Chapter 3

N/\TURAL GAS TRANSMISSION

..
lnlhi,cllapter,thegeneral flowequatonforcornpressibleflow inapipelinewill be derived
mm basic principIes. Havingobtained the general flow equation, the way in which flow
efficiency is affected by varying different gas and pipeline pararneters will be examined.
ni m:rent flow regirnes in gas transrnission systerns (i.e., partially turbulent and fully
turbulent flow)willbepresented.Sorneofthewidelyusedtransrnission equationsandtheir
applications, advantages, and lirnitations will be outlined.
This will befollowed byadscussion ofpipesin series,pipeline looping,gas velocity,
line packing, pipeline maximurnoperating pressure, and sornepipelinecodeso The impact
01'gas temperature on the flow efficiency and gas temperature profile (Le., heat transfer
fro"1 a buried pipeline andJoule-Thornpson eflects) will bediscussed.
Final/y,sornernajoreconornicaspects andconsiderationsin thedesignoi'gas pipeline
will be presented.
GENERAL IlOW EQUATION - STEADY STATE
.. ;cction,thegeneralflowequation forcornpressiblefluids inapipelineatsteady-state
cOlldltion is derived. Firs. the general Bernoulli equation will be obtained using a force
balance on a segment ofthe pipeline. The Bemoulli equation is then used to derive the
gcrH'ral Ilow equation for cornpressible fluids (natural gas) in apipeline.
,;o!lsiderapipeline thattransports a cornpressible fluid (natural gas)betwecn points 1
alld 1. al steady-statecondition, as shown in Figure 3-1
wherc P =gas density
P gas pressure
A = pipeline cross-sectional area
u gas velocity
al steady-statecondition
dm
o (3 - 1)
dI
wherem is thernassofgasflowingin thepipelineandI istime.Thernassflowrateofgasat
point 1can bedefined as
in PI A
I
!JI
(3 2)
57
58 Pipel ine Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
CD
U U
2
Figure1-1. Steady state flow ofa compressble fluid in apipeline
Likewise, the massflow rate at point 2 is
m= P2 . A
2
U2
It fuen follows that
PI AI 'UI
Ifthe pipe hasaconstant diameter,then
PI . U P2 . U2
or, in general
m=pAu
or
m
= p u
A
p'U e
whereeis a constant.
It s also knownthat
P
v
where ti the gas specific volume
so
u
e (3 3)
v
From Newton's Law of Motion for a particle ofgas moving in a pipeline [see
Figure 3-2(a)]:
dF= a dm
wherea = duldt is the acceleration:
du du dy
dF = . dm = . P .A .dy pA du
dt dt dt
Natural Gas Transmission 59
.... 1
1'"
dy
dm =p.A.dy
(g.,lI ] 2a. Movementofa gas partcJe in a pipeline
and
dv
-=- = u
d!
hercfare
dF = P .A .u .du
In l, S. units,usingtheproportionalityconstantgc, theaboveequaton c0111d bewritten
A A /l
dF = - .u . p. du .du (3 - 4)
ge gc l'
The mpact ofall exsting forces (i.e., pressurc, weight, friction, ctc.) cxcrted on n
partic\e ofgas in a nonhorizontal pipeline [Figure3-2(b)] canbeconsidered as follows:
;hctorcesF andF
2
actingonthegaspartic\edue lohegasprcssure p andP
2
can be
J d t n e ~ LIS:
dF AdP
1
and
The force F3 exertedon the gas due to the weight Wofthe gas particle s
F3 = W sinO'
in differential form
dF dW sinO'
3
wh('fr the weghtofthe gas is
(3 - 5)
60 PipelineDesign and Construction: A Practical Approach
dH
w
Figure 3-2b. Demonstration of all forces acting on a gas particle moving in a nonhorizontal
pipeline
(;, is local acceleration ofgravity)
furthcnnore
dll
sinCl' = ~
dy
whcre dI! is thechange in elevation, Uponsubstitution for bothdWand sin
df\ = gL ,A .p .dH
(3 ~ 6a)
gc
or
gL A
dF] = -- .- .dH (3 6b)
gc v
Fnally, the metionforce is definedas:
dF
4
= ?T .D .dy .T (3 - 7)
where ?TDdy is the surface areaand T is the shearstress.
The summationofall the forees actingon the elernent ofthe gas shouId be equal to
zero, therefore:
A U gL A
. du +AdP +- .- dH +?TDdy .T O (3 - 8)
gc V gc V
_ . ~ . ~ -
Natural Gas Transmission 61
Thi; is the general fonn of the Bemoulli equation. In most cases, t is assumed that the
nll values of gL and gc are egual. Then
A u A
~ . . du + Ad? + - dH + 7rDdv . T
gc V V '
O (3 9)
Muaiply both sides by v/A:
1 7rDdyv
- . udu + vd? + dH + --. T
gc A
= O (3 10)
,V!lli . /u = kinetic energy; vdP= pressure energy; dH = potential energy; (7rDdyx vIA)T =
h;, " lf Iosses
]'1lr friction tenn or losses created by moving a fluid in a pipeline is defined by the
i equation as follows:
2
2fu . dL
dFFannng
(3 - 11)
gc D
w/,;n; u average gas velocity
friction factor
n pipeline diameter
L pipeline length
Substituting the Fanning equation for Iosses in the general energy equation will
n':.'>l.dl :n
2{u
2
. udu + vd? + dH + -'-- . dL O (3 - 12)
ge gc . D
iding both sides of the eguation by v
2
:
(3 13)
'e final fonn of the equaton can be obtaned by integrating each tenn, assuming
u/v'" nllA = C == constant.
Kinetic Energy Term
j
2 ~ . u
2
. du
I gc V
2
j
~ ~ . du
1 gc V V
since
l!.=C
v
62 Pipeline Design and Construction:A Practical Approach
smce
u
v=
e
then
Kinetic energy
Pressure Energy T erm
J
2 dP 2
= pdP
IVI
From the real gas law
PV nZRT
whcrc Z is thecomprcssibility factor ofthe gasand R is the gas constantfor
m
n
and
m
p=-V
lhc equation for the density ofagas is:
PM
p
ZRT
wheTe M is the average mole!?ular weight ofthe gas.
AfteT substitution ioto IL pdP
2

