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Understanding happiness

Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432

Understanding happiness: A look into the Chinese folk psychology

Luo Lu Graduate Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

Correspondence address: Dr. Luo Lu, Graduate Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, No. 100 Shih-Chuan 1st Road, Kaohsiung City 807, Taiwan, ROC. Tel: +886-7-3121101 Ext. 2273 Fax: +886-7-3223445

E-mail: luolu@cc.kmu.edu.tw OR luolu@mail.nsysu.edu.tw

Understanding happiness

Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432

Abstract This qualitative study using a folk psychology approach explored what Chinese people think about happiness. One hundred and forty-two undergraduate students wrote free-format essays in response to a simple open-ended question, What is happiness? Using thematic analysis, four main themes were found. (1) Happiness can be defined in terms of (a) a mental state of satisfaction and contentment; (b) positive feelings/emotions; (c) a harmonious homeostasis; (d) achievement and hope; and (e) freedom from ill-being. (2) Happiness is a harmonious state of existence, under the following conditions: (a) the individual is satisfied or content; (b) the individual is the agent of his own happiness; (c) spiritual enrichment is emphasized more than material satisfaction; and (d) the individual maintains a positive outlook for the future. (3) The relationship between happiness and unhappiness is dialectical. These two distinct entities are locked in a never-ending relationship of interdependence: each depends on the other for contrast and meaning. Moreover, this relationship between the two opposites is also dynamic and constantly changing. (4) Happiness can be achieved, provided that one has the following abilities: (a) the wisdom of discovery; (b) the wisdom of contentment and gratitude; (c) the wisdom of giving; and (d) the wisdom of self-cultivation. These themes were discussed in the contexts of Chinese philosophical and folk views of happiness. Key words: definitions of happiness, Chinese folk psychology, ways to achieve happiness

What is happiness? This is a simple question. We all know the answer, or do we? As soon as we hear people talk about happiness, we will be stunned how diverse each ones ideas about happiness are! The differences are even more substantial in the ways people from the East and the West think about happiness. Regarded as a basic building block, a value in terms of which other values are justified (Braithwaite & Law, 1985, p.261), happiness may be universal, but its meaning remains complex and ambiguous. In English language, happy as an adjective has three broad meanings: (1) fortunate, lucky; feeling or expressing pleasure, contentment, satisfaction, etc.; (2) (in polite formulas) pleased; (3) (of language, conduct, suggestion) well-suited to the situation. Happiness is used as a noun to convey the first meaning (Hornby, Gatenby & Wakefield, 1948). It is not difficult to understand then why in the Western psychological studies, happiness is often implied as a psychological state following the gratification of some important human needs or desires (Diener, 1984;Veenhoven, 1984). Nonetheless, with a staunch conviction of scientific methods, Western psychologists have generally left the question of what is happiness to philosophers for debate, and gone on to study the perceived happiness and its correlates. In so doing, researchers gave achieved a general consensus to operationalize happiness in terms of (1) positive affect; (2) life satisfaction; and (3) absence of negative affect (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Diener, 1984; Argyle, 1987; Lu, 1995). However, such a working definition is at most an attempt to identify components/elements of the happiness experience, which
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Understanding happiness

Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432

unravels little about the nature of happiness. Some researchers have criticized the lack of theoretical sophistication and psychological depth entailed in the current mainstream happiness (or SWB) research (Ryff, 1989). Although empirical study on happiness has won its legitimacy and recognition in the mainstream scientific psychology, and flourished over the past three decades, the accumulation of data has failed to push up the level of theoretical construction (Diener et al., 1999). Comparing the two extensive reviews 15 years apart (Diener, 1984; Diener et al., 1999), we now know more, with more confidence, about correlates of SWB, but we are no closer to the heart of this ultimate human experience. The hard question of what is happiness is unavoidable, if we are to further our understandings of human happiness. Breaking this deadlock can also hopefully enable us to direct our scientific efforts more effectively. Because meanings and concepts are molded by culture (Bruner, 1990), it seems necessary to explore what people think about happiness as embedded in the world of meanings/values construed by a unique cultural tradition. The Chinese culture, with its rich heritage, provides an interesting vantage point to contrast the predominant Western cultural perspective in the SWB research. The present study was thus undertaken as an exploration of folk psychology, in terms of a cultures account of what makes human beings tick (Bruner, 1990, p.13). It is through shared meanings and values that a great cultural tradition penetrates through human existence. Human lives thus are intertwinned with their culture, both as a carrier of the culture, and as an active force of creation. It should be of no exception that people make judgments and draw conclusions about the quality of their lives within the cultural framework of meanings/values/concepts. Therefore, choosing to focus on peoples own spontaneous accounts of their ideas about happiness, this study aimed to explore peoples conceptions of happiness in a modern Chinese society.

