Wastewater Analysis

1. Summary

The chemistry of wastewater reflects our activities in industrial, agricultural and so on. Due to scarcity and its value, wastewater to be treated and discharge to receiving river and withdrawn for reuse by downstream population. Therefore, the chemical and bacteriological composition must be monitored to ensure the public health. Besides, the oxygen consuming material in wastewater must be limited to protect the receiving river from low uantity of oxygen which may cause deleterious to a uatic species. Some other !utrients li"e nitrogen and phosphorus should be removed to prevent eutrophication and siltation. #n the other hand, the organic composition of wastewater is roughly about $%& of proteins, '%& of carbohydrates, (%& fats and oils, and little about of pollutants and surfactants. The chapter discusses the water uality parameters concerning wastewater composition, generation and treatment.

2. )ntroduction

)n many arid and semi*arid countries water is becoming an increasingly scarce resource and planners are forced to consider any sources of water which might be used economically and effectively to promote further development. At the same time, with population expanding at a high rate, the need for increased food production is apparent. The potential for irrigation to raise both agricultural productivity and the living standards of the rural poor has long been recogni+ed. )rrigated agriculture occupies approximately (, percent of the world-s total arable land but the production from this land comprises about .' percent of the world total. This potential is even more pronounced in arid areas, such as the !ear /ast 0egion, where only .% percent of the cultivated area is irrigated but it produces about ,$ percent of the total agricultural production. )n this same region, more than $% percent of the food re uirements are imported and the rate of increase in demand for food exceeds the rate of increase in agricultural production. Whenever good uality water is scarce, water of marginal uality will have to be considered for use in agriculture. Although there is no universal definition of -marginal uality- water, for all practical purposes it can be defined as water that possesses certain characteristics which have the potential to cause problems when it is used for an intended purpose. 1or example, brac"ish water is a marginal uality water for agricultural use because of its high dissolved salt content, and municipal wastewater is a marginal uality water because of the associated health ha+ards. 1rom the viewpoint of irrigation, use of a -marginal- uality water re uires more complex management practices and more stringent monitoring procedures than when good uality water is used. This publication deals with agricultural use of municipal wastewater, which is primarily domestic sewage but possibly contains a proportion of industrial effluents discharged to public sewers. /xpansion of urban populations and increased coverage of domestic water supply and sewerage give rise to greater uantities of municipal wastewater. With the current emphasis on environmental health and water pollution issues, there is an increasing awareness of the need to dispose of these wastewaters safely and beneficially. 2se of wastewater in agriculture could be

an important consideration when its disposal is being planned in arid and semi*arid regions. 3owever it should be reali+ed that the uantity of wastewater available in most countries will account for only a small fraction of the total irrigation water re uirements. !evertheless, wastewater use will result in the conservation of higher uality water and its use for purposes other than irrigation. As the marginal cost of alternative supplies of good uality water will usually be higher in water*short areas, it ma"es good sense to incorporate agricultural reuse into water resources and land use planning. 4roperly planned use of municipal wastewater alleviates surface water pollution problems and not only conserves valuable water resources but also ta"es advantage of the nutrients contained in sewage to grow crops. The availability of this additional water near population centres will increase the choice of crops which farmers can grow. The nitrogen and phosphorus content of sewage might reduce or eliminate the re uirements for commercial fertili+ers. )t is advantageous to consider effluent reuse at the same time as wastewater collection, treatment and disposal are planned so that sewerage system design can be optimi+ed in terms of effluent transport and treatment methods. The cost of transmission of effluent from inappropriately sited sewage treatment plants to distant agricultural land is usually prohibitive. Additionally, sewage treatment techni ues for effluent discharge to surface waters may not always be appropriate for agricultural use of the effluent. 5any countries have included wastewater reuse as an important dimension of water resources planning. )n the more arid areas of Australia and the 2SA wastewater is used in agriculture, releasing high uality water supplies for potable use. Some countries, for example the 3ashemite 6ingdom of 7ordan and the 6ingdom of Saudi Arabia, have a national policy to reuse all treated wastewater effluents and have already made considerable progress towards this end. )n 8hina, sewage use in agriculture has developed rapidly since (9$: and now over (... million hectares are irrigated with sewage effluent. )t is generally accepted that wastewater use in agriculture is ;ustified on agronomic and economic grounds but care must be ta"en to minimi+e adverse health and environmental impacts.

3.

Wastewater

3.1 What is Wastewater<

Wastewater is sewage, storm water, and water that has been used for various purposes around the community. 2nless properly treated, wastewater can harm public health and the environment. 5ost communities generate wastewater from both residential and nonresidential sources

0esidential wastewater Although the word sewage usually brings toilets to mind, it actually is used to describe all types of wastewater generated from every room in a house. )n the 2.S., sewage varies regionally and from home to home based on such factors as the number and type of water* using fixtures and appliances, the number of occupants, their ages, and even their habits, such as the types of foods they eat. 3owever, when compared to the variety of wastewater flows generated by different nonresidential sources, household water shares many similar characteristics overall. Table ( lists the composition of typical residential untreated wastewater.

There are two types of domestic sewage= blac"water >wastewater from toilets? and graywater >wastewater from all sources except toilets?. Blac"water and graywater have different characteristics, but both contain pollutants and disease*causing agents that re uire treatment. Some areas in the 2.S., including Ari+ona >Direct 0euse of 0eclaimed Water 0ule, effective %(@(A@%(?, permit the use of innovative systems that safely recycle household graywater for reuse in toilets or for irrigation to conserve water and reduce the flow to treatment systems.

!onresidential wastewater !onresidential wastewater in small communities is generated by such diverse sources as offices, businesses, department stores, restaurants, schools, hospitals, farms, manufacturers, and other commercial, industrial, and institutional entities. Storm water is a nonresidential source and carries trash and other pollutants from streets, as well as pesticides and fertili+ers from yards and fields. Because of the variety of nonresidential wastewater characteristics, communities need to assess each source individually or compare similar types of nonresidential sources to ensure that ade uate treatment is provided. 1or example, public restrooms may generate wastewater with some characteristics similar to sewage, but usually at higher volumes and at different pea" hours. The volume and pattern of wastewater flows from rental properties, hotels, and recreation areas often vary seasonally as well.

Baundries differ from many other nonresidential sources because they produce high volumes of wastewater containing lint fibers. 0estaurants typically generate a lot of oil and grease. )t may be necessary to provide pretreatment of oil and grease from restaurants or to collect it prior to treatment, for example, by adding grease traps to septic tan"s.

Wastewater from some nonresidential sources also may re uire additional treatment steps. 1or example, stormwater should be collected separately to prevent the flooding of treatment plants during wet weather. Trash and other large solids from storm sewers often are removed by screens.

)n addition, many industries produce wastewater high in chemical and biological pollutants that can overburden onsite and community systems. Dairy farms and breweries are good examples ** communities may re uire these types of nonresidential sources to provide their own treatment or preliminary treatment to protect community systems and public health.