Pl..l .dP
,ftvf J2
Zave . R .T I PdP
ZR T ave
M
Zave . R .T
ave
2
wheTe T
ave
, is defined as follows:
(3 14)
(3 - 15)
(3 16)
(3 - 17)
Natural GasTransmission 63
'"
lo.
~ O 6
.E
,...
J5
';
..
.,
l5.0.5
'"
,...
...
:c;
';;
~
Q.
E E
o o
Figure 3-3. Compressibility factor for natural gases [Katz et al., 1959 Handbook of Gas
Engneenng,reproduced with perrnssion from McGraw-HillCo.}
(Ti and T
2
are theupstream anddownstream gastemperatures)andP
ave
is obtainedbased
ontherelation l PdP:
u u
._1.0
___---0.9
8 12 14 15
Pseudo reduced pressure
Pave
64 Pipelne Desgn and Construction: A Practical Approach
or
P
avc
= ~ [PI + P2 - ; ~ ~ J
(3 - J8)
(Pj and P2 are the upstream and downstream gas pressures).
Having obtained T
aye
and P
ave
for the gas, the average compressibility factor, or
Zave, can be obtained for lean sweet natural gases with an excellent accuracy using
Kay's rule and compressibility factor charts. The Z factor can also be calculated with
one of the widely used equations of state, such as AGA-8. BWRS, RK, SRK, or any
other such formula.
ro calculate Zave for a natural gas using Kay's rule, T
aye
and P
ave
ofthe gas are needed,
and also pseudocritical pressure and temperature oftlte natural gas. Pseudocritical values
can be obtained with Kay's rule as folIows:
T ~ TCA ' YA + Tes' Ys + Tcc ' Yc + ...
(3 19)
P ~ = PCA . YA + P
CB
.YB + P
ce
. Yc + ... (3 - 20)
where Tel = average pseudocritical temperature of the gas
Pe' := average pseudocritical pressure of the g'!s
T(:A, T
eB
, T
ee
,. critical temperature of each component
PeA, PeB, P
ec
,. = critica! pressure of each component
YA, YB, Ye, mole fraction of each component
Finally, pseudoreduced pressure and temperature can be obtained as follows:
P aye
Pr
I
-
_
(3 - 21)
and
Tave
(3 22)
T ~
The values of Pr' and T/ can be used in compressibility factor charts to calculate Zave
(as shown in Figure 3-3).
I
Example 3.1
I
What is the compressibility factor for a natural gas with the following analysis at 1,000 psia
and 100F?
l
Gas
COMPONENT Mole %
85
10
5
Using Kay's rule to calculate pseudocritical properties (see Table 3-1):
P ~ P
CA
' r4 + P
eB
. Y
B
+P
ee
. Y
c
+
T ~ = T
C4
. YA + T
CB
' f
B
+ T
cc
. fc+
P ~ = 666 x 0.85 +707 x 0.10 + 617.4 x 0.05 = 667.67 pSIa, pseudocritical pressure
Natural GasTransmission 65
= 343.3 x 0.85 +549.8 x 0.10+666.0 x 0.05
= 380.085R pseudocritical temperature
, P
a
\'(' 1 ,000
P
r
=F{ =667.67 = 1.498
, T\\e 460+100
1.474
Te = =-380.085
usingthe appropriatechart(seeFigure 3.3), whichcovers both the p/ and range valuc,
Zave 0= 0.85 is obtained.
Themodelmentioned aboyeforthecalculationofthecompressibility factorisaquick
and accurate model for dry and sweet natural gases, and is most suitable for hand
calculations. In arge gas transmssion networks with hundreds ofpipe segments, while
dividing each pipe into smalIersegments to considertemperaturechanges in the pipeline,
this modeI becomes a cumbersome and time-consuming procedure to calculate the
compressibility factor. For these networks, where all simulations are automated, apply
accurateequationsofstate to calculatethecompressibility factor. Thereareaargenumber
of equations of state that are suitable for a limited range (depending on pressure,
temperature, and gas composition),but coulddeviate to produce inaccurate resuIts ifused
without these considerations. One such equation, which is commonly used in gas
transmission systems and has a proven accuracy ofbetter than 0.3% for compressbility
lactor, isanAGAequationgivcnbyStarlingandSavage(1994).Thisequationcoversmost
ofthe existing pressure and tcmperaturc rangesused in gas transmission Iines. For further
informationondifferentequationsofstate(e.g.,forgasescontainingH
2
SamiCOl) referto
(Campbell elal., 1994).
(,I\BlE 3-1. Critical propertes ofconstituents ofnatural gas (Courtesy Campbell Petroleum
Series)
Critical TE'mperaturE' Critical PrE'ssurE'
..-
('ompound MolecularWeight R K psia MPa
.._ ..__....
C
I
16.043 343 191 666 4.60
C
2
30.070 550 305 707 4.8&
C, 44.0n 666 370 617 4.25
iC
4 58.124 734 408 528 3.65
ne. 58.124 765 425 551 3.80
iC
s
72.151 829 460 491 3.39
nC
s
72.151 845 470 489 3.37
nC
6
86.178 913 507 437 3.01
nC
7
100.205 972 540 397 2.74
114.232 1,024 569 361 2.49
nCq 128.259 1.070 595 332 2.29
nCjO 142.286 1,112 618 305 2.10
nC
I
156.302 1,150 639 285 1.97
nC2 170.338 1,185 658 264 1.82
N
2
28.016 227 126 493 3.40
CO
2
44.010 548 304 1,071 7.38
H
2
S 34.076 672 373 1,300 8.96
O
2
32.000 278 155 731 5.04
Hz 2.016 60 33 188 1.30
H
2
0 18.015 1,165 647 3,199 22.06
Air 28.960 238 132 547 3.77
He 4.000 9 5 33 0.23
.----.. __ ..
66 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
Potential Energy T erm
lntegration of the potential energy tenn of Equation (3-13) will result in:

2dH 2 2 /2 (P' /vl) 2

. = p dH = -_.. d1/ (3 - 23)
1 1'2 I . 1 ZRT
where 8.H 1/
2
HI '
There is no simp.le mathematical relationship between e1evation change, gas
pressure and gas temperature, so the relationship (P2,M
2
/Z
2
.R
2
,T
2
) can be taken
out of the integral in the fonn of average values whik maintaining reasonable
accuracy.
Friction Loss Term
The integral of the energy losses can be evaluated as follows:
(3 - 24)
where L is the pipeline length.
The general tOrm of the flow equation is obtained by adding all the terms together and
setting them equal to zero
o (3 25)
The aboye equation ean be further simplit1ed ifthe kinetie energy tcon is neglectcd (tor
almost atl high-pressure gas transmission lines, the contribution ofthe kinetic energy term
compared to the other tenns is insignificant). Therefore
Al (2
P (3 26)
2RZ;vp Ta,." 2
The aboye equation ean be even further simplified upon the following substi-
tutions:
m 2 1fD
2
A=- a pipe e
A
e (;)2
4 '
for
Moreover, the gas relationship at a base or standard eondition is
Pb Qb
where Qb is the volumetrie gas flow.
Ir
and
Natural Gas Transmission 67
.2
m
hen
Uas gravity s defined as
G
whclC /l4."ir'::::; 29.
t fp(111 substitution and rearrangement to solve for C, Equation (3-26) would be
2 7 {2 ...2 5
2 . R . g z r PI 1"2 R. T .Z D
Qb = ....::._c b b 1 &.. ave
(3 27)
32 . T - 58Z ' T G . L . 1
ave ave
By fa king the square root 'of Qb, the general flow equation ofnatural gas in a pipeline is
"
- P; - VI 2.5
_____=--.....c.:.:.,,---. - . D
(3 28)
Zave . Tu"" . G . L 1
1; 1bove equation can be used in Imperial or S.L units; for any size or length of pipe;
1, 1; ar, partially turbulent or fully turbulent flow; and for low, medium, or high-
. ,\/stems.
ution 01Parameters (Imperial Units):
Q" gas flow rate at base conditions, MMSCFD or MCF/HR
g( proportionality constant, 32.2 (lb
m
x ftIIbrx sec
2
)
/. -; compressibility factor at base condition Zb ,::::; I
r temperature at base condton, 520
0
R
F" pressure at base condition, 14.7 psia
P, = gas inlet pressure to the pipeline, psi a
P2 gas exit pressure, psia
G gas gravity, dimensionless
= elevation change, ft
P
ave
average pressure, psi a
R= gas constant, 10.73, (psiaxft
3
llb molesxOR)
average temperature, eR
Zave compressibility factor at P
ave
, T
ave
, dimensionless
L = pipeline length, ft or miles
f = fuction coefficient, dimensionless
r;

\;,1 transmission factor, dimensionless

. V J
D = inside diameter of the pipeline, inch
j
I
i
O"
ce

-o
-o
:2.

O
ro
U'\
0;5'
::J
llJ
::J
o...
d
::J
U'\
......
....
e
("
.-
o'
::J
>-
TABLE 3-2. Formulas and transmission actors or commonly used flow equations (Courtesy JGT)
'"O
llJ "'"
Equation Formula
a
Transmissjon Factor ("

::;.
Fritzsche
b
Q, 1720(k)
llJ
5.145

-o
.!og( 37t) .
-o
a
llJ
("
Turbulent Q, "" 0.4696 4 log (3. 7Dlk
e
) :;-
Panhandle B Q, 2.431
16.49(R,,)oOI%1
Colebrook-White Q, =0.4696 D" -410g(&+ I
10TDistribution Q, 0.6643
4.6!9 (R,,)o 100
Mueller Q, = 0.4937
3.35 (Re)OIlU
.._-_.---=-..
l
Panhandlc A b 'T)
Q, 6.872
Pipe Diameter, (in.)
ce
Pipe Diameter, (in.)
Pole Q,
3i4 to I 1.732 3/4 lo 1 956
1 1 '4 to 1 1'2 1.905 1 1/4 to I 1/2 10.51
2 2.078 2 11.47
3 2.252 3 1243
4 2.338 4 12.90
Q )1)0

SpJtzglass (Hgh Pressure)d Qh 3415
Sptzglass (Low Pressure)d Q/, 3.550
Weymouth Q, = 1.3124 11.19 D!"
z
, The units 01' the quantities in all ofthese equations are: D in, h, in. WC; L tl; P" P
2
, P
b
pSla; Q MCF:nr; J = Ibmift sec; and Tr, h R,

c:
b The constants 1.720 and 2450 include: ji 7.0 x 10'" lbm/f sec . ...,
e lncludcs: P
b
= 14,73 psia; T
h
492'R; and T
r
= 500'R.