Views of happiness in the Chinese culture The word happiness did not appear in the Chinese language until recently. Fu or fu qi is perhaps the closest equivalent of happiness in Chinese ancient thoughts. Fu appeared as early as in bone inscriptions from Shang Dynasty. It was spotted in records of oracle, meaning presenting the filled wine container at the altar (Bauer, 1976). It is clear that the original meaning of fu is to worship a god, to express human desires and prayers. What were these desires and prayers, then? The escavation of Shang graves has offered us valuable insights. Ancient Chinese did not view death as an absolute frontier, rather as a change of rhythm of life, like day and night. Therefore, the deads were reckon to continue to possess human desires, which could be satisfied in the same ways as the living.
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Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432

Ancient burial gifts, hence, can be regarded as indicators of what constituted happiness at the very beginning of the Chinese civulization. The interpretation of bone inscriptions and the luxurious burial gifts point to a twofold fundamental conception of happiness: blessings from the supernatural, and pleasures in human society. Later, in the Shang Shu, the word fu was more clearly defined in mundane existence to include longevity, prosperity, health, peace, virtue, and a comfortable death (Wu, 1991). May the five fus come to your door is still a popular greeting at the Chinese New Year nowadays. Another important ancient work, Classic of ritual gave fu yet another amendment. Fu was fortunate, lucky, smooth and free of obstacles. Again popular greetings at the Chinese New Year, such as May everything work out as you wish, May wind and rain come in harmony, and May God grant mans wishes express just such a view of happiness. Roughly, the Chinese peoples conception of happiness can be traced back to the early days of civilization, and has kept some of its core ideas while evolving with the great culture. In folk wisdom, Chinese happiness seems to include material abundance, physical health, virtuous and peaceful life, and relief from death anxiety. The ancient Chinese society was a dual existence. At the top of the societal pyramid, the social elite presided power and prestige, whose ideals were recorded and carried down through the writings and teachings of great philosophers and scholars; the vast majority of working people were ruled according to, and preached with those ideals, but conveyed them in folklores as described above. Nonetheless, there is no denying that schools of great philosophy have profoundly shaped the Chinese culture and the mentality of Chinese people for thousands of years. The Tripartite of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism form the backbone of the orthodox Chinese culture, and each has distinct views on human happiness. Confucius was the first Chinese philosopher to formulate an earthbound thought system. However, he did not talk about fu, in fact there is not a single utterance of it in The book of conversations, the dialogues between Confucius and his disciples. Li, ritual, is the most important concept in Confucian system instead, and Confucians valued ritual more than mundane happiness. Confucius spent the best part of his life touring countries, preaching to each ruler his vision of Chinese humanism. He insisted that a wise ruler must rule with virtue and make people equal by ritual. Virtue and ritual can then make people accept social categories as a matter of personal concern. Hence, for the Chinese elite, the ideals of humanity and equality are stabilization of the existing social order. Also for the Chinese elite, happiness dose not lie in personal salvation or material accumulation, rather it is
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achieved through constant self-cultivation, maintaining a harmonious family, ruling a country wisely, and keeping peace in the world, each progresses to a higher level and greater degree of happiness. For ordinary people, Confucian philosophy presupposes that the life of each individual is only a link in that persons family lineage and that an individual is a continuation of his ancestors. This teaching puts ones family right in the center of ones life and everyday existence. Ancestor worship is an integral part of the Confucian ritual for the mass, and many of the practices are still followed today. Confucian philosophy advocates that one should strive to preserve and expand the prosperity and vitality of ones family. Happiness is to achieve this ultimate life goal through hard working and frugality to accumulate material resources, through intellectual labour and passing exams to obtain respectable social status, through suppression of selfish and earthly desires to lead a virtuous life, and ultimately through fulfillment of ones social duties. To sum, for Confucians, happiness is no longer a set of living conditions, it is the psychological state or spiritual world of a living individual. Happiness is not transient, shallow sensual pleasures, it is an eternal, deeply meaningful world of reason. Confucians regarded happiness as spiritual, not material; as moral, not circumstantial; as self-identified, not other-judged. Yang and Cheng (1987) divided the Confucian values, still well preserved in Taiwan, into four groups. (1) Family factors include family responsibilities and obedience to ones elders. (2) Group factors include accepting the hierarchical structure of society; trust in and obedience to authority; and commitment to the solidarity, harmony, and norms of the group. (3) Job-orientation factors include education, skill learning, hard work, and frugality. (4) Disposition factors include austerity, calmness, humility, and self-control. Putting these values into practice should lead to happiness in life. Wu (1992) asserted that the Confucian happiness is achieved through knowledge, benevolence, and harmony of the group (p.31). Confucian philosophy stresses the collective welfare of the family, or clan (extending to society and the entire human race) more than individual welfare. Under this collectivist orientation, Chinese culture emphasizes sharing the fruits of individual success with the group. Contributing to society is the ultimate happiness, whereas hedonistic striving for happiness is regarded as unworthy and even shameful. Taoism opposes to the idea of happiness as a product of material satisfaction, it also opposes the Confucian idea of happiness as a constant self-cultivation to achieve moral greatness. Taoists assert that everything in the universe must follow Tao, the great Natural force that starts everything in the first place. Taoism is also termed the philosophy of notdoing (wu wei), for it insists that perfect happiness is the absence of happiness, and perfect glory is the absence of glory (Chiang, 1976).
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Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432

