FLUID PROPERTIES (LEC 1&2)

FLUID AS A CONTINUUM A fluid considered to be a continuum in which there are no holes or voids velocity, pressure and temperature fields are continuous. Validity criteria: Smallest length scale in a flow >> average spacing between molecules composing the fluid. DENSITY () Mass/ unit volume (kg/m3) Density decreases normally with increasing temperature water = (T,S,p) i.e., dependent on Temperature Salt content ( 1000 + 0.741 S, S in per mille; S = 3.5% in ocean = 1026 kg/m3) Pressure (but only a small variability) For a perfect gas the state equation is, = p/RT, R is gas constant REAL FLUID A fluid in which shearing forces always exist whenever motion takes place due to the fluid s inner friction viscosity.

Modulus of elasticity:
E = dp dV / V 1

[Pa]

For liquids, region of engineering interest is when V/V1 1. Ewater ~ 2 109 Pa

V V = p E

[Pa]

(Eq. 2.3a in F&F)

IDEAL FLUID A fluid in which there is no friction

OK in most cases for common gases in the ordinary engineering range of pressure and temperature air = 1.23 kg/m3 at atmospheric pressure and 15 C OTHER DEFINITIONS Weight = mass gravity acceleration (W = mg, [N = kg m/s2]) Weight density = density gravity acceleration (= g, [N/m3 = kg /(m2s2)]) Specific volume = reciprocal of density ( = 1/, [m3/kg]) Relative density is the density normalized with the density of water at a specific temperature and pressure (normally 4 C and atmospheric pressure): S = R.d. =/water (often = /1000) COMPRESSIBILITY All fluids can be compressed by application of pressure elastic energy being stored Modulus of elasticity describes the compressibility properties of the fluid and is defined on the basis of volume

VISCOSITY Viscosity is a measure of a fluid s inner friction or resistance to shear stress. It arises from the interaction and cohesion of fluid molecules. All fluids posses viscosity, but to a varying degree. For instance, syrup has a considerably higher viscosity than water.

DEFINITION OF DYNAMIC VISCOSITY - Illustrating example: .

Shearing of thin fluid film between two plates. The upper plate has an area A.

Experiments have shown that for a large number of fluids:

F AV h

Newtonian non-Newtonian fluids Examples non-Newtonian fluids: Plastics, blood, suspensions, paints, foods

(if V och h not too large)

Linear velocity profile V/h = dv/dy Introduction of the proportionality constant , named dynamic viscosity, gives Newton s viscosity law:
= F A = V h = dv dy

(eq. 2.9)

[Pa s]

Implication of viscosity: a fluid cannot sustain a shear stress without deformation

Shear vs. rate of strain relations for non-Newtonian fluids:

i = = ( du dy du n ) dy > i

Bingham plastic

n>1: Shear-thickening fluid, n<1: Shear-thinning fluid

No-slip condition water particles adjacent to solid boundary has zero velocity (observational fact) = / [m2/s] -

SURFACE TENSION, CAPILLARITY Surface tension effects occur at liquid surfaces (interfaces of liquid-liquid, liquid-gas, liquid-solid).

Kinematic viscosity Surface tension effects are often negligible in engineering problems. Exceptions: Bubble formation Capillary rise of liquids in narrow spaces Break-up of liquid drops Formation of liquid drops Investigations using small physical models

Implications of Newton s law: , independent of pressure (in contrast to solids) no velocity gradient no shear stress Restriction of Newton s law: law only valid if the fluid flow is laminar in which viscous action is strong Laminar flow: smooth, orderly motion in which fluid elements appears to slide over each other in layers (little exchange between layers). Turbulent flow: random or chaotic motion of individual fluid particles, and rapid mixing and exchange of these particles through the flow Turbulent flow is most common in nature.

Surface tension, [N/m], is thought of as the force in the liquid surface normal to a line of unit length drawn in the surface.