d The constants 3.415 and 3.550 indudc: Ph 14.7 psia; T 520 R; and TI 520'R. ['
!l)
Vl
-!
-<
!l)
:::l
Vl
:::l
-'
Vl
Vl
(5'

:::l
C'
\.t:)
\,..
l
70 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practica I Approach
Equation (3-28) can be written in the following form, taking all constants as e',
therefore
(3 - 29)
In transmission lines, ifthe pipeline is horizontal or MI i8 insignificant compared to
the value of - or
2
2 2)) SBG . 6.H . P ave
P -- P
1 2 R T ave . Z ave '
then the elevation term can be omitted and Equation (3-29) becomes:
Q c. __.
(3 30)
. b Zave . r
ave
. G . L YJ
The aboye equation shows the efTect of jj and D on the flow _of gas in a pipeline. The
expression IJ is the transmission factor and is an important para meter that represents the
transmissivity of gas in a pipeline. Diameter is another major factor in pipeline design; it
can be seen that ifthe diameter ofthe pipeline is doubled, the gas flow rate will be increased
by (2)25 5.66 times.
This demonstrates the importance of considering possible future expansions when
selecting pipeline diameter. For example, if a 20 inches gas pipeline is changed to a 30
inches pipeline, gas flow rate is increased by almost 2.756 times, assuming the remaining
parameters are constant.
Unlike liquids, Equation (3-30) shows that a system operating at a lower temperature
results in higher flows or lower pressure drops. I!1 contrast, higher temperatures will
increase the gas viscosity, which will reduce fue flow capacity of the pipeline. The impact of
other parameters, such as G and Z, will be discussed Jater.
Considering the previous equation (3-30), Ql; can be calculated as
Q
2 C,,2. 15
b ---'---=--- . . D
. TaV<' . G . L f
Rearranging the equation:
2 2 . 2 1 f
PI P2 = Qh . e
2
' (Zave . Tave . G L) .
or in general
(3 31)
where PI pipeline inlet pressure
P
2
== pipeline exit pressure
K == pipeline total resistance. K == RxL, where R is resistance per foot of pipeline
and L is the length of pipeline in feet
Qb gas flow rate at base condition
n gas flow exponent (having values between 1.74 and 2)
Natural Gas Transmission 71
TABLE 3",3. Common flow equation resistance f,lCtorS (Courtesy IGTJ
Flow-Rate Exponent
Ilesistance Factor for Simplifiedflow
[qu.aliOtl (perfooWb,c
---'_.. .. ..
Equation
Fntzschc
4.82 x 10'4 1J(;0859
Ul6
Flllly Tumulent (AGA) 3.639 x 10-
3
8GZ
avg
I (Iog ,UDKJl 2.00
Panhandle B 1.405 X
10-
4
TZsvgGO%1 ! /)4961
1.961
Colebrook White 3.li39 x BGZ
avg
! (log(K,.l3.7D + 1.4126FIRe2 2.00
IGT Distribution 3.418 x
10-
3
T(GO
SO
l20/ D4.80
UO
[vIuclkr 6,922 X
10-
3
T
f
G
on9
10261 / D
4
.
73Q
1.74
Panhandlc NI 2.552 x
10.
4
TI z. cf>R55 / D 4856
1,855
vg
Palee G C
2
D
5
2,00
Spitzglass 8,575 X 10-
2
(1 + 3.6 I D + 0,03D)GID
5
2.00
rligh-Pn:':::,,,rJ'
:-'pilLglass 7,935 x 10-
2
(1 + 3.6 / D + 0,03D) GIIY 2,00
Low-Pressure
f
10-
4
Weyrnoutll 4.659 x 2.00

, Thefollowingstandardcondiltons areincludedin Ihe constantunlcssolhern';scspccificd: T.
h JI
, /, )05
d C",,:,I;1nt indudcs: 7.0 x 10,6 Ib",/fl sec.
e V"iI",.'. (,1' ecan be obtalOcd Irom Tab1e 3,2.
1 C'l(';!' 11 neludes: P
b
14.7 psia; Te 520 'R; and T 520 "R
11: aboye equation, K and n have different values dependng 011 the type of
,\ 1 l)fdifferent pipelineequatons, together with the pipeline resistance and flow
exponent, is given in IGT's "Gas Distribution Horne Shldies Course" (Wilson et. al.
1991).
I
.MPACl'ur MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND COMPRESSIBILlTY
iACTOR ON FLOW CAPACITY \
1
Thegeneral flow equaton for a horizontal pipe(Equation 3-30)indicates thatthe pipeline
flow capacity is proportiooal to ,fi7az. This relationship showsthat lighter natural gas
with ahigherpercentage ofrnethane, and heoce lowergas gravity,exhibits a higher flow
capacity. lo this situation, the compressibility factor Zwill also behigh (close to unity).
However, when heavier hydrocarbons (e 2+) are introduced, the gas gravity begins to
increase, which decreases the valueofJI /G. yetthe presence ofheavier hydrocarbons
also reduces thevalueofZ, henceincreasing JI/Z,
The overall impact on JI/GZ is detennined by the rate at which Z is reduced
when C1+ are added. Ths rate is not only affected by gas cornposition, but also by
pressure and temperature conditions. Figure 3-4 shows the change in Z over a range
of different temperatures and pressures (base condition is 100% rnethane), At
fHC:;;illlt.:" in the range of 1,350-2,149 psia, the decrease in Z balances the increase
72 PipelineOesign and Construction: A PracticaIApproach
0.9..,.-----,----,...------,---.......----,------------,
N
0.4 +----+----+---+---+-----.-----ii-----i-----l
0.7
0.5
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Ethane, mole %
Figllre 3-4. Compressibility factor larmethane-ethanemixtures al 35FfWciss 1998]
in G, whch means that thc overall value of Jl/GZ s changed very Httle.
However, at pressures exceedng 2,140 psa, the hgher rate ofZ reduction results in
an overall increase of T/GZ. Likewise, at pressures bclow 1,350 psia, the dccrcase
in Z is relativcly nsignificant, so JI! GZ tends to decrease. For operating pressures
between XOO and 2,140 psia, it is recommendcd that careful analysis be perforrnedto
condude how the flow capacity will he affected by the addition ofcthanc or heavicr
hydrocarhons.
,
Figure3-5 shows the way in which flow capacity, 1/GZor J 1/MZ, responds as
a functon ofmole perccnt ofethane added to methane for a range ofpressures on a
li
standard volume bass. Asexpected, the flow decreases when onlya small percentage of
1
cthane is present, and when operating pressures are low. For examp\c, a gas mixture of
25%ethane and 75% mcthane at 800 psia exhibits a reduction in standard volume flow
J
rate of4%. However, at 1,150 psa there 1S no change, and al 1,350 psia, the standard
volume tlow rate is increased by nearly 2%.
1t is very important to rememberthat the bass for almost all pipeline transportation
comparisons is mass orenergy (.e., heating value ofthe natural gas).Therefore,volume
flow capacity snotusualIy thebestmeans to compare two difIerentconditionsand could
sometimes bemisleading.
Figure 3-6 plots mass flow capacty versus ethane percentages (or heavier
hydrocarbons) over a range of operating pressures. This is based on a mass flow
capacity ofQxp where standard density is only a function ofmolecular weight (M),
so if
flow capacity(XV
Natural Gas Transmission 73
12
10
8
6
N