3.2 What is in Wastewater<

Wastewater is mostly water by weight. #ther materials ma"e up only a small portion of wastewater, but can be present in large enough uantities to endanger public health and the environment. Because practically anything that can be flushed down a toilet, drain, or sewer can be found in wastewater, even household sewage contains many potential pollutants. The wastewater components that most wastewater facilities are designed to remove are suspended solids, biodegradable organics, and pathogenic organisms.

)norganics )norganic minerals, metals, and compounds, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, cadmium, copper, lead, nic"el, and +inc are common in wastewater from both residential and nonresidential sources. They can originate from a variety of sources in the community including industrial and commercial sources, stormwater, and inflow and infiltration from crac"ed pipes and lea"y manhole covers. 5ost inorganic substances are relatively stable and cannot be bro"en down easily by organisms in wastewater.

Barge amounts of many inorganic substances can contaminate soil and water. Some are toxic to animals and humans and may accumulate in the environment. 1or this reason, extra treatment steps are often re uired to remove inorganic materials from industrial wastewater sources. 3eavy metals, for example, which are discharged with many types of industrial wastewaters, are difficult to remove by conventional treatment methods. Although acute poisonings from heavy metals in drin"ing water are rare in the 2.S., potential long*term health effects of ingesting small amounts of some inorganic substances over an extended period of time are possible.

)norganic ions in solution contribute to the conductivity >e.g., the ability to carry an electrical current? of the wastewater. The conductivity of domestic wastewater may be near that of the local water supply, although not necessarily. Bac"wash from water softeners contains high calcium chloride concentrations which will increase the conductivity.

!utrients Wastewater often contains large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus in the form of nitrate and phosphate, respectively ** nutrients that promote plant growth. #rganisms only re uire small amounts of nutrients in biological treatment, so there normally is an excess of available nutrients in treated wastewater. )n severe cases, excess nitrogen and phosphorous can result in eutrophication, the nutrient enrichment of water bodies causing excessive growth of a uatic plants >algae, cyanobacteria, rooted a uatic vegetation, duc"weed?. The dissolved oxygen in the water body becomes depleted when the a uatic plants die, fall to the bottom, and are decomposed by aerobic bacteria. The oxygen depletion can reduce the populations of indigenous fish and other oxygen*consuming organisms.

!utrients from wastewater have also been lin"ed to ocean Cred tidesC that poison fish and cause illness in humans. !itrogen in drin"ing water may contribute to miscarriages and is the cause of a serious illness in infants called methemoglobinemia or Cblue baby syndrome.C

Nitrogen D !itrogen forms that are important in wastewater include organic nitrogen, nitrate >!#.*?, nitrite >!#E*?, ammonia >!3'F?, and nitrogen gas >!E?. All of these forms are biochemically interconvertible.

#rganic nitrogen is nitrogen bound to carbon. )t is the principle nitrogen constituent in feces. #rganic nitrogen also includes urea >3E!8#!3E? which is the principal compound in urine. #rganic nitrogen is not readily available to plantsG it needs bacterial conversion to nitrate before it is available for plants.

!itrate is the most oxidi+ed species of nitrogen. !itrate is readily available to plants and is considered the limiting nutrient >the nutrient that "eeps the biotic system in balance? for primary productivity in salt waters, an important consideration in the design of onsite systems along coastal areas. Because nitrate, in solution, is a negative ion, it will not bind to soil which is also negatively charged. Therefore, nitrate passes through soil to groundwater which is why regulatory agencies may be re uiring some onsite systems to provide nitrogen reduction in the effluent. !itrate is also the species of nitrogen for which a limit has been set for drin"ing water >(% mg@B? due to blue baby syndrome. !itrite is not usually observed in water sources because it is readily converted to nitrate by bacterial processesG however, it is extremely toxic to most fish and other a uatic species. Also, nitrites are oxidi+ed by chlorine and can, therefore, increase the chlorine dosage re uirements and the cost of disinfection. Ammonia exists in water as either the ammonium ion >!3'F? or ammonia gas >!3.?, depending on the p3 of the water. At p3 levels above 9.., ammonia gas is the predominate form, and at p3 levels below 9.., the ammonium ion is the predominant form. Ammonia is usually present in surface water and is due to the chemical oxidation of urea and anaerobic processes. Ammonia, a positive ion, binds to soil which is negatively chargedG therefore, ammonia is not readily leached from the soil. 4lants can readily use the ammonia form of nitrogen.

Phosphorus D 4hosphorus also exists in wastewater in many forms and includes soluble orthophosphate ion >4#'*.?, organically*bound phosphate, and other phosphorus@oxygen forms. 5ost of the organically*bound phosphate in wastewater is from excreta and food residue. Some cleaning agents still contain phosphate, although the practice of adding phosphate to cleaning agents has been vastly reduced since the (9:%s. 4hosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient in freshwater surface waters and is the principal cause of eutrophication in surface water bodies. 3owever, phosphate rapidly combines with other naturally*occurring chemicals, such as limestone, to form calcium phosphate. )f a subsurface effluent distribution system is close to a sensitive water body, limestone added to the soil absorption system can stop the phosphate from migrating to the water body.

Oil and grease - #il and grease is the term given to the combination of fats, oils, waxes, and other related constituents found in wastewater. 1atty organic materials from animals, vegetables, and petroleum are not uic"ly bro"en down by bacteria and can cause pollution in receiving environments. When large amounts of oils and greases are discharged to receiving waters from community systems, they increase B#D levels, and they may float to the surface and harden, causing aesthetically unpleasing conditions. They also can trap trash, plants, and other materials causing foul odors and attracting flies and mos uitoes and other

disease vectors. )n some cases, too much oil and grease causes septic conditions in ponds and la"es by preventing oxygen from the atmosphere from reaching the water.

)f the wastewater is warm and greasy, the grease cannot uic"ly separate from the water, so the grease flows through the septic tan" and into the soil where it solidifies upon cooling. The grease can clog the gravel and soil pores ruining the drainage system. /xcessive grease also adds to the septic tan" scum layer, re uiring more fre uent tan" pumping. Both possibilities can result in significant costs to homeowners and are the reasons why grease traps are manditory for restaurants and food service facilities.

4etroleum*based waste oils used for motors and industry are considered ha+ardous waste and should be collected and disposed of separately from wastewater.

#rganic 5atter #rganic materials are found everywhere in the environment. They are composed of the carbon*based chemicals that are the building bloc"s of most living things. #rganic materials in wastewater originate from plants, animals, or synthetic organic compounds, and enter wastewater in human wastes, paper products, detergents, cosmetics, foods, and from agricultural, commercial, and industrial sources. #rganic compounds normally are some combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements. 5any organics are proteins, carbohydrates, or fats and are biodegradable, which means they can be consumed and bro"en down by organisms. 3owever, even biodegradable materials can cause pollution. )n fact, too much organic matter in wastewater can be devastating to receiving waters.

Barge amounts of biodegradable materials are dangerous to la"es, streams, and oceans because organisms use dissolved oxygen in the water to brea" down the wastes. This can reduce or deplete the supply of oxygen in the water needed by a uatic life, resulting in fish "ills, odors, and overall degradation of water uality. The amount of oxygen organisms need to brea" down wastes in wastewater is referred to as the biochemical oxygen demand >B#D? and is one of the measurements used to assess overall wastewater strength.