Surface tension decreases with temperature and is dependent on the contact fluid (surface tension usually quoted in contact with air). The surface tension force will support small loads if liquid surface is curved. Implications of surface tension 1) Capillary rise/drop

p =

2 R

3) For bubble

Balance between internal pressure force and surface tension force (see fig.) p R 2 = 2 2 R
p = 4 R

Measurement of surface tension The liquid makes a contact angle with the glass tube. A vertical force balance between surface tension force and weight of the lifted liquid column 2 R cos = g h R2
h= 2 cos gR

(valid if R<2.5 mm) : angle of contact, dependent on the relation between cohesive and adhesive forces Angle of contact F = 2 D = F/(2 D

HYDROSTATICS (LEC 3-5)

Hydrostatics: Study of fluids (water) at rest No motion no shear stress viscosity nonsignificant 2) For spherical droplet Only existing stress for a fluid at rest is normal (compression) stress, i.e. pressure Characteristics of pressure: 1. 2. Measurement unit [Pa]=[N/m2] Pressure is transmitted normal to solid boundaries or arbitrary sections

Balance between internal pressure force and surface tension force (see fig.) p R2 = 2 R

3. 4.

Pressure is transmitted undiminished to all other points in a fluid at rest Pressure has the same magnitude in all directions at a point in a fluid at rest (scalar quantity)

Negative gage pressures are often termed vacuum pressures Often only relative pressures are of interest

Relation between pressure and depth in an incompressible liquid Assuming constant density and no horizontal pressure variation, the liquid column in the fig below can be used the pressure as a function of depth.

EXAMPLE ON GAGE AND ABSOLUTE PRESSURES A pressure gage registers a vacuum of 310 mm of mercury when the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa, absolute. Calculate the corresponding absolute pressure. Solution: Patmospheric = 100 kPa (Pgage/ Hg) = -310 mm Hg Pgage = -0.31 Hg
2 Hg = 133.0 kN/m

Pabsolute = Patmospheric + Pgage Pabsolute = 100 - 0.31 133.0 = 58.8 kPa

Vertical forces acting on column (V, A, and y are volume, area, and height of column, respectively): Upward pressure force: Weight (downward): Vertical force balance: pA = Ay pA V= Ay

FORCES ON SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES Example of applications: Design of dams, ships, gates, and tanks.

Characteristics of pressure in a fluid at rest: Constant pressure on plane horizontal surface Linear pressure variation with depth for constant density liquid Pressure acts perpendicular to the surface

p= y = gy
ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE PRESSURE Pressures are measured and quoted in two different systems, one relative (gage) and one absolute. The relation between them are: Pabsolute = Patmospheric + Pgage Pressure prism: volume of pressure on the plane surface Resultant force is equal to the volume of the pressure prism and acts through its centroid

RELEVANT EQUATIONS FORCES ON PLANE SUBMERGED SURFACES

Pressure intensity on a curved surface. F passes through the center of curvature. Resultant force, F:
F = h A = g h A c c

(2) The horizontal force is obtained by projecting the curved surface onto a vertical plane. The horizontal force is equal to the force on this projected area
F = h A H c , proj proj

Point of action of resultant force:

I y = y + p c y c c A

A: hc: yp : yc : Ic : axis

area of plane surface vertical distance liquid surface - area center distance O - pressure center distance O area center second moment of area about area center Projection of the curved surface onto a vertical plane (3) The vertical force is equal to the weight of the volume of liquid above the curved survace

Median line gives lateral position for center of pressure for regular plane areas

The vertical force component, FV, caused by the weight of liquid above the surface (4)The resultant force is given by

FORCES ON CURVED SUBMERGED SURFACES (1) Resolve the force into two components, one vertical and one horizontal

F =

F2 + F2 V H

and the direction of the resultant force by

F V tan = F H

Net pressure force (upthrust), FB: FB = (y+L)A - yA= LA = V

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATION OF FLUID STATICS The general relation for pressure in a static fluid is:
dp dz

= = g

The direction of the resultant force, F, which must also pass through C (5) Remember that there is an equal and opposite force acting on the other side of the surface.