-
.,-'
?-
4
2
O
-2
-4
6
10
.
1 "
---t---
!
;
I r I -_.-
. " " r 1 -
__ --1- l--- I I / ,/ / I .' ,,'
O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Ethane, mole %
Figure 3-5. Standard volume flow capacity for methane-ethane mixture at 35F rWeiss 1998]
-.- BOOpsia
. o 1150psia
---...- 1350 pSia
-v ' 1675 psia
____ 2140 psia
'l'
;+---
I ! I

t ; ,
I I 1 /' i-
<lr
i-- ___ 800 psia
'o - 1150 psia
-....- 1350 psia I I
--v- ' 1675 psia I----+-.---+----r---l-!
--- 2140 psia " " ./
'//
i j
+------_t_
! I
I

l.' t----j-----j

O 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Ethane, mole %
;: ',<MIl' 3-6. Mass flow capacity for methane-ethane mixtures at 35F [Weiss 1998J
74 Pipeline Design andConstruction: APractical Approach
then
fM
mass flow capacitynVZ
On a total energy basis the approximate amount ofenergy that can be transported
with a methane-ethane mixture (or other heavier hydrocarbons) increases at the same
rate as the mass flow capacity increases. Now, if the same case as previously stated
for 25% ethane at 800 psia is consdered, it can be concluded that the heating value
has ncreased by almost 18%. Therefore, the net effect isa 14%mereaseinenergy flow
(i.e., when a 4% decrease in standard volume flow rate is subtracted) orheating value
(Weiss 1998).
FLOW REGIMES
In high-pressuregastrnnsmissionlines withmoderate to highflow rates, twotypesofflow
regimes are normally observed:
Fully Turbulent Flow (RoughPipe Flow)
PartiaIly Turbulent Flow(Smooth Pipe Flow)
The regime offlow is defined by the Reynolds number, which is a dimensionless
expression:
pDu
Re (3 -- 32)
where p fluid density, lb
m
/ft
3
D =pipeline intemaldiameter, ft
u fluid averagevelocity. ft/sec.
Il = fluid viscosity, Ibmlft.scc
For Reynoldsnumbers lessthan 2,000 the flow is normally laminar, orstable. When
the Reynoldsnumberexceeds2,000, the flow is turbulent,orunstable. In high-pressuregas
transmission Iines, only two types offlow regimes are observed: fully turbulent flow and
partially turbulentflow.
Partially Turbulent Flow Regime
PartialIy TurbulentFlow is definedby the Prandtl Von Karman equation as follows:
(3 - 33)
where f =friction factor, dimensionless; and Re Reynoldsnumber, dimensionless.
Thisequation is obtained based on theory and experimentsfor the casein which the
flow is fullyturbulentinthecentralregionofthepipe,withalaminarsublayercoveringthe
interior surfaceofthe pipe.
Equation (3-33) is plotted on a semi-Iog gmph, where the straight line shows the
maximum limitofpartiallyturbulentflow(seeFigure3-7).Al!pointslotheright-hand side
Natural Gas Transmission 75
Partially Turbulent Zone
Fully
Turbulent
Zone
L.________________~ __________________~ ____~ ~
~ L J O ) O 100000 1000000
Re (in LogScale)
Fgllrc3-7. Representatonoffully turbulent/partalJy turbulentzones bythe Prandtl-Von Karman
Equation
IJr the lineexhibit fuJly turbulent flow, and those to theleft side remain partiallyturbuient.
Points located on the lnc are in the transition zonc.
What is the maximum Re number for which a flow regime remains partially turbulent,
given a transmission factor ofVII] = ) 8.
(Jsing the Prandtl - Von Karman Equation:
~ 4log"(~ ) - 06
~ ~ 18,
then
!ogo(Re) = 5.9053
76 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
Re =804,081
Ifthecalculaled Renumberforan achlalpipelinewithtransmission factor 18 exceeds
Ihis value, the flow regime is fully turbulent.
Fully Turbulent Flow Regime
The transmission factor for fully turbulent flow is given by the Nikuradse equation as
follows:
(3 - 34)
~ ~ 4log"[37
where /l7l = transmissionfactor, dimensionless
D pipelineinside diameter, inch
Ke effectiveroughness, inch
K)D = relativeroughness, dimensionless
Thceffectiveroughnessterm Ke is comprisedofthe following tcrms:
Ke Ks + K +Kd (3 - 35)
where K, = surface roughness
K, = nterfacial roughness
Kd roughness due to bends, welds, fittings, etc.
Generally, in high-pressure gas transmission Enes with high flow rates, where the
regime offlow 1S fully turbulent and the natural gas is almost dry, the values ofK and
Kd are negligible compared 10 Ks. Therefore, lhe effective roughness ofthe pipeline is
almost equal 10 the intemal surface roughness ofthe pipe. The value ofK, or Ke is
important in fully turbulent flow because without the laminar sublayer, the surface
roughness oftbe pipe plays an important role in determining the flow and pressure drop
in the pipe.
The Nikuradse equation shows that ifthe effective roughness ofthe pipeline is
increased, thetransmission factordecreasesandresults in higherpressuredrops. However,
by decreasing the value ofKe, higher transmission factors or lower pressure drops are
obtained. Forintemally uncoatedcommercialpipes,whena numberforKeisunavailable,a
value of700 jJ, ioches (microinches 10-
6
inches)may beassumed.
The effective roughness values that are normally measured and used for uncoated
commercial pipes are within the range of650-750 .L inches. Different studies (Golshan
and Narsing 1994) have proven that these valuescould be increased between a range of
30-50 J.L inches per year due to erosion, corrosion, contamination, and other associated
problems, which finally resuIt in higher fuel consumption and compression power
requirementstoovercomethehigherpressuredrops.Anotherwaytoreducetheeffectiveor
surface roughnessofa pipeline is to intemaIly coat the pipes. Materials such as epoxy/
polyamide coatings reduce the surface roughness to within a range of200-300 micro
~ inches. It hasbeenfurtherproven(GolshanandNarsing 1994)thatthe rateof deterioration
forintemallycoatedpipesis muchslowerthanthe uncoatedpipes(i.e., withinthe rangeof
50-75 micro-inches for everyfive years).
Natural Gas Transmsson 77
Some of the benefits of internal coating have been confinned by experimental studies
conducted by various pipeline companies. The amount of reduction in surface roughness
could substantial1y increase the pipeline capacity (a comparison of the etTect 01' the change
of Kc on different transmission equations is presented later in this text)o Another benefit
associated with internal coating is the protection against cOITosion, which is caused by
atmospherc oxidaton during storage or the presence of cOITosivc components in the
transported material during service.
Due to the high cost of internally coating pipelines, the final deesion about whether or
not to coat is essentally an economic one. lt requires a detailed evaluation of the costs and
benefits of internal coating over Ihe projecled life of Ihe pipeline (Asan te 1994).
Simplified Equation for the Calculation of Reynolds Number in Gas
Transmission Systems
As discussed earlier, Reynolds number is defined as:
pD u
Re = ~ . __..
J..
where
Q
u = --...---
/4
therefore
JI . /4
where pQ PbQb at steady-state conditions
4Qh' p"
Re = ~ - - - - (3 - 36)
Ji . T . D
and if
P
b
. Iv!
Zb . R T
h
where the value of Z" ~ one, and Al = 29G
then
29GP"
Re
ji . 7r . D . R . T"
'
suh"tituting i'or - R - 1073 psiaji T - 520 cR P - 14 7
pSla, and
l' b - . Ibmoles."R' b - ,b - .
{I 7.23 X 10-
6
~ - . l l (viscosity nonnally assumed for natural gases);
.see
G
Re = 45 (3 37)
D
wnere Qb gas flow rate, ft3/hr (standard conditions)
G gas gravty, dmensionless
D = inside diameter of the pipe, inches
78 Pipeline Design and Construction:A Practical Approach
This is a simplifed equation that gives the Re numba in tenns of pipeline parameters
with reasonable accuracy. The Re number can be used to check the flow regime of a gas
transmission line.
Example 3.3
What would be the re gime offlow in a 56 inches gas transmission line (ID 54 nehes),
G 0.64, when the gas flow rate is Qb = 1,500,000 rn
3
1hr?
1m
3
35.31 ft?
Re = :!2..:.
1