Some organic compounds are more stable than others and cannot be uic"ly bro"en down by organisms, posing an additional challenge for treatment. This is true of many synthetic organic compounds developed for agriculture and industry. )n addition, certain synthetic organics are highly toxic. )nsecticides and herbicides are toxic to humans, fish, and a uatic plants and often are disposed of improperly in drains or carried in stormwater. )n receiving waters, they "ill or contaminate fish, ma"ing them unfit to eat. They also can damage processes in treatment plants. Ben+ene and toluene are two toxic organic compounds found

in some solvents, pesticides, and other products. !ew synthetic organic compounds are being developed all the time, which can complicate treatment efforts.

4athogens 5any disease*causing viruses, parasites, and bacteria also are present in wastewater and enter from almost anywhere in the community. These pathogens often originate from people and animals who are infected with or are carriers of a disease. 1or example, graywater and blac"water from typical homes contain enough pathogens to pose a ris" to public health. #ther li"ely sources in communities include hospitals, schools, farms, and food processing plants.

Some illnesses from wastewater*related sources are relatively common. Hastroenteritis can result from a variety of pathogens in wastewater, and cases of illnesses caused by the parasitic proto+oa Hiardia lambia and 8ryptosporidium are not unusual in the 2.S. #ther important wastewater*related diseases include hepatitis A, typhoid, polio, cholera, and dysentery. #utbrea"s of these diseases can occur as a result of drin"ing water from wells polluted by wastewater, eating contaminated fish, or recreational activities in polluted waters. Some illnesses can be spread by animals and insects that come in contact with wastewater. /ven municipal drin"ing water sources are not completely immune to health ris"s from wastewater pathogens. Drin"ing water treatment efforts can become over*whelmed when water resources are heavily polluted by wastewater. 1or this reason, wastewater treatment is as important to public health as drin"ing water treatment.

4ossible level of pathogen in wastewater Type of pathogen Iiruses= Name of pathogen Enteroviruses2 Possible concentration per litre in municipal wastewater1 $%%%

Bacteria=

4roto+oa= 3elminths=

4athogenic E. coli3 Salmonella spp. Shigella spp. Vibrio cholerae Entamoeba histolytica Ascaris Lumbricoides 3oo"worms' Schistosoma mansoni Taenia saginata Trichuris trichiura

.%%% ,%%% ,%%% (%%% '$%% A%% .E ( (% (E%

Solids Solid materials in wastewater can consist of organic and@or inorganic materials and organisms. The solids must be significantly reduced by treatment or they can increase B#D levels when discharged to receiving waters and provide places for microorganisms to escape disinfection. They also can clog soil absorption fields in onsite systems. The amount of solids in the wastewater affects the septic tan" si+e and the fre uency for pumping out the septic tan". 4roper solids analysis is important for the control of biological and physical wastewater treatment processes and assess compliance with effluent uality limits.

Total solids D The term applied to the residue left after evaporationG it includes the total suspended solids and total dissolved solids. Suspended solids D The portion of wastewater that, when passed through a filter, remains on the filter. 5aterials that resist settling may remain suspended in wastewater. Suspended solids in wastewater must be treated, or they will clog soil absorption systems or reduce the effectiveness of disinfection systems. Dissolved solids D The portion of wastewater that, when passed through a filter, does not remain on the filter. Small particles of certain wastewater materials can dissolve li"e salt in water. Some dissolved materials are consumed by microorganisms in wastewater, but others, such as heavy metals, are difficult to remove by conventional treatment. /xcessive amounts of dissolved solids in wastewater can have adverse effects on the environment. Settable solids D 8ertain substances, such as sand, grit, and heavier organic and inorganic materials, settle out from the rest of the wastewater stream during the preliminary stages of treatment. #n the bottom of settling tan"s and ponds, organic material ma"es up a biologically active layer of sludge that aids in treatment.

6nowing the amount of settable solids in the wastewater provides information on how much sludge will be created in the septic tan".

1ixed solids D The term applied for the residue >total, suspended, or dissolved? that is left after igniting a dried sample. The weight loss on ignition is called volatile solids.

/ach type of solids is processed differently, so it is essential to understand the distinction amongst the various types. Settable and some suspended solids are usually removed by filtration or settling. #ther suspended solids and dissolved solids are treated by biological processes or chemical precipitation. Some dissolved solids may pass through an onsite wastewater treatment system intact. Dissolved solids such as metals and chloride can only be removed by distillation or reverse osmosis.

8omposition of Typical 0esidential 2ntreated Wastewater

Constituent Total Solids Dissolved 1ixed Iolatile Suspended 1ixed Iolatile Settable B#D$ T#8 8#D Total !itrogen #rganic Ammonia !itrite !itrate Total 4hosphorous

Unit mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B

Range .%%*(E%% E$%*:$% ($%*$$% (%%*.%% (%%*'%% .%*(%% ,%*.%% $%*E%% (%%*'%% (%%*'%% E%%*(,%%% ($*9% $*'% (%*$% % % $*E%

Typical ,%% $%% ($% ($% EE% ,% ($% (%% E$% E$% $%% '% E$ E$ % % (E

#rganic )norganic 8hloride Sulfate Al"alinity Hrease Total 8oliform I#8s

mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B mg@B colonies@(%% mB Jg@B

(*$ $*($ .%*:$ E%*A% $%*E%% $%*($% (%A*(%: (%%*'%%

E (% $% ($ (%% (%% (%, E$%

3.3 )mportant Wastewater 8haracteristics

)n addition to the many substances found in wastewater, there are other characteristics that system designers and operators use to evaluate wastewater. 1or example, color, odor, and turbidity of wastewater give clues about the amount and type of pollutants present and treatment necessary. The following are some other important wastewater characteristics that can affect public health and the environment, as well as the design, cost, and effectiveness of treatment.

Temperature

The temperature of wastewater is usually higher than that of the water supply because of the addition of warm water from domestic use. Wastewater temperature is important for two reasons= >(? biological processes are temperature dependent and >E? chemical reactions and reaction rates and a uatic life are all temperature sensitive. The best temperatures for wastewater treatment range from ,, to 9$ K1. )n general, biological treatment activity accelerates in warm temperatures and slows in cool temperatures but extreme hot or cold can stop treatment processes altogether. 1or example, aerobic digestion and nitrification stop when temperatures rise to (EE K1G and when temperatures fall below .A K1, virtually all biological activity becomes dormant. Therefore, some systems are less effective during cold weather and some may not be appropriate for very cold climates. Wastewater temperature also affects receiving waters. 3ot water, for example, which is a byproduct of many manufacturing processes, can be a pollutant. When discharged in large uantities, it can raise the temperature of receiving streams locally and disrupt the natural balance of a uatic life.

p3

The acidity or al"alinity of wastewater affects both treatment and the environment. The p3 is actually the measure of the inverse concentration of hydrogen ions and is a logrithmic scale. As p3 values lower, it indicates increasing acidity, while a high p3 indicates al"alinity >a p3 of , is neutral?. The p3 of wastewater needs to remain between A and 9 to protect beneficial organisms. Acids, cleaning agents, and other substances that alter p3 can inactivate treatment processes when they enter wastewater.