Happiness in Taoism is the personal liberation from all human desires, through following the Natural force, not doing anything, accepting fate calmly, and facing life with a peaceful mind. In so doing, one may reach the ultimate happiness of merging with the universe, termed tian ren he yi. Happiness in Taoism, therefore, is not an emotional feeling of joy, rather, it is a cognitive insight and transcendence. Taoists practice a life style of withdrawal, isolation and quietness. The ultimate goal is to achieve anonymity, vanishing into the Nature, transcending the Nature, and merging with the Nature. Unlike Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism is not an indigenous Chinese philosophy. However, Buddhism has incorporated many of the Chinese philosophical thoughts and cultural traditions over thousands of years since its first introduction from India in Tang Dynasty. Buddhism asserts that there is no such thing as absolute, lasting happiness in life, all existence on earth was poisoned by unhappiness from the very start, and only nirvana can offer salvation (Chiang, 1976). Buddhism not only turn away from the world, but also from happiness itself. Happiness in Buddhism can only be found in the Paradise of the west after nirvana, which promises eternal bliss beyond everyday misery of this world. Physical exercises, meditation, doing charitable deeds, eliminating all human desires are all ways to lift up the soul to reach nirvana and eternal happiness. For scholars, Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are three entirely different, and even contradictory philosophical systems. For ordinary people, however, they have been merged and utilized to promote a good life. Differentiation between them is no longer necessary nor possible in mundane life of the mass. People may act in accordance with Confucianism when they are interacting with other people, with Taoism when they are faced with the nature, and with Buddhism when they are confronted with themselves. The three great thought schools have been synthesized, reinterpreted and applied to different realms and different living circumstances. This is the ultimate achievement of Chinese utilitarianism (Quah, 1995). The present study thus set out to explore folk, as opposed to scholarly theories of the nature of happiness and ways to achieve happiness. Folk theories are shared by certain subgroups of the human population, in this case, the Chinese people. Almost no empirical study has focused on the conception of happiness, although there have recently been one study looking at the folk theories of causes of happiness across cultures (Chiasson, Dube & Blondin, 1996), and one at lay theories of causes of happiness in the British culture (Furnham & Cheng, 2000). These efforts are valuable and are forming new frontiers in the SWB research, however, both still leaves the fundamental issue of happiness conception untouched. The purpose of this study was then to move towards bridging this gap between scholarly theories of SWB and ordinary peoples day-to-day experiences and their deeply held believes, concepts about human happiness.
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Being the first effort of this kind, this study is inevitably exploratory in nature. Nonetheless, a concerted effort to attack important philosophical questions, such as what is happiness? with scientific methods and empirical evidence is worthwhile.