Implication: pressure varies only with depth and is constant in a horizontal plane For a fluid with constant density:
p p = (z z ) = h 1 2 2 1 or p p 1 2 h=

ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE BUOYANCY FORCE Law of buoyancy (Archimedesprinciple): The upthrust (buoyancy force) on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced

Law of flotation: A floating body displaces its own weight of the liquid in which it floats

Implications: pressure varies linearly with depth pressures may be expressed as head of fluid of weight density pressures are often quoted as heads in mm Hg or m H2O
p 2 + z = + z = Const. , for all points 1 2 in a fluid at rest p 1

Proof of Archimedes principle MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

Vertical forces acting cylinder surface: Downwards: p1A = yA Upwards: p2A = (y+L)A

MANOMETRY

Unsteady uniform flow: Q = Q(t), A = constant.

Pressures are equal over horizontal planes within continuous columns of the same fluid Conversion of manometer readings to pressure: (a) p1 = p2 p1 = px + l p2 = patm + px = patm + l 1h 1h - (absolute) (b) p4 = p5 p4 = px + 1l1 p5 = py + 2l2 + 3h px - py = 2l2 + 3h - 1l1 Practical considerations in manometry Relative densities of manometer liquids vary with temperature (may cause errors) Capillarity errors Inaccurate readings caused by poor menisci due to surface tension effects Manometer liquid fluctuations (inaccuracy in readings) Use of optical devices for extremely precise readings Unsteady non-uniform flow: Q = Q(t), A = A(x).

VISUALIZATION OF FLOW PATTERNS Streamline: a curve that is drawn in such a way that it is tangential to the velocity vector at any point along the curve. A curve that is representing the direction of flow at a given time. No flow across a stream line.

Streamtube: A set of streamlines arranged to form an imaginary tube. Ex: The internal surface of a pipeline.

BASIC CONCEPTS (LEC 6)

CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWS Flow characterized by two parameters time and distance. Division of flows with respect to time: Steady flow time independent Unsteady flow time dependent Quasi-steady flow slow changes with time Division of flows with respect to distance: Uniform flow constant section area along flowpath Non-uniform flow variable section area Examples of types of flow: Steady uniform flow flowrate (Q) and section area (A) are constant Steady non-uniform flow: Q = constant, A = A(x). Potential flow: Flow that can be represented by streamlines.

LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOW Laminar flow Flow along parallel paths Shear stress proportional to velocity gradient ( = du/dy) Disturbances in the flow are rapidly damped by viscous action Turbulent flow Fluid particles moves in a random manner and not in layers Length scales >> molecular scales in laminar flow Rapid continuous mixing Inertia forces and viscous forces of importance Reynolds experiment

Streakline: path made by injected dye in a flow field. 1-D, 2-D, AND 3-D FLOWS Most real flows are three-dimensional. Many times it is possible to simplify a 3-D flow to be a 1-D or 2-D flow - simplifies greatly the analysis. For instance, pipe flow is taken to be 1-D and average fluid properties are used at each section. The flow along a streamline (however curved) is 1-D and the distance is measured along the streamline. Ex. 2-D flow: flow over a wire (verfall), and flow around a wing

Small velocities line of dye intact, movement in parallel layers laminar flow High velocities rapid diffusion of dye, mixing turbulent flow Critical velocity line of dye begin to break-up, transition between laminar and turbulent flow TWO WAYS OF DESCRIBING FLUID MOTION Lagrangian view: the path, density, velocity and other characteristics of each fluid particle in a flow is traced. Eulerian view: study the flow characteristics (velocity, pressure, density, etc.) and their variation with time at fixed points in space. Two thresholds: Upper critical velocity transition of laminar flow to turbulent flow Lower critical velocity transition of turbulent flow to laminar flow Reynold s number Reynolds generalized his results by introduction of a dimensionless number (Reynolds number):

R=

VD VD =

Pipe flow is laminar if R < 2000 and turbulent if R > 4000. The critical Reynolds number, Rc, defining the division between laminar and turbulent flow, is very dependent on the geometry for the flow. Parallel walls: Rc 1000 (using mean velocity V and spacing D) Wide open channel: Rc 500 (using mean velocity V and depth D) Flow about sphere: Rc 1 (using approach velocity V and sphere diameter D)

Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 0

or V1 A1 + V2 A2 + V3 A3 = 0

Channel flow

d(Vol)/dt = Q1 Q2 (Q12 = 0)

(4.18)

GOVERNING EQUATIONS (LEC 6-11)

FLUID SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME

Vol:

Volume of water in channel between section 1 and 2

BERNOULLI S EQUATION Fluid system: Specified mass of fluid within a closed surface Control volume: Fix region in space that can t be moved or change shape. Its surface is called control surface. Bernoulli s equation is the energy equation for an ideal fluid (friction and energy losses assumed negligible). Bernoulli s equation may, however, be used with satisfactory accuracy in many engineering problems and have the advantage of providing valuable insight about energy conditions in fluid flow.

RELATION BETWEEN FLUID SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME Let X represent the total amount of some fluid property (for instance mass or energy) within a specified boundaries at a specified time. Let S denote fluid system and CV denote control volume. Then we have (out stands for transfer out from CV and in stands for transfer into the CV):
dX S = dX CV + dX CV
out

Derivation of Bernoulli s equation for 1-D flow Consider a streamline and choose a small cylindrical element for analysis.

dt

dt

dt

dX CV

in

dt

(eq. 4.9 in F&F)

CONTINUITY EQUATION Steady flow 1 V1 A1 = 2 V2 A2 Incompressible flow V1 A1 = V2 A2 or Q1 = Q2 (Q = V A) (4.17) (4.16a)

V: Average velocity at a section (m/s) A: Cross-section area (m2) Q: Flow rate (m3/s)

Use Newton s 2nd law. The first result is Euler s 1-D equation:
dp + V dV + g dz = 0

Flow in a pipe junction

Assuming an incompressible fluid we can then derive the Bernoulli equation:

V + + z = H = constant 2g

(p/ + z) is constant over the section perpendicular to the streamlines. (eq. 5.24 in F&F) KINETIC ENERGY CORRECTION FACTOR For a real fluid, friction will cause a non-uniform velocity distribution the velocity head have to be corrected before use of the Bernoulli equation. The real kinetic energy is obtained by integration over the section area and is then expressed in terms of the mean velocity, V, and a correction coefficient, . The corrected velocity head becomes
V 2

Bernoulli s equation is a useful relationship between pressure, p, velocity, V, and geometric height, z, above a reference plane (datum). H: energy head (m) z: elevation head above datum (m) V: velocity (m/s) g: gravity acceleration (m/s2) p: pressure (Pa) : weight density for the flowing fluid (N/m3)

Quantity H P/ Z V2/(2g)
p

Name Energy head Pressure head Elevation head Velocity head

Measure of Total energy pressure energy Potential energy Kinetic energy

2g

Some values on : =2 (laminar pipe flow) 1.06 (turbulent pipe flow) 1.05 (turbulent flow in wide channel) WHY THE ENERGY CORRECTION COEFFICIENT (MOMENTUM COEFFICIENT ) OFTEN MAY BE OMITTED 1) Most engineering pipe flow problems involve turbulent flow in which is only slightly more than unity. In laminar flow where is large, velocity heads are usually negligible when compared to the other Bernoulli terms The velocity heads in most pipe flows are usually so small compared to the other terma that inclusion of has little effect The effect of tends to cancel since it appears on both sides of the equation Engineering answers are not usually required to an accuracy which would justify the inclusion of in the equation.