Re = 28,248,000
assume commercal pipe with Ke = 700 Il inches. Use tbe Nikuradse relationship to
calculate I7!:
jj log[3.7 0.g07J
IJ 21.82
Prandtl - Von Karman equation could now be use<! to find the Re number at the
transition zone, which is:
Re
41og- fi 0.6
Vl
21.82 = 0.6
lop; Re 6.94385
Re 8,787,291
The actua I Re obtained bascd on pipeline propertcs is much larger than 8, 7R7,291, so
the flow regime is ful/y turbulent.
WIDElY USED STEADY-STATE FlOW EQUATIONS
A more simplifico form ofthe general flow equation (3-28) in Imperial Units can be wriUcn
as follows:
1
Y- 2
0.0375G b.H .----""'"--j T .z 2.5
J ave av{' .D
(3 - 38)
Zave . T
ave
. G . L
assuming that the potential energy term is
E= O.0375Gt...H Z (3 - 39)
Tave ' ave
Natural GasTransmission 79
thcn
f
[
]!
T 1 p'- r - E '.5
38 .-. ... 1 2 .o"
(3 40)
. P
h
f Zave .T
a
\(" .G .L
wherc Qb gas tlow rateat base conditions,SCFiD
T
h
temperature at base condition, 520 R
P
h
pressure atbasecondition, ]4.7 psia
IJ transmission factor, dimensionless
PI = gas inlet pressurc, psa
P
2
= gas exit pressure,psia
G= gas gravity, dimensionless
t::.H eJevation change, ft.
P
ave
average pressure, pSIa
T.we avemge temperature, R
Z"ve average compressibility factor, dimensionless
L = pipeline length, miles
D = pipeline insidediameter, inch
lh,'fol1owing are sorneofthemostcornmonandwidelyused flow equations thatare
slJIlahlc xthedesign oflarge-diameter, high-pressure gas transmission Jincs. For further
inlum .! ion, see lGT "Borne Study Course" (Wilson et al. 1991) or IGT "Technical
Rl:;;r( ,)o Steady-Flow in Gas Pipelines."
., ":;'.llent Equations
die A
lile,diltlandleAequation is normally appropriatelormediumto relativelylarge diamctcr
pipelines with modcrate gasflow rate, opcratingunder mediumto high pressure.
" l' delined in Imperial Unitsas
I.OnS)2 2 - ] 0.5394
.0
261
435.83 (T.!!.) [____ '62
(3 - 41)
P GO.8539 1 T Z
b . ave' "ave ..l.
whcrc transmission factor is defined as
(1 0.07305
Vl
(3 42)
=6.872 Re
or
(1 (Q .G)0.07305
\/,-=7211 (3 43)
vi' D
wH:" is in SCFID. AH parameters are thesame as in Equation 3-38.
..
80 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practica! Appmach
AGA Partially Turbulent
The AGA partialIy turbulent equation is highly dependent on the Reynolds number. It s
used for medium-diameter, medium-flow and high-pressure systems
In Imperial Units t s defined as follows:
" 0.5
P; - - E Re 2.5
L AD log __ . D (3 - 44)
[
:l,,, r,,,. . G L1 . L4126V}
where the transmission factor is:
fi Re
(3 - 45)
yr 4 Di .log-:'4;26/J
DI is the drag factor that norrnally appears in partialIy turoulent flow equations and
compensates for the inefficiencies due to the bends, welds, fittings, etc., and has a numerical
value in the range of 0.92 to 0.97. Qb is obtained in SCFlD; all other parameters are the
same as in Equation 3-38.
Fully Turbulent Equations
Panhandle B
The Panhandle B equation is norrnalIy suitable for high-flow-rate, large-diameter (i.e.,
pipes larger than NPS 24), and high-pressure systems. The degree of accuracy depends on
how precisely the pipeline efficiency is measured.
The equation has thc following form in Impcrial Units:
. _ 102 2..J. 0.510
1h) [ PI - 1'2 - E 1 2.53
737.02-- - D (3 - 46)
(
GO.
961
P 1 T Z'
h . .,; ave' .... ave
where the transmission factor is:
r
0.01961
\/-
16.49( Re) (3 47)
vI
or
Q .
16.70 -2_ (3 - 48)
(
D
The efficiency in Panhandle B cquations is defincd as:
Qactual
77 =
(3 -- 49)
Qtheoretcal
wherer could be multiplied in the equation to calculate more accurate values for Qb. Al!
other parameters are the same as in Equation 3-38 and Qb is in SCFID.
Weymouth
The Weymouth equation is norrnalIy used for high-flow-rate, large-diameter, and high-
pressure systems. This equation tends to overestimatc the pressure drop predictions, and
contains a lower degree of accuracy relative to the other equations. Weymouth is commonly
used in distribution networks for the sake of safety in predicting pressure drop.
Natural Gas Transmission 81
TheWeymouth equaron has the following form in Imperial Units:
(3 - 50)
where the transmission factor is defnedas
(3 51)
Q is in SCF/D, and all otherparameters have the sameunitsas in Equation3-38.
AGA Fully Turbulent
TheAGA fully turbulentis the mostfrequently recommendedandwidelyusedequation in
high-pressure, high-flow-rate systemsfor medium- to large-diameterpipelines. It predicts
hoth flow and pressure drop with a high degree ofaccuracy, especially ifthe effective
roughnessvalues used in the equationhavebecn measured accurately.
TheAGA fuIly turbulent equationhas the following form in Imperial Units:
T
b
[ - Y; - E 10.5 [ 3.7DJ 2.5.
Qb = 38.774- . . 4Iog--D . (3 52)
Pb G .L .Tave . Zaw Ke
whcre hetransmission factor is definedusing the Nikuradse equation:
fl 3.7D
Vi= 4log Ke
Qi> is obtainedin SO'ID, and alI otherparametersare the sameas Equation3-38.
(nlebrook-White
Ihis equation combines both partialIy turbulent and fulIy turbulent flow regimes and is
Il),1 ';uitable for caseswhere thepipelineisoperatingin the transitionzone. Thisequation
.again used for Jarge-diameter, high-pressure, and medium- to high-tlow-rate systems. It
predictsahigherpressuredrop orlowerflow rates than the AGA fully turbulentequation.
Thisequation hasthe following form in Imperial Unts:
38.774 T/y
2.5
. 5[--410
g
1.4126/j)j
D
P
b
Zavc' T
aw
. G . L 3.7D Re
(3 - 53)
where the transmssion factor is definedas:
Ke 1.4126fj)
-410g --+ (3 - 54)
3.7D Re
(
Qb is obtainedin SCFID, and aH otherparametersare the sameas in Equation3-38.
Fxample 3.4
Agastransmissionlineistobeconstructedtotransport1,500,000m
3
/brofnaturaIgas from
gil" refinery to the first compressorstation located 100 km away. The route is almost
l,\qnzontaI with no considerable elevation changes. Determine the size of the pipeline
MI::'; '$<,
..
<32 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
requred to transport the gas ifthe pipeline inlet pressure is 1,140 psia, and a 300 psa
pressure drop is allowable. Use Weymouth, Panhandle B, and AGA fully turbulent
equationstocomparethediameterspredicatedbyeachflow equation. Assumeaneffective
roughness value ofKe 700 micro nchesforthe lineo
Additional data:
T
ave
=522.6 'R
G = 0.64
TI> 520 'R
PI> = 14.7 psa
Zavc = \.0
Solution: Usngequations in ImperialUnits:
L 100 km = 62.1504miles
PI =1,140 psia
P
2
= 1,140 - 300= 840psia
D ?(inches, insidediameter)
Q 1,500,000 x 35.31 52,965,000SCFIHR = 1,271,160,000SCFlD
E= zero
A. UsingWeymouth Equation:
".--2 jl/2
. TI> /""2 E 2.667
Qh = 432.7_. D ..._.-.--:;---
PI>
[
Zav,' .T"vp .GL
upon substitution
ID 37.287inches,NPS 40or42
B. Using Panhandle B Equation:
T
h
) 1.02 [ j(]'iIO 253
737.02 p- D
(
, G L. T"w .z,"'p
amI upon substitution ofdata
iD = 35.380 nches, NPS36
using 100%etliciency forPanhandle B.
C. AGA fully turbulent equation:
-2 j0.5
T, P; - /"'2 E 3.7D 25
Qh = 38.774- .D
PI> [Zave' T
ave
. G.L [ Ke ]
and uponsubstitutionofdata:
iD 36.765 inches, NPS 40or42
It can be concludedthat the Weymouthequaton is normally theonethat s the most
conservativetypeofequation.AnefficiencyfactorisalwaysneededforthePanhandleBto
compareit with the AGAequation. In this case the efficiencyhas beenassumed to be 1.0
Natural Gas Transrnission 83
!'(); <1n uncoated pipe with 700 micro inches of surface roughness, which is not a practical
;l:,:,urnption, The efficiency could be 1ess than 95%,
"'UMMARY Uf THE IMPACT OF OIFFERENT GAS ANO PIPELINE
ON THE GAS FlOW EFFICIENCY
The percentage impact of different parameters on the flow capacity of a pipeline is listed in
1:1 ile 3-4 (Asante 1996). A further numerical analysis on the perfonnance of the pipeline,
lIow capacity, using three different major gas flow equations (AGA tul1y turbulent.
B, and Colebrook-White), together with the impact of different gas/pipeline
:' :!!fIeters are given in Appendix B.