Hases

8ertain gases in wastewater can cause odors, affect treatment, or are potentially dangerous. 5ethane gas, for example, is a byproduct of anaerobic biological treatment >found in septic tan"s? and is highly combustible. Special precautions need to be ta"en near septic tan"s, manholes, treatment plants, and other areas where wastewater gases can collect. 3ydrogen sulfide and ammonia gases can be toxic and pose asphyxiation ha+ards. Ammonia as a dissolved gas in wastewater also is dangerous to fish. Both gases emit odors, which can be a serious nuisance. 2nless effectively contained or minimi+ed by design and location, wastewater odors can affect the mental well*being and uality of life of residents. )n some cases, odors can even lower property values and affect the local economy.

1low

Whether a system serves a single home or an entire community, it must be able to handle fluctuations in the uantity and uality of wastewater it receives to ensure proper treatment is provided at all times. Systems that are inade uately designed or hydraulically overloaded may fail to provide treatment and allow the release of pollutants to the environment. To design systems that are both as safe and as cost*effective as possible, engineers must estimate the average and maximum >pea"? amount of flows generated by various sources. Because extreme fluctuations in flow can occur during different times of the day and on different days of the wee", estimates are based on observations of the minimum and maximum amounts of water used on an hourly, daily, wee"ly, and seasonal basis. The possibility of instantaneous pea" flow events that result from several or all water*using appliances or fixtures being used at once also is ta"en into account. The number, type, and efficiency of all water*using fixtures and appliances at the source are factored into the estimate >for example, the number and amount of water normally used by faucets, toilets, and washing machines?, as is the number of possible users or units that can affect the amount of water used >for example, the number of residents, bedrooms, customers, students, patients, seats, or meals served?. According to studies, water use in many homes is lowest from about midnight to $ a.m., averaging less than one gallon per person per hour, but then rises sharply in the morning around A a.m. to a little over . gallons per person per hour. During the day, water use drops off moderately and rises again in the early evening hours. Wee"ly pea" flows may occur in some homes on wee"ends, especially when all adults wor" during the wee". )n 2.S. homes, average water use is approximately '$ gallons per person per day, but may range from .$ to A% gallons or more. 4ea" flows at stores and other businesses typically occur during business hours and during

meal times at restaurants. 0ental properties, resorts, and commercial establishments in tourist areas may have extreme flow variations seasonally. /stimating flow volumes for centrali+ed treatment systems is a complicated tas", especially when designing a new treatment plant in a community where one has never existed previously. /ngineers must allow for additional flows during wet weather due to inflow and infiltration of extra water into sewers. /xcess water can enter sewers through lea"y manhole covers and crac"ed pipes and pipe ;oints, diluting wastewater, which affects its overall characteristics, and increasing flows to treatment plants sometimes by as much as three or four times the original design load.

4.

Testing and 5easuring Wastewater

System operators, designers, and regulatory agencies use tests to evaluate the strength of wastewater and the amount of treatment re uired, the uality of effluent at different stages of treatment, and the uality of receiving waters at the point of discharge. Tests also determine whether treatment is in compliance with state, local, and federal regulations. )n small communities, operators and health officials often are trained to collect samples and perform some or all wastewater tests themselves. An option that sometimes is more economical for small systems is to send samples away to a lab for testing. The following are a few important tests=

TSS D total suspended solids

)n addition to B#D, estimating the amount of suspended solids in wastewater helps to complete an overall picture of how much secondary treatment is li"ely to be re uired. )t also indicates wastewater clarity and is important for assessing the potential impact of wastewater on the environment. After large solids are removed in primary treatment, TSS is measured as the portion of solids retained by a E.%*micron filter. 0efer to the Table E for some typical TSS amounts.

T8 and 18 D total coliforms and fecal coliforms

8oliform tests are useful for determining whether wastewater has been ade uately treated and whether water uality is suitable for drin"ing and recreation. Because they are very abundant in human wastes, coliform bacteria are much easier to locate and identify in wastewater than viruses and other pathogens that cause severe diseases. 1or this reason, coliform bacteria are used as indicator organisms for the presence of other, more serious pathogens. Some coliforms are found in soil, so tests for fecal coliforms are considered to be the most reliable. 3owever, tests for both total coliforms and fecal coliforms are commonly used. There are two methods for determining the presence and density of coliform bacteria. The membrane filter >51? techni ue provides a direct count of colonies trapped and then cultured. The multiple tube fermentation method provides an estimate of the most probable number >54!? per (%% milliliters from the number of test tubes in which gas bubbles form after incubation.

Dissolved #xygen

)ntroduction= Bi"e solids and li uids, gases can dissolve in water. And, li"e solids and li uids, different gases vary greatly in their solubility. 1or example, how much can dissolve in water. A solution containing the maximum concentration that the water can hold is said to be saturated. #xygen gas, the element which exists in the form of #E molecules, is not very water soluble. A saturated solution at room temperature and normal pressure contains only about 9 parts per million of D.#. by weight >9 mg@B?. Bower temperatures or higher pressures increase the solubility, and vice versa.

Significance= Dissolved oxygen is essential for fish to breathe. 5any microbial forms re uire it, as well. The oxygen bound in the water molecule >3E#? is not available for this purpose, and is in the wrong Coxidation stateC, anyway. The low solubility of oxygen in water means that it does not ta"e much oxygen*consuming material to deplete the D.#. As mentioned before, the biodegradation products of bacteria which do not re uire oxygen are foul*smelling, toxic, and@or flammable. Sufficient D.#. is essential for the proper operation of many wastewater treatment processes. Activated sludge tan"s often have their D.#. monitored continuously. Bow D.#.-s may be set to trigger an alarm or activate a control loop which will increase the supply of air to the tan".

5easurement=

D.#. can be measured by a fairly tric"y wet chemical procedure "nown as the Win"ler titration. The D.#. is first trapped, or CfixedC, as an orange*colored oxide of manganese. This is then dissolved with sulfuric acid in the presence of iodide ion, which is converted to iodine by the oxidi+ed manganese. The iodine is titrated using standard sodium thiosulfate. The original dissolved oxygen concentration is calculated from the volume of thiosulfate solution needed.

5easurements of D.#. can be made more conveniently with electrochemical instrumentation. CD.#. metersC are sub;ect to less interference than the Win"ler titration. 5ost dissolved*oxygen meters may be auto calibrated on site by simply exposing the probe to saturated air and pressing the calibration button. #btain a representative wastewater sample. 4lace the dissolved*oxygen probe into the wastewater sample and record the final value of dissolved*oxygen concentration to the nearest %.( mg@l.

p3

)ntroduction= 5easurement of p3 is one of the most important and fre uently used tests in water chemistry. 4ractically every phase of water supply and wastewater treatment is p3* dependent. At a given temperature the intensity of the acidic or basic character of a solution is indicated by hydrogen ion activity. 5odern instruments and the development of a wide variety of electrode designs have made the measurement of p3 almost as simple and convenient as the measurement of temperature.