+ z : piezometric head or

H.G.L = Hydraulic Grade Line

Validity criterias Bernoulli s equation: 1) 2) 3) 4) Along a streamline For an ideal fluid Steady flow Incompressible flow 2)

3)

1-D ASSUMPTION FOR STREAMTUBES WITH A FINITE SECTION AREA

4) 5)

PITOT TUBE

Bernoulli s Equation may also be applied to stream tubes with larger section areas (like pipes and channels) if the streamlines are parallel. If the streamlines are parallel the pressure distribution is hydrostatic the piezometric head

A Pitot tube, see Fig. above, is used to measure the energy head (h =
p0 + z + V2 0 ) in a fluid flow. 2g

The pressure at point S is called stagnation pressure and is the sum of static and dynamic pressures:
V2 p s = p0 + 0 2

VAPOR PRESSURE All liquids possess a tendency to vaporize, i.e. to change from liquid to gaseous phase Ejected molecules (gaseous) exert their own partial pressure, known as vapor pressure of the liquid Increased temperature increased kinetic energy for molecules increase of vapor pressure Boiling (formation of vapor bubbles throughout the fluid mass) will occur whenever the external pressure is less than the vapor pressure. Boiling point of a liquid is dependent on imposed pressure and temperature Volatile liquids, which vaporize more easily, possess higher vapor pressures The rapid vaporization (boiling) of a liquid when it passes an area with low pressure (equal to the vapor pressure) is called cavitation. Cavitation may lead to serious damages on pipe or hydraulic structures like pumps. The critical pressure conditions for cavitation are CAVITATION

p vapor p crit ) abs = p vapor p p ( crit ) rel = ( atm )

(eq. 5.36)

EQUATION FOR A JET TRAJECTORY

A jet trajectory may be described by application of Newton s 2nd law

x = Vx 0 t

t2 z = V z 0 t g 2
The jet trajectory is then given by,

z=

Vz 0 g x2 x 2 Vx0 2 V x 0

(eq. 5.37)

The top point of the jet is obtained by setting dz/dx = 0:

V V x = z 0 z0 g

z max

V = z0 2g

The kinetic energy at this point is:

KE =

Vx 0 2g

Bernoulli s equation is valid along the whole trajectory (p=0):

z+

V2 = H = konst. 2g

ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES

ENERGY EQUATION
p1 2 V1 2g p2 2 V2 2g

The momentum correction coefficient,

+ z2 + ) + hL

+ z1 +

) + hM = (

Typical values: = 1.33 (laminar pipe flow) = 1.02 (turbulent pipe flow) = 1.02 (turbulent flow in wide channel) In most cases we can set = 1 without making any significant errors.

hM hL -

energy added by machinery work (pumps, turbines) per unit weight of flowing fluid (m) energy loss per unit weight of flowing fluid (m)

POWER IN FLUID FLOW P= Q h (W) P QhPower developed by, for instance, pump or turbine weight density (N/m3) flow rate (m3/s) energy per unit weight of flowing fluid that has been added (hP) or withdrawn (hT)

METHODOLOGY USING THE MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR A FLUID FLOW PROBLEM Define an appropriate control volume Define coordinate axes Determine all forces (magnitude and direction) acting on the control volume Determine flowrate, outflow and inflow velocities to the control volume (if not given, use continuity equation and Energy (Bernoulli) equation) Solve momentum equation

Efficiency, = (power output)/(power input) MOMENTUM EQUATION Derivation Consider the control volume and the fluid system defined within the streamtube in Fig.

Remember sign (tecken) conventions: 1. 2. Outflow velocities are positive and inflow velocities are negative Velocities and forces are positive in positive coordinate directions

Ex. An outflow velocity in positive coordinate direction is positive [+(+VOUT) = +VOUT] Ex2. An inflow velocity in negative coordinate direction is positive [-(-VIN) = +VIN] Ex3. An outflow velocity in negative coordinate direction is negative [-(+VOUT) = -VOUT]

Control volume fix between section 1 and 2. Control volume identical to the fluid system at time t=t. At time t + t the fluidsystem has moved to between sections 1and 2 . Use Newton s 2nd law and relationship between fluid system and control volume Momentum equation:

F X = Q ( V X ,OUT V X , IN ) (x-direction) FY = Q ( VY ,OUT VY , IN ) (y-direction) FZ = Q ( VZ ,OUT VZ , IN ) (z-direction)

F: : Q: VOUT: VIN : :

Sum of all external forces acting on the control volume (like the streamtube). Density of fluid Flowrate Velocity out of the control volume Velocity in to the control volume Correction coefficient for momentum