PARAlU1,
CAlCUlATION FOR PIPELlNES IN SERIES ANO
("ipdines in Series
For pipelines in series with different diameters and lengths (see Figure 3-8), pressure drops
are calculated as follows.
Using the simplified form of the general flow equation (3-31):
p2 p2 KQn
1 2 1 b
= K2 Q:
p2 ? r n
3 K3 Qb
Wherc K" Kb and K} are pipeline resistance at each segment and n is the flow
,,;( ponent depending on the type of equation.
r the three cquations are added together, then
(3 55)
Let
(3 56)
then
? 2 n
p- - p = Kr' Q (3 - 57)
1 4 b
Pipelines in Parallel (looping)
Consider two different pipe segments connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 3-9.
The govemng equation to caIculate pressure drop for each segment would be:
=K1 Q:l
? n r
F; 2 =K2 Qb2
where
1ABLE 34. Percent o different parar',E;'erS on A,ante1996J
::o
J;:.
Pipe Parameters Unit Variation of Parameter Percent Change in Flow Remarks Applicable AnalyticaJ Equation

Inside Oiameter ConsecutJve standard 40- 70% 40% reflects consecutive

fb..
-o
pipe size Q,
~
:
r
i?
O Wall Thickness (w.t.) 10% change < 0 5 / ~ Impact is minimal for ~ [1
i? Q,
U1
vanations usually encountered
C10
in planning. R is the ralo.
:
Pipe Grade Consecu!ve standard grades < l(% ~ orgrade l
Wi 'f"ade 2
l
Roughness 100 micro inch change 1.25-1.5% Impact on flow is also
fb..
Q,
dependent on roughness ratio
n
O
:
Q,
Factor 1% 1% factor varies U1
~ ==i
from 0.92 0.98 ror typical
e
in the
~
regime. o'
:
Gas Parameters
);;-
Q,
Specfic Gravty 0.01 change 0.8'0 Mnimal
u Q,
..,
:lJ
Compressiblity 0.05 change 1.5% For0.825 ::; Z ::; 0.925
~
Vscosty 10% change < 1% in partially turbulent lnsignticant, mnimal impuct n
In partially turbulent flow
()
No effeet in fully turbulent region.
Heat Transfer Parameters
Sol 1 echange 3/0% Change in flow is minimal
SOl! Thermal Conductlvl 50% < l% lmpact is mnimal
Buna! 50
0
ft) < 1% lmpact is minimal
System OperatingParameters Typical Unt Variation ofParameter PercentChange in Flow Remarks Applicable Analytical Equation
Operating Pressure 100 kPa change (14.5 psia) 2.0 - 2.47% For MOp range of5,000-10,000
kPa. The higher the MOP, the
f" .. [>'
~ ;-p;
I d
Pressure Buffers
Delivery Pressure
Operating Temperature (Avg.)
Elevation
50 kPa change (7.25 psia)
100 kPa change (14.5 psia)
10"C change
100 m (328 ft)
::::o%
::::01%
3%
1.5%
(Same conditions
as stated aboye apply)
AIso slightly dependent
on average compressibility
May change slightly with
change in gas composition.
v
!owerhe
Natural Gas Transmission 85
P,
P2
P
3
f>4
D
1 D
2
K
D3
K
1
2
K3
~
<
e
f i ~ n r 3-8. System of pipeline with different lengths and diameters connected in series
[ti general
whcrc K is the total resistance ofa pipe substituted for the loop. Upon rearrangement ofthe
,alions:
(3 58)
(3 59)
(3 60)
now substitute [he values for Qbl, Qb2, and Qb:
i' ,11 I't) 3-9. System of pipelines connected in paralIel (looped)
..
86 Pipeline Desgn and Construction: A Practical Approach
or
KI K
2
K (3 - 61)
-(K;/n + K ~ 1
For n = 2, the following equation giving total resistance oftwo pipelines in paralle! is
obtained:
K K
2
K = ------::- (3-62)
(VK+
In the above equation, K is the total resistance of the two pipelines looped
together. If the two pipes in parallel have equal diameters, then K = 1/4 KI> which
means that the resistance of the looped system against flow is equal to 1/4 of a single
line.
Example 3.5
What would be the downstream pressure of a gas pipeline transporting 200,000 m
3
lhr of
natural gas (G 0.65)7 lnlet pressure to the pipeline is PI 1,000 psia, L 200 miles, DI
20 inches (19.5 inches inside diameter), and average flowing gas temperature is assumed to
be T
r
520 eR and Zavg = 1.0. What would be the downstream pressure if the existing
system is looped with a 16-inch pipeline (inside diameter 15.5 nches)? Use the Panhandle
A flow equation.
Data given:
PI 1,000 psi a
G= 0.65
ni 20 mch (inside diameter 19.5 inches)
L 200 miles
Qb = 200,000 m
3
/hr
D
2
16 inch (inside diameter 15.5 inches)
T 520 "R
P2 =? (psia)
The simplified form of the general flow equation will be used:
with the Panhandle A flow equation. pipeline resistance and flow exponent can be obtained
from Tables 3-2 and 3-3:
R
-4
2.552 x 10 . TI . Za,\"g
G0855
. D4856
n = 1.855
where R pipeline resistance per foot
TI = average flowing gas temperature in oR
G = gas gravity
D pipe nside diameter in inches
n = flow exponent
Natural Gas Transmission 87
PI nlet pressure, psia
p} = exit pressure, psa
K =total pipeline resistance, K =RL (L is in ft)
Qb ga!> flow rate at base condition and it shouldbe in MCF/hr.
fIJen:(re
_4') (0.65)855
K = RL = 2.)52 x 10 . 2005280
(19.5)4856
K, = 0.052745
Qb 200.000 35.31 7.062 MCFI hr
2 ') n
PI P; K, Qb
(l, 000)2-p; = 0.052745(7062(855
P
2
= 522 psia
Now ifthe system is looped:
'dalresistance ofthesecond pipe is:
0.855
( )
K
2
= R
2
L 2.55 x 10-
4
520 0.65 2005280
(J5.5)4.856
K
2
0.160728
FOl' looped system, the total resistance is:
Kr
wl '1 1.855.
Kr (0.052745)(0.160728)
( +0.160728
1
/1855jl.855
Kr = 0.023430
f2 f2 K ()1855
I 2 r rtf
(l, 000)2 = 0.023430(7062)1855
P2 = 823 psia( downstream pressure after looping)
16", 200 Mile
20", 200 Mile
L 10. Pipeline system after ooping
88 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
Pipeline Segmental Looping
In manycases, it maynolbe necessaryloloop theentirepipeline toobtainIhe desired flow
or downstream pressure. Therefore, only a segment ofthe pipeline is looped lo meel
requrements.
Assume tha!theexisting line has length L, diamelerD), and a totalresistanceofK
K', where inle!andexitpressuresare p and P2, respectively. It is intended lo increase the
existinggas Ilow ralefrom Q. to Q2 (i.e.,Qb to Qb without anychangesin downstream
pressure. Apipeline loop with diameterD
2
and length Xwill be added lo the existing
pipelinein orderto increaseQI to Q2 withoutanychangeslo thedownstreampressure.The
value ofX, the length ofthe pipeline lo be looped lo the existing syslem, mus! be
determined. Note that usrng, larger diameler pipes will reduce the required length ofthe
segmentto be looped.
To obtain the total pipeline resistance, slart with one of the major transmission
equationsand conlinuetodevelop theequation tocalculatethe lengthofthe loop. Forthis
example, the Weymouthequation will beused.
The Weymouth equation in Imperial Units, is writtenas:
2 2 0.000466G . . L 2
PI - P2 =~ - - - - ~ ~ . : - - : - : - ~ - _ . Q)
or
2 2 2
PI K QI P
2
and K Kt + Ki (total resistance ofthesingle line)
In thetotal resistanceformulaoftheWeymouthequation,thevalueofO.000466.GTris
a constant, which could be assumcd as:
e= 0.000466 .G T
r
ex , ex e(L X) CL
- ~ . _ - ~ - .._-
K' --- K
and K
::-::-;-- I
) 16'3' 2
-16/3' K
16jJ
d
613
!
DI DI
D
1 2 I J
The equivalent resistancc for thelooped segmentis:
\
(3 63)
aftersimplification K" would be:
ex
., (3 - 64)
d/3 D8/3)-
( + 2
and
K
E
Total = Ke +K ( i.e., pipes in series)
Natural Gas Transmission 89
L-X
p ""--------.
.... QI