Basic Theory= )n general, p3 is a measure of the degree of acidity or al"alinity of a substance. )t-s related to the active acid concentration of a solution by this e uation=

p3 L *log 3F with 3F representing the activity of the hydrogen ions in the solution. !eglecting activity effects, the e uation above reduces to=

p3 L *log M3FN with M3FN representing the concentration of the hydrogen ions in the solution. p3 is sometimes referred to as the power of the hydrogen ion in solution. Thus, the p3 of the strong acid %.%( molar 38l is e ual to E, since the hydrogen ion concentration is (%*E molar=

p3 L *log (%*E L E

The p3 scale in water usually ranges from % to ('. Although concentrations outside this range can and do exist, they are not generally encountered in practice. The p3 scale is based on the dissociation constant of water. )n pure water, a very small number of molecules react with one another to form hydronium ions >3.#F?, which account for acidic properties, and hydroxide ions >#3*?, which account for the basic properties of an a ueous solution.

E3E# L 3.#F F #3* or for simplicity=

3E# L 3F F #3*

At E$o8, pure water is very slightly ioni+ed and at e uilibrium the acid M3FN and base M#3*N concentrations are e ual, at ( (%*, molar. The product of both concentrations is the dissociation constant 6w= M3FNM#3*N L >(x(%*,?>(x(%*,? L (x(%*('. Because the hydrogen ion concentration e uals ( (%*, molar, the p3 of pure water at is ,. This is referred to as the neutrality point.

5easurement= Although the p3 value of a sample can be determined using colorimetric indicator solutions or indicator papers, the preferred method is potentiometric measurement of hydrogen ions activity using a sensing electrode and a reference electrode. When certain electrodes come in contact with a sample, a potential develops across the membrane surface. The magnitude of the potential as a voltage relates to the concentration of ions. 0efer to the operations manual for calibration instructions specific to the p3 meter in use. A general calibration procedure is given below.

8ommercially prepared buffered calibration solutions are available for p3 values of '.%(, ,.%, and (%.%( standard units. At least two standard solutions are re uired. 8hec" the expiration dates on the buffer solutions to verify that the solutions are still valid for e uipment calibration. 8hoose two buffer solutions that brac"et the expected sample p3. Attempt auto *calibration mode by immersing the p3 electrode in the first solution and pressing the calibrate button. After the reading has stabili+ed, record the value. 0inse electrode with de*ioni+ed water and repeat using the second solution. )f manual calibration is re uired, digitally enter the appropriate p3 values after reading each buffer

solution. Always rinse the end of the p3 probe and blot dry before putting it into a solution. Hently mix the solution with a magnetic stirrer being careful not to cause a lot of surface disturbance. With the meter in measure mode, re*measure and record the values for each solution. Wait for the p3 to stabili+e and then record the reading.

The p3 probe should be stored wet when not in use. The type of storage solution will depend upon the recommendations of the manufacturer and the type of p3 probe. 3owever, in almost all cases a buffer or salt solution is used. Do not use distilled or deioni+ed water as this may dilute the probeOs internal solution.

8hemical oxygen demand >8#D? >#pen 0eflux, 8losed 0eflux, and Titrimetric method?

)ntroduction= The chemical oxygen demand >8#D? is used as a measure of the oxygen e uivalent of the organic matter content of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant. 1or samples from a specific source, 8#D can be related empirically to B#D. The test is useful for monitoring and control after correlation has been established.

The closed dichromate reflux method >chlorimetric method? is preferred over procedures using other oxidants because of superior oxidi+ing ability, applicability to a wide Iarity of samples, and ease of manipulation.

#xidation of most organic compounds is 9$ to (%% & of the theoretical value.

A.

#pen 0eflux method 4rinciple= The open reflux method is suitable for a wide range of wastes with a large sample si+e. The dichromate reflux method is preferred over procedures using other oxidants >e.g. potassium permanganate? because of its superior oxidi+ing ability, applicability to a wide variety of samples and ease of manipulation. #xidation of most organic compounds is up to 9$*(%%& of the theoretical value.

The organic matter gets oxidised completely by potassium dichromate >6E8rE#,? with silver sulphate as catalyst in the presence of concentrated 3ES#' to produce 8#E and 3E#. The excess 6E8rE#, remaining after the reaction is titrated with ferrous ammonium sulphate M1e >!3'?E>S#'?EN. The dichromate consumed gives the oxygen >#E? re uired for oxidation of the organic matter. The chemical reactions involved in the method are as under=

a. E6E8rE#, F : 3ES#' P E 6E S#' F E8rE>S#'?. F : 3E# F .# b. 8A3(E#A F A#E P A8#E F A3E# c. 8rE#,** F A1eFF F ('3F P A1eFFF F E8r.F F ,3E#
B.

8losed reflux >titrimetric and colorimetric? method using 8#D digester

4rinciple= The closed reflux >titrimetric and colorimetric? method using metallic salt reagents are more economical but re uire homogeni+ation of samples to obtain reproducible results. This method is conducted with ampules and culture tubes with pre*measured reagents which are available commercially. 5oreover, for performing the tests, instructions furnished by the manufacturer are to be followed. 5easurement of sample volume and reagent volume are critical. This method is economical in the use of metallic salt reagents and generates smaller uantity of ha+ardous wastes.

The principle of oxidation reaction is similar to open reflux method. Iolatile organic compounds are more completely oxidi+ed in a closed system because of longer contact time with oxidants. Digestion vessels with premixed reagents are also available from commercial suppliers.

)nterference-s and limitations= Q Iolatile straight*chain aliphatic compounds are not oxidi+ed to some extent. This failure occurs partly because volatile organics are present in the vapour space and do not come in contact with the oxidi+ing li uid. Q 8hloride can produce highly interference colour that can be eliminated by adding silver sulphate.

Biochemical oxygen demand >B#D? >#xiTop 5ethod?

)ntroduction= The Biochemical #xygen Demand >B#D? is an empirical standardi+ed laboratory test which measures oxygen re uirement for aerobic oxidation of decomposable organic matter and certain inorganic materials in water, polluted waters and wastewater under controlled conditions of temperature and incubation period. The uantity of oxygen re uired for above oxidation processes is a measure of the test. The test is applied for fresh water sources >rivers, la"es?, wastewater >domestic, industrial?, polluted receiving water bodies, marine water >estuaries, coastal water? and also for finding out the level of pollution, assimilative capacity of water body and also performance of waste treatment plants. The B#D test measures the amount of dissolved oxygen organisms are li"ely to need to degrade wastes in wastewater. This test is important for evaluating both how much treatment wastewater is li"ely to re uire and the potential impact that it can have on receiving waters.

