receptor Response "
2
-Receptor Response
!-Receptor "
2
-Receptor
Epinephrine + !

-Receptor Epinephrine + "
2
-Receptor
Vessel constricts.
Vessel dilates.
Intestinal
blood vessel
Skeletal muscle
blood vessel
Epinephrine can bind to
different isoforms of the
adrenergic receptor.
In this example, blood vessels
dilate or constrict depending
on their receptor type.
Figure 6.15b Tonic and antagonist control of regulated variables (4 of 6)
ANTAGONISTIC CONTROL
Stimulation by sympathetic nerves increases heart rate.
Antagonistic control uses different signals
to send a parameter in opposite directions. In
this example, antagonistic neurons control heart
rate: some speed it up, while others slow it down.
Sympathetic
neuron
Parasympathetic
neuron
Heartbeats
Heartbeats
Time (sec)
Time (sec)
0 1 2 3
Stimulation by parasympathetic nerves decreases heart rate.
What heart rates (in beats/min)
are shown on the two ECG
tracings?
FIGURE QUESTION
0 1 2 3
Figure 6.19-1 ESSENTIALS Simple and Complex Reflex Pathways
Complex Neuroendocrine Reflexes
Simple Endocrine
Reflex
Simple Neural
Reflex
Neurohormone
Reflex
Stimulus Stimulus Stimulus Stimulus Stimulus Stimulus
Sensor
Sensory
neuron
Efferent
neuron
Neuro-
transmitter
Target
cell
Example:
The knee jerk reflex
Blood
vessel
Response
Response
Response
Response
Response
Neurotransmitter
Neurohormone
Endocrine
cells
Hormone
Hormone #2
T
T
T
T
T
T
E
E
E
E
1

E
2

Example:
Release of breast
milk in response
to suckling
Example:
Insulin secretion in
response to a signal
from the brain
Example:
Secretion of
growth hormone
E
S
T
KEY
Output Pathways Stimulus
Sensor
Sensory neuron
(input pathway)
CNS integrating
center
Endocrine
integrating center
Efferent neuron
Neurotransmitter
Neurohormone
Classic hormone
Target cell (effector)
Example:
This pattern occurs
with hormones
released by the
anterior pituitary.
Response
CNS CNS CNS CNS CNS