K'
I
x
Fi!{: \11. Pipeline segmental looping
then
__C__X_. + C(LX)
(3 - 65)
D
16
8/3 8/3)2 3
(
DI +D2 I
ami
D \fiding the flow equations tor the existing pipelineand afier segmental looping:
ur
eL
1= C(L.X)' (ciJ 2
.. ..__., -
(Di
/J
DI .
:i !Inlly, the equation eould be written as follows:
XL, ..
(3 66)
x", length ofthe pipeline to be looped, miles
L length oftheexistingpipeline, miles
Q = initial gas flowrate, MMSCFD
Q2 = final gas flow rate, MMSCFD
D existing pipeline inside diameter, inehes
D
2
== looped segmentinside diameter, iDehes
'PorAGAfully turbulentequation,avalueof2.5 insteadof8/3 is usedas theexponent
i" ')c denominatorofEquatioD (3-66).
90 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
Example 3.6
A gas transmsson line of OD 16 inehes (ID 15.5 inches), Ql = 70,000 m
3
!hr, and
L = 300 km is to be used without any pressure changes in the delvery of 120,000 mJ/hr
of natural gas. What would be the length of pipeline with identical diameter that ShOllld
be looped to the existing pipeline to satisfy lhe increased eapaeity (aceording to lhe
Weymouth equalion).
Solution:
Using Equation (3-66).
Q 70,000 mJ!hr
Q2 = 120,000 m
3
br
DI 15.5 inehes
D
2
= 15.5 inehes
L 300 km
X=?km
2
X = 300
(
70.000)
120.000
1
(
1 .)2
l+m:D
813
1
X =300(7/12)2 1=263.88
km, segment lo be looped
~ )
Sorne Important Considerations Regarding Pipeline Looping
Equation (3-66) demonstrates that looping wi 11 inerease pipeline flow eapaeity without
any ehanges to the upstream and downstream pressures. Likewise, if lhe flow is kept
constant, adding a loop results in less of a pressure drop along the pipeline. However,
Eqllation (3-66) also implies that the impaet of Jooping on the flow capaeity (or
prCSSllre drop along the pipeline) is independenl of the location of the loop. In praetical
pipeline operations this is nol lhe case, and the placement of the looping can have a
:;ignificant impact on lhe response of lhe system. The behavior of the system is greatly
affected by changes in temperature and the compressibility factor of lhe gas along the
pipeline.
There are two important parameters lo consider when ehoosing lhe location for a
pipeline loop: temperature and pressure. Considering pipeline pressure, the magnitude of
lhe pressure drop is higher al the downstream section of the pipeline because the gas has
expanded. Hence, considering pressure alone, looping at the downstream portion of the
pipeline is more effieient.
However, temperature must also be considered. Al the upstream part of the
pipeline, particularly downstream of a compressor station, the gas temperature is
typically much higher than in other places along the line. Adding a loop in areas
where the gas temperature is hotter increases the heat transfer from the pipeline to the
immediate environment. This is especially true if the ground temperature is
significantly less than the gas temperature. When higher rates of cooling occur, the
pressure drop along the pipeline is considerably less. Therefore, it is most ofien
recommended that under steady-state conditions, pipeline looping be in an upstream
1:
)
l'
\


Natural Gas Transmission 91
region, suco as immediately downstream ofa compressor station, especially ifthe gas
is hot. It should be noled that a comprehensive simulation involving a gas
temperature profile giving consideration lo elevation changes is always necessary to
determinethe exact location ofloopingin steady-stateoperations. TypicaJly, in situations
whercthegas temperatureis very close tothegroundtcmperaturc, orthediffercnce is Jess
than 5 .- 10C, temperature is no onger an important consideration when choosing a
location for a loop.
In !he following example. the results of hydraulic simulations for three different
cases are presented to further clarify the effects of different loop locations for a
pipeline at steady state. In al! simulations, Hydraulic Analysis and Resources Tool
(HART) simulation software was used. It is TransCanada Pipeline's steady-state
,;imulation software developed in-house for use in designing the company's pipeline
network.
Parameters Jor Case Study:
Pipeline tength= 100 km (62.15 miles)
Gas ftow rate is constant = 289.542MMSCFD
Gas inletpressure 1,200psia
Gas inlettemperature 45 oC or 113 "F
Pipeline OD 20inches
PipelineID = 19.44 inches
Pipeline roughness =o 750IL inches
Soil temperature 10 ('C (50 F)
Cdse :: No loop
P=1130Apsia
p::: 1059psia P ::: 984.6 psia P= 905.5 psia
;/5 km 25 km 25 km 25 km
T = 90.7"F (32.5'C) T 66.4"F (19.1C) T= 59.S"F (15.3"C)
eIS':: 11: looping First 25 Km of the Pipeline (Upstream)
p = p::: 1117.4psia p::: 1048.9psia p::: 976.5psia
25km 25 km 25 km 25 km
T =113'F (45C) T = B024'F (26.8"C) T =69.e'F (20.9'C) T=62.4'F (16.9'C) T::: 57.4'F (14.1C)
Case 111: looping Last 25 Km of the Pipeline (Downstream)
p = 1200psia P= 1130.4psia P = 1059psia
P
25 km 25 km 25 km 25 km
T = 113"F (45"C) T ::: 90.7"F (32.6'C) T=76. fF(245"C) T= 66.4'F (19.1C) T = 60.3'F (15.7"C)
For these three cases, it can be concluded that for the same gas flow rate, looping
upstrearn ofthe pipelinegives thehighestdeliverypressure ortheleast pressure drop.
...
92 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
1250
1200
-.
1150
...
1100
a
I:!
ji
! 1050
1000
950
900
o 25 50 75 100
Di_{\uo)
__case I- No Loop
.... Case 11
Figure 3-12. Comparison of pressure drops for cases 1, 11, and III
The collective results of the abovc cases are compared in Figure 3-12.
PIr'ELlNE CAS VElOCITY
_..,.._.- ----------------------------------
I
The equation to detenllnc the gas veJocity in a pipeline is obtained as follows:
1
US Q,<:!A (3-67)
1;
where U
s
= gas velocity at any section
1
Qs gas flow rate at any section 1
A = cross sectional area.
at steady sta te
and also
or
P
b
T
s
Ps P
s
' T
b
(consider the compressibility factor as 1).
Natural Gas Transmission 93
u]
Q
PI
I
I
I
I
U
2
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Qb
....
Q2
I
I
I
I
I
P
2
I
Figure3-13. Changeofgas velocity in agas transmissiontine
Combiningthese expressions, whereA
Substitute P" = J4.7 psia, T" = 520 R, and assume a flowing gas temperatnre of
:520 "R:
Q"
Us = (3 68)
PD
whl:rc u, =gas veJocity at any segment, ftJsee
Qb = gas flow rate at baseeondition, ft3/br
P pressureat any seetion, psia
D pipeline inside diameter, nehes.
Equation(3-68)givesagoodestimateofthegasvelocityinthepipelineatanysegment.
Ir the flowing gas temperature is different from T", then:
Qb T
f
Us = (3 69)
Tb PD
where T =flowing gas temperatnre,R
f
T
b
= basetemperatnre, 520R.
Ifthe etTect ofthe compressibility factor is also eonsidered at any segment, the gas
velocityequation could be written as follows:
lj Q Z
U
S
= 0.75-._b_.__
(3 70)
Tb P.D
2
or
3
Q ZT
f
1.44 x 10- _b----
U
s
2
PD
'd!",rc Zis the compressibility factoratany section.
94 Pipeline Desgn and Construction: A Practical Approach
Example 3.7
What would be the maximum and mnimum \'eloeity of gas in a pipeline
where Qb 1.500,000 m
3
hr
D 56 inehes
ID = 55 nehes
PI = 1,140 psia
P2 = 840 psia
= 520
c
R T
r
T
h
Minimum velocity occurs at the beginning of the pipe, where thc pressure is higher:
U
s
1,500,00035.31
= 0.75--__.._, -
1, )40 (55f
= 11.52 ftjsec
and maximum velocity occurs at thc end of the pipe, where the pressure is less:
Us O
1,500,00035.31
.75 ------;;--
840
15.63 ftjsec
It is sometimes nccessary to calculate gas vclocity in mi\cs/hr whilc using gas flow rate
in MMSCFD. The following equation can be used with these units:
US
o ZT
40.909 _'_1>-,!-
P D ~
(3 - 72)
wherc u, gas vclocity at any segment, miles/hr
Qb ga..,> tlow rate at standard eondition, MMSCFD
Z = comprcssibility factor, dimensionless
TI = flowing gas temperature, 'iR
P pipeline pressure al any segment, psia
D pipe inside diameter, inehes.
EROSIONAl VELOCITY
1
1\
When a fluid passcs through a pipeline with a high velocity it can cause both vibration and
erosion in the pipeline, which will erode the pipe wall over time. Ifthe gas velocity exceeds
the erosional velocity calculated for the pipeline, the erosion ofthe pipe wal1 is increased to
mtes that can signiticantly reduce the lite ofthe pipeline. Therefore, it is always necessary
to control gas velocity in gas transmission lines to prevent it from rising aboye this limit.
The erosional veloeity for compressible fluids is expressed as:
e
Ue = {f5
(3 73)
p
where, in Imperial Units,
u
e
= erosional veloeity, ftlsec
p = gas density, Ib
m
/ft3.
and e is a constant defined as 75 < e < 150. The recommended value for e in gas
transmission pipelines is e = lOO (see Beggs 1991).
- - - - - - - - ~
Natural Gas Transmission 95
Gasdensity is obtained by:
PM
P=ZR.T
Substituting for e 100 andM = 29 G:
100
/29GP
yZR-T
(3 - 74)
"
Tn (he aboye equation:
,osional velocity, ftJsec
,, gravity, dimensionless
.minimumpipelinepressure, psia
, Hllpressibility factorat the specifiedpressure andtemperature, dimensionless
'iiwinggas tcmperature, R
10.73 (ft
3
x psiaJlb moles xOR).
'Iherecommendedvalue for thegasvelocity ingastransmissionmainlinesisnormally
i. ,,:;0% oI' the erosional vclocity (i.c., a value oI' 10-13 mis or 33-43ft1sec is an
,1; , "tliable valuc for design purposcs). This value could be increased to 15-17 mis for
nonmajormainlines oraterals.
.
ji
'1;: wouldbetheerosional,maximum,andminimumvelocities in agaspipelineifthegas
,, 'i f"t'SSureis 1,000psia,gasexitpressureis 700psia,gasgravityis 0.65,compressibility
I ; t. 0.9, isothennalflowing gastcmperature is 520'R,pipeOD 56 inehes(/D = 55
'1':"").and gas flow rute is assumed to be Qb 1,500,000m'/hr.
SolLHon
I
Usingthe equ:ltion torerosional velocity:
1
100
Ue
!29GP
VZKT
1
In this equation
G 0.65
P " 700 psia (minimum pipeline pressure)
Z 0.9
R = 10.73
T 520.
Then erosiona! veloeityis:-
100 100
U
e
61.7ft /s(erosionalvelocity)
/290.65700 1.621
VO.9IO.73520
~
~ . _ .. ~
~ . 4
96 Pipeline Design and Construction: APractical Approach
maximum velocity in the pipeline is:
0.75QhZ _ 0.751,500,00035.310.9
Umax
PD2 - - 700.(55)2
li
max
= 16.9ftjs
mnimum velocity is:
Umin = IL8ft/s
Since the maximum velocity is considerably lower than the erosional velocity, the
systcm is in the safe velocityregion.
Erosional Gas Flow Rate
The erosional gas flow rate is defined basedonthe pipelineerosional velocity as:
Q Ue A (3 75)
e
where Qe = erosional gas flow rate, ft3/sec
Uf' = erosional velocity, ft/sec
A pipeline cross-sectional area, ft2.
OPTIMUM PRESSU RE DROP FOR DESIGN PU RPOSES
The optimumpressuredropperunitlenglhofpipeis an importantfactorusedlodesignthe
mostcost-effectivesystem. Maintainingtheoptimalpressuredropalongeachsectionofthe
pipeline' system is necessary to minimize the required facilities and operating expenses
(including pipeline, compressor,and fuel-consumption costs).
Studies performed by the Pipeline System Design departrncnt of TransCanada
Pipclines have proven that a pressure drop of15 25 kPaJkm (3.5 5.85 psi/mile) is
optima!. Tbismeans that,whenthefinal systemdesign iscomplete,thepressuredropin all
sections ofthepipelinesystemshould bewithinthis range. Pressure dropsin excess of25
k.Pa/km willcausethedownstreamcompressorstoworkata greaterload factor, whichwill
result in higherfuel costs. Excessive pressuredrops also introduce a greaterpotential for
operating problems. Pressure drops below 15 kPa/km are an indication that too many
facilities have been installed. For further information see(Hughes (993).
PIPELINE PACKING
A gas pipeline, which transports gas from point 1 to point 2 with pressure PI and P
2
,
respectively, wiIl have sornenatural gas "packed" inside, at an average pressure ofP
ave
'
Thevolumeofthegaspackedinsidethepipecanbedeterminedusingthefollowingequation:
P
ave
. V = nT . Zave .R .T
ave
(3 - 76)
Natural Gas Transmission 97
wherc
v
(L"ve can be obtained from Kay's rule)
'le P
ave
= average pressure, psia
D = pipe inside diameter, ft
L = pipeline length, ft.
n
r
= total number of moles of gas, lb. moJes
Zave = avemge compressbility factor, dmensionless
R gas constant, 10.73 (ft3 x psia/lb molesxOR)
average gas temperature, "R.
J ( 1I the total number of moles nrpacked between points 1 and 2 at average pipeline
el i"liions is:
n =
liD
2
. P
ave
L
4 ZavcR . Tave
(3 77)
This valuc can thcn be used lo determine the gas volumc V", existing in the pipeline at
! condition (i.c., P =o 14.7 psia and T 520 "R):
V" =
nr
RT
"