To perform the test, wastewater samples are placed in B#D bottles and are diluted with specially prepared water containing dissolved oxygen. The dilution water is also CseededC with bacteria when treated wastewater is being tested. The amount of dissolved oxygen in the diluted samples is measured using a dissolved oxygen meter, and the samples are then stored at a constant temperature of E% degrees 8elsius >A: degrees 1ahrenheit?. 8ommon incubation periods are five, seven, or twenty daysG five days >or B#D$? is the most common. At the end of the incubation period, the dissolved oxygen is measured again. The amount that was used >expressed in milligrams per liter? is an indication of wastewater strength. 0efer to the Table E for some typical B#D amounts. 1or an in*depth explanation of B#D and testing wastewater, refer to the module 1undamental 5icrobiology of Sewage.

Determination of biodegradability The determination of the biodegradability should be chec"ed before RnewS chemicals are used for the first time, not only for environmental reasons but also to minimi+e disposal charges. The sample and a blan" are stirred at a constant temperature for E: days in closed bottles. The 8#E 4roduced is removed from the gas space by means of an absorber so that the resulting negative pressure is a measure of the biodegradability. The continuous recording of the values in the #xiTop P * 8 means that the re uired documentation can be guaranteed in an optimal manner. The 5easuring bottles and adapters can be autoclaved at E'9.: K 1 >(E( K 8?.

A. Titrimetric method

4rinciple This test measures the oxygen utilised for the biochemical degradation of organic material >carbonaceous demand? and oxidation of inorganic material such as sulphides and ferrous ions during a specified incubation period. )t also measures the oxygen used to oxidi+e reduced forms of nitrogen >nitrogenous demand? unless their oxidation is prevented by an inhibitor. Temperature effects are held constant by performing a test at fixed temperature. The methodology of B#D test is to compute a difference between initial and final Do of the samples incubation. 5inimum (.$ B of sample is re uired for the test. D# is estimate by iodometric titration.

Since the test is mainly a bio*assay procedure, it is necessary to provide standard conditions of temperature, nutrient supply, p3 >A.$*,.$?, ade uate population of microorganisms and absence of microbial*growth*inhibiting substances. The low solubility of oxygen in water necessitates strong wastes to be diluted to ensure that the demand does not increase the available oxygen. A mixed group of microorganisms should be present in the sampleG otherwise, the sample has to be seeded. Henerally, temperature is controlled at E%T8 and the test is conducted for $ days, as ,% to :%& of the carbonaceous wastes are oxidi+ed during this period. The test can be performed at any other temperature provided the correlation between B#D$ E%T8 is established under same experimental condition >for example B#D$, E,T8? is e uivalent to B#D., E,T8? for )ndian conditions. While reporting the results, the incubation period in days and temperature in T8 is essential to be mentioned.

B. 0espirometric method

4rinciple The respirometric method provides direct measurement of #E consumed by microorganisms from an air in a closed vessel under conditions of constant temperature and agitation. The procedure prescribed by the manufacturer should be adopted. This method measures #E upta"e continuously over a specified time. 8ommercially, various types of respirometers are available. 5ost respirometers permit data collection and processing. 0eaction vessel contents are mixed by using a magnetic or mechanical stirring device. All respirometers remove carbon dioxide produced during biological growth by adsorbent within closed reaction chamber.

The measuring principle of R#xitopS control measuring system is as follows= This instrument falls under respirometric measurement of B#D. The sample bottles are filled according to the Rstandard dataS suggested by manufacturer for B#D measuring range with assigned sample volume. The micro*organisms draw oxygen to degrade organic substances from the amount of air remaining in the partially filled closed system. The carbon dioxide formed by this absorbed by !a#3. Due to the reduction in the amount of oxygen, the presence in the bottle sin"s. This change is detected and stored by the measuring head. After the data transfer to the controller, it is used to determine the B#D value. The instruction provided by supplier should by strictly followed. 8omparative performance of conventional titrimetric method and respirometric method should be carried out for precision and reliability of the test before adopting for routine analysis.

Total 6;eldahl !itrogen >5acro*6;eldahl 5ethod?

4rinciple= )n the presence of 3ES#', potassium sulfate >6ES#'?, and cupric sulfate >8uS#'? catalyst, amino nitrogen of many organic materials is converted to ammonium. 1ree ammonia also is converted to ammonium. After addition of base, the ammonia is distilled from an al"aline medium and absorbed in boric or sulphuric acid. The ammonia can be determined colorimetrically, by titration with a standard mineral acid.

Typical domestic wastewater characteristics and treatment re uirements. Constituent B#D$, mg@B TSS, mg@B !itrogen >!?, mg@B 4hosphorus >4?, mg@B weak ((% (%% E% ' medium EE% EE% '% : strong '%% .$% :$ ($ minimum treatment requirements .% .% variable variable

5.

Wastewater Sample 8ollection and Analysis

Accurate testing of drin"ing water is crucial to maintaining the health and safety of environment who rely on this resource. To protect the earth and to detect any possible contamination of water at the earliest possible time, operators of public and private water supply systems and operators

of public and private wastewater treatment facilities should follow the sampling and testing methods outlined in this document. )t is vital that utility operators collect samples for testing in the volumes re uired by the Department of /nvironment, 2nited !ation using the bottles provided by the departmentOs laboratory. 1ailure to follow procedures may lead to tests that are delayed, or possibly refused, and may compromise a utilities ability to show that it is delivering the uality of drin"ing water re uired by law and@or that it is treating the wastewater to acceptable levels prior to release to the environment To ma"e sure that testing is carried out properly, the Department of /nvironment, strongly recommends that this document be "ept in utility offices, with sampling e uipment and in vehicles used to gather water samples. 4roper sampling is the front line in guaranteeing the safety of the customers who rely on water supply systems and wastewater treatment systems. These protocols are based on the re uirements of the /nvironmental 4rotection Act and Drin"ing Water and Wastewater 1acility #perating 0egulations.

5.1 0egulatory 0e uirements

Wastewater Uuality 5onitoring

The regulations specify minimum sampling re uirements for wastewater treatment systems based on system classification. As well, sampling re uirements for wastewater treatment systems may also be stipulated in a 8ertificate of Approval >8#A? issued under Section (A of the /nvironmental 4rotection Act.

The following minimum sampling re uirements apply to a 8lass ) wastewater treatment facility=
o o

8arbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand >cB#D$?, total suspended solids >TSS?, and faecal coliform on a uarterly basis Ammonia >!3.?, total phosphorous >T4? and total nitrogen >T!? on an annual basis

The following minimum sampling re uirements apply to a 8lass )), 8lass ))) or 8lass )I wastewater treatment facility=
o

8arbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand >cB#D$?, Total suspended solids, and faecal coliform on a monthly basis

Ammonia >!3.?, total phosphorous >T4? and total nitrogen >T!? on an annual basis

The regulations also re uire that the utility report summary statistics on effluent uality to their customers at least once a year.

5.2 Wastewater Treatment 4rocess

(.

4reliminary treatment

The ob;ective of preliminary treatment is the removal of coarse solids and other large materials often found in raw wastewater. 0emoval of these materials is necessary to enhance the operation and maintenance of subse uent treatment units. 4reliminary treatment operations typically include grit removal and, in some cases, comminution of large ob;ects. )n grit chambers, the velocity of the water through the chamber is maintained sufficiently high, or air is used, so as to prevent the settling of most organic solids. Hrit removal is not included as a preliminary treatment step in most small wastewater treatment plants. 8omminutors are sometimes adopted to supplement coarse screening and serve to reduce the si+e of large particles so that they will be removed in the form of a sludge in subse uent treatment processes. 1low measurement devices, often standing*wave flumes, are always included at the preliminary treatment stage. i. Hrit removal

4retreatment may include a sand or grit channel or chamber, where the velocity of the incoming sewage is ad;usted to allow the settlement of sand, grit, stones, and bro"en glass. These particles are removed because they may damage pumps and other e uipment. 1or small sanitary sewer systems, the grit chambers may not be necessary, but grit removal is desirable at larger plants. Hrit chambers come in . types= hori+ontal grit chambers, aerated grit chambers and vortex grit chambers.

E.

4rimary treatment

Sewage flows through large tan"s is called Cpre*settling basinsC, Cprimary sedimentation tan"sC or Cprimary clarifiersC )n the primary sedimentation stage. The tan"s are used to settle sludge while grease and oils rise to the surface and are s"immed off. 4rimary settling tan"s are usually e uipped with mechanically driven scrapers that continually drive the collected sludge towards a hopper in the base of the tan" where it is pumped to sludge treatment facilities. Hrease and oil from the floating material can sometimes be recovered for saponification. The ob;ective of primary treatment is the removal of settleable organic and inorganic solids by sedimentation, and the removal of materials that will float >scum? by s"imming. About $% to ,%& of the total suspended solids >SS?, E$ to $%& of the incoming biochemical oxygen demand >B#D$?, and A$& of the oil and grease are removed during primary treatment. Some organic

nitrogen and heavy metals associated with solids are also removed during primary sedimentation. 3owever, colloidal and dissolved constituents are not influenced. The effluent from primary sedimentation units is referred to as primary effluent. .. Secondary treatment

The ob;ective of secondary treatment is the further treatment of the effluent from primary treatment to remove the residual organics and suspended solids. )n most cases, secondary treatment follows primary treatment and involves the removal of biodegradable dissolved and colloidal organic matter using aerobic biological treatment processes. To be effective, the biota re uire both oxygen and food to live. The bacteria and proto+oa consume biodegradable soluble organic contaminants >e.g. sugars, fats, organic short*chain carbon molecules, etc.? and bind much of the less soluble fractions into floc. Secondary treatment systems are classified as fixed* film or suspended*growth systems. V 1ixed*film or attached growth systems include tric"ling filters, bio towers, and rotating biological contactors, where the biomass grows on media and the sewage passes over its surface. The fixed*film principle has further developed into 5oving Bed Biofilm 0eactors >5BB0?, and )ntegrated 1ixed*1ilm Activated Sludge >)1AS? processes. An 5BB0 system typically re uires smaller footprint than suspended*growth systems. V Suspended*growth systems include activated sludge, where the biomass is mixed with the sewage and can be operated in a smaller space than tric"ling filters that treat the same amount of water. 3owever, fixed*film systems are more able to cope with drastic changes in the amount of biological material and can provide higher removal rates for organic material and suspended solids than suspended growth systems. 0oughing filters are intended to treat particularly strong or variable organic loads, typically industrial, to allow them to then be treated by conventional secondary treatment processes. 8haracteristics include filters filled with media to which wastewater is applied. They are designed to allow high hydraulic loading and a high level of aeration. #n larger installations, air is forced through the media using blowers. The resultant wastewater is usually within the normal range for conventional treatment processes. i. Activated Sludge )n the activated sludge process, the dispersed*growth reactor is an aeration tan" or basin containing a suspension of the wastewater and microorganisms, the mixed li uor. The contents of the aeration tan" are mixed vigorously by aeration devices which also supply oxygen to the biological suspension . Aeration devices commonly used include submerged diffusers that release compressed air and mechanical surface aerators that introduce air by agitating the li uid surface. 3ydraulic retention time in the aeration tan"s usually ranges from . to : hours but can be higher with high B#D$ wastewaters. 1ollowing the aeration step, the microorganisms are separated from the li uid by sedimentation and the clarified li uid is secondary effluent. A portion of the biological sludge is recycled to the aeration basin to maintain a high mixed*li uor suspended solids >5BSS? level. The remainder is removed from the process and sent to sludge processing to maintain a relatively constant concentration of microorganisms in the system.

Several variations of the basic activated sludge process, such as extended aeration and oxidation ditches, are in common use, but the principles are similar. ii. 1ilter beds >oxidi+ing beds? A tric"ling filter or biofilter consists of a basin or tower filled with support media such as stones, plastic shapes, or wooden slats. Wastewater is applied intermittently, or sometimes continuously, over the media. 5icroorganisms become attached to the media and form a biological layer or fixed film. #rganic matter in the wastewater diffuses into the film, where it is metaboli+ed. #xygen is normally supplied to the film by the natural flow of air either up or down through the media, depending on the relative temperatures of the wastewater and ambient air. 1orced air can also be supplied by blowers but this is rarely necessary. The thic"ness of the biofilm increases as new organisms grow. 4eriodically, portions of the film -slough off the media. The sloughed material is separated from the li uid in a secondary clarifier and discharged to sludge processing. 8larified li uid from the secondary clarifier is the secondary effluent and a portion is often recycled to the biofilter to improve hydraulic distribution of the wastewater over the filter. iii. 0otating Biological 8ontactors 0otating biological contactors >0B8s? are fixed*film reactors similar to biofilters in that organisms are attached to support media. )n the case of the 0B8, the support media are slowly rotating discs that are partially submerged in flowing wastewater in the reactor. #xygen is supplied to the attached biofilm from the air when the film is out of the water and from the li uid when submerged, since oxygen is transferred to the wastewater by surface turbulence created by the discs- rotation. Sloughed pieces of biofilm are removed in the same manner described for bio filters. 3igh*rate biological treatment processes, in combination with primary sedimentation, typically remove :$ & of the B#D$ and SS originally present in the raw wastewater and some of the heavy metals. Activated sludge generally produces an effluent of slightly higher uality, in terms of these constituents, than bio filters or 0B8s. When coupled with a disinfection step, these processes can provide substantial but not complete removal of bacteria and virus. 3owever, they remove very little phosphorus, nitrogen, non*biodegradable organics, or dissolved minerals.

'.