P,
nI' . 10.73520
14.7
For a fairly aecurate calculalion of the storage capacity of ppelincs at packcd
and unpacked conditions whcn gas is Ilowing, the Clinedinst eqution can be used,
which considcrs the variation in gas compressibility, For further infomlation see
iV;1I1. 1959).
DETERMINING GAS LEAKAGE USING PRESSURE DROP METHOD

The Pressure Drop Method can be used to determine the volume of gas Iha! wiII escape
from a pipeline due lo leakage. Consider Ihe pipeline in Figure 3-14 at two different lime
inlcrvals.
The number of moles of gas in the pipeline at time t= zero is:
PI . VI nI' R. TI
where PI initial pressure, psia
VI initial gas volume, ft3
nI initial number of moles, Ib.moles
R gas constant, 10.73 (psiaxft
3
/lb molesx'R)
TI = nitial gas temperature, R.
98 Pipeline Design and Construction: A Practical Approach
GasLeakage
D
J,
~ . ~
J'
t = O
"
t ~
L= LengthofPipeline= 1mile
. ~
GasLeakage
.-"
~ ~
J ~
D
t = 1 hr.
"
~
L= LengthofPipeline= 1mile
. ~
Figure 3-14. Leakage in a gas pipeline
AssumingtbatthepipelineinsidediameterisD(ft),andthepipelinelengthisL (ft),then
7fD
2
Pi .-- .L = nI . R .TI
4
)
li
1
where
I
2
7fD L F ( , ,. 1 . h . l' )
4 . = r' I mila gas volume m t e pIpe me
therefore, thenumberofmolesofgas initially in the line is
7fD
2
. PI' L
(3 78)
4,RT
I
Afterone hour, due to leakage thevolumeofgas in thepipeline is reduced to
P
2
V
2
= n2 R ' T
2
and
Natural Gas Transmission 99
or
(3 - 79)
The amount ofgas that has escaped from the pipeline due to leakage is n and jt is
egua! to:
substitute for ni and n2:
2
n =rrD L (PI _P
2
)
(3 - 80)
4R TI
The volume ofgas that has escaped to the atmosphere at standard condition (SC)
\V0uld be:
whcre P
b
gas pressure at se,14.7 psia
V
b
= leaked gas volumeat SC, ft3
n = number ofmolesofleaked gas, lb moles
R gas constant, 10.73 (psiaxft3/lb molesxR)
T
b
"" gas temperatureat se,520R.
thercfore
(3 - 81)
i ""'.'c:' R and substitute the eonstants:
14.7 V

2
rrD (PI
4-' 5,280 r:
520
Ifthe length ofthe pipeline is L = 1 mile (5,280 ft) and one year is assumed to be
xh4f hr<; then
2
rrD 5.2805208.640
V
b
= 4 '1441.000,000-14.7
Then the gas volume leaked in one year is
8.797D
2
(PI _P
2
)
(3 82)
TI T
2
where V
b
gas volumeleaked, MMSCF/year
D pipeline ID, inehes
PI = pipeline initial pressure, psia
P
2
pipeline final pressure, psia
TI = pipeline initial temperature, R
T
2
= pipeline final temperature, R.