Tertiary treatment

Tertiary and@or advanced wastewater treatment is employed when specific wastewater constituents which cannot be removed by secondary treatment must be removed. The purpose of tertiary treatment is to provide a final treatment stage to further improve the effluent uality before it is discharged to the receiving environment >sea, river, la"e, wet lands, ground, etc.?. 5ore than one tertiary treatment process may be used at any treatment plant. )f disinfection is practiced, it is always the final process. )t is also called Ceffluent polishing.C i. 1iltration

Sand filtration removes much of the residual suspended matter. 1iltration over activated carbon, also called carbon adsorption, removes residual toxins. ii. Bagooning

Bagooning provides settlement and further biological improvement through storage in large man* made ponds or lagoons. These lagoons are highly aerobic and coloni+ation by native macrophytes, especially reeds, is often encouraged. Small filter feeding invertebrates such as Daphnia and species of 0otifera greatly assist in treatment by removing fine particulates. iii. !utrient removal

Wastewater may contain high levels of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. /xcessive release to the environment can lead to a buildup of nutrients, called eutrophication, which can in turn encourage the overgrowth of weeds, algae, and cyanobacteria >blue*green algae?. This may cause an algal bloom, a rapid growth in the population of algae. The algae numbers are unsustainable and eventually most of them die. The decomposition of the algae by bacteria uses up so much of the oxygen in the water that most or all of the animals die, which creates more organic matter for the bacteria to decompose. )n addition to causing deoxygenation, some algal species produce toxins that contaminate drin"ing water supplies. Different treatment processes are re uired to remove nitrogen and phosphorus. iv. !itrogen removal

The removal of nitrogen is effected through the biological oxidation of nitrogen from ammonia to nitrate >nitrification?, followed by denitrification, the reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. !itrogen gas is released to the atmosphere and thus removed from the water. !itrification itself is a two*step aerobic process, each step facilitated by a different type of bacteria. The oxidation of ammonia >!3.? to nitrite >!#EW? is most often facilitated by !itrosomonas spp. >CnitrosoC referring to the formation of a nitroso functional group?. !itrite oxidation to nitrate >!#.W?, though traditionally believed to be facilitated by !itrobacter spp. >nitro referring the formation of a nitro functional group?, is now "nown to be facilitated in the environment almost exclusively by !itrospira spp. Denitrification re uires anoxic conditions to encourage the appropriate biological communities to form. )t is facilitated by a wide diversity of bacteria. Sand filters, lagooning and reed beds can all be used to reduce nitrogen, but the activated sludge process >if designed well? can do the ;ob the most easily. Since denitrification is the reduction of nitrate to dinitrogen gas, an electron donor is needed. This can be, depending on the wastewater, organic matter >from faeces?, sulfide, or an added donor li"e methanol. The sludge in the anoxic tan"s >denitrification tan"s? must be mixed well >mixture of recirculated mixed li uor, return activated sludge M0ASN, and raw influent? e.g. by using submersible mixers in order to achieve the desired denitrification. Sometimes the conversion of toxic ammonia to nitrate alone is referred to as tertiary treatment.

5any sewage treatment plants use centrifugal pumps to transfer the nitrified mixed li uor from the aeration +one to the anoxic +one for denitrification. These pumps are often referred to as )nternal 5ixed Bi uor 0ecycle >)5B0? pumps. The bacteria Brocadia anammoxidans, is being researched for it-s potential in sewage treatment. )t can remove nitrogen from waste water. )n addition the bacteria can perform the anaerobic oxidation of ammonium and can produce the roc"et fuel hydra+ine from waste water. v. 4hosphorus removal

/ach person excretes between E%% and (%%% grams of phosphorus annually. Studies of 2nited States sewage in the late (9A%s estimated mean per capita contributions of $%% grams in urine and feces, (%%% grams in synthetic detergents, and lesser variable amounts used as corrosion and scale control chemicals in water supplies. Source control via alternative detergent formulations has subse uently reduced the largest contribution, but the content of urine and feces will remain unchanged. 4hosphorus removal is important as it is a limiting nutrient for algae growth in many fresh water systems. >1or a description of the negative effects of algae, see !utrient removal?. )t is also particularly important for water reuse systems where high phosphorus concentrations may lead to fouling of downstream e uipment such as reverse osmosis. 4hosphorus can be removed biologically in a process called enhanced biological phosphorus removal. )n this process, specific bacteria, called polyphosphate*accumulating organisms >4A#s?, are selectively enriched and accumulate large uantities of phosphorus within their cells >up to E% percent of their mass?. When the biomass enriched in these bacteria is separated from the treated water, these biosolids have a high fertili+er value. 4hosphorus removal can also be achieved by chemical precipitation, usually with salts of iron >e.g. ferric chloride?, aluminum >e.g. alum?, or lime. This may lead to excessive sludge production as hydroxides precipitates and the added chemicals can be expensive. 8hemical phosphorus removal re uires significantly smaller e uipment footprint than biological removal, is easier to operate and is often more reliable than biological phosphorus removal. Another method for phosphorus removal is to use granular laterite. #nce removed, phosphorus, in the form of a phosphate*rich sludge, may be stored in a land fill or resold for use in fertili+er.

$.

Disinfection

Disinfection normally involves the in;ection of a chlorine solution at the head end of a chlorine contact basin. The chlorine dosage depends upon the strength of the wastewater and other factors, but dosages of $ to ($ mg@l are common. #+one and ultra violet >uv? irradiation can also be used for disinfection but these methods of disinfection are not in common use. 8hlorine contact basins are usually rectangular channels, with baffles to prevent short*circuiting, designed to provide a contact time of about .% minutes. 3owever, to meet advanced wastewater treatment re uirements, a chlorine contact time of as long as (E% minutes is sometimes re uired for

specific irrigation uses of reclaimed wastewater. The bactericidal effects of chlorine and other disinfectants are dependent upon p3, contact time, organic content, and effluent temperature. A. /ffluent storage

Although not considered a step in the treatment process, a storage facility is, in most cases, a critical lin" between the wastewater treatment plant and the irrigation system. The propose of storage is for= i. To e uali+e daily variations in flow from the treatment plant and to store excess when average wastwater flow exceeds irrigation demandsG includes winter storage. ii. To meet pea" irrigation demands in excess of the average wastewater flow.

iii. To minimi+e the effects of disruptions in the operations of the treatment plant and irrigation system. Storage is used to provide insurance against the possibility of unsuitable reclaimed wastewater entering the irrigation system and to provide additional time to resolve temporary water uality problems. iv. To provide additional treatment. #xygen demand, suspended solids, nitrogen, and microorganisms are further reduced during storage.

,.

0eliability of conventional and advanced wastewater treatment

Wastewater reclamation and reuse systems should contain both design and operational re uirements necessary to ensure reliability of treatment. 0eliability features such as alarm systems, standby power supplies, treatment process duplications, emergency storage or disposal of inade uately treated wastewater, monitoring devices, and automatic controllers are important. 1rom a public health standpoint, provisions for ade uate and reliabile disinfection are the most essential features of the advanced wastewater treatment process. Where disinfection is re uired, several reliability features must be incorporated into the system to ensure uninterrupted chlorine feed.

6.

8onclusion

The chemistry and microbiology of wastewater is reflection of the activities that we engaged in. )ndividual activities in addition to industrial and agricultural inputs are denoted by wastewater produced. Due to scarcity, wastewater is treated and discharged to receiving stream and withdrawn for reuse by downstream population. To ade uately protect public health, the safety of wastewater discharged to a receiving stream must be ensured. 8urrently, one fourth of the worldXs population does not have ade uate access to safe drin"ing water. /ven more do not have access to wastewater treatment facilities. These two facts are interrelated, and we will not achieve safe drin"ing water as long as we ignore the treatment of water once used.