Method Participants One hundred and forty-two undergraduate students, age 19 to 25, participated in the study. The students were in their second to fourth year, enroling on a health psychology course at a medical university in a metropolitan city in southern Taiwan. These students were majored in medicine (N=60), other heathrelated disciplines (N=60), social sciences (N=9), and natural sciences (N=13). Procedure To reflect the exploratory nature of the present study, a qualitative approach was adopted. Data were collected through a free-format essay writing exercise that took place in January 2000. Participants were given a simple open-ended question, what is happiness?, to write an essay. There was no restriction on perspectives, topics, materials, formats, length, and time of completion. However, it was stressed that participants should freely and fully express their views and thoughts about happiness. All the essays were then coded using thematic analysis. This analysis of the data was then communicated back to the participants at a later class session. The researcher explained her interpretations of themes emerged from these essays, elaborated on her major findings, and answered any queries. This communication exercise thus served as a debriefing act in accordance with research ethics, especially in qualitative research. This exercise also served as a validation of data and analysis to actively engage participants as co-researchers. Participants were invited to provide any further insights, comments, amendments, modifications or clarifications they wish to make. Participants agreed in general with researchers interpretations of and conclusions drawn from the data. Yet, some participants took up this opportunity to offer more detailed contextual, background information to the statements they initially made. In general, participants were pleased to have this feedback session, and enthusiastically engaged in the discussion. This exercise hence further strengthened the trustworthiness of the study, through the attempt to achieve intersubjectivity between the researcher and participants.

Understanding happiness

Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432

Results and Discussion The results are presented below and are grouped into sub-headings that reflect the main themes to arise from the essays. As the purpose of this study was to explore the folk psychology of Chinese happiness conceptions, no content analysis or frequency courts were conducted. Instead, qualitative summary methods were employed to present the results. As the amount of materials were considerable, only example quotes were given to illustrate each point made below. To protect anonymity, only participants codes were given following each quotation.

Definitions of happiness Many scholars think that happiness is too illusive and abstract to be pinned down, and defining it is only possible at the operational level. Some participants expressed similar agitation and hesitation when confronted with the direct, almost sharp inquiry of what is happiness?. One participant began his essay with the comment: This is really a very difficult question to answer! (P33). Another one doubted: Very few people will even attempt to define it (P65). Someone confessed that: I do not know how to give it a definite definition (P.5). Yet another one claimed that: There could be no definite linguistic definition (P117). The failure to commit oneself to a clear definite definition of happiness was due to two fundamental aspects of the happiness experience. First, happiness is abstract, hence its meaning is hard to be captured by language. P42 remarked that: Happiness exists only in a split of thought. P29 and P59 both wrote that: Happiness is very abstract, and it only dwells in everyones mind. It is thus difficult to express in language. Second, happiness is subjective, hence there could be considerable individual differences in definitions of happiness. P11, P30 and P140 all recognized that: Happiness is a very subjective kind of personal experiences and feelings. Other participants shared a similar view: The feelings/interpretations/definitions of happiness are largely dependent on the individuals subjective consciousness (P13, P28, P36, P.38, P.82). P12 and P14 collaborated to provide a summary for this no definition is possible stance: Personal happiness has no fixed criterion, and need not be restricted to a single model. Happiness is simply based on the individuals psychological feelings. This is the very nature of happiness. The majority of participants took up the challenge to define happiness, albeit in their own ways. A total of 67 distinct definitions of happiness were identified, collaborating the above observation that happiness is subjective, so is its definition. Nonetheless, all these diverse definitions pertained to five underlying themes, although no single definition dealt with all five.
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Journal of Happiness Studies, 2001, 2, p.407-432

1.Happiness as a mental state of satisfaction and contentment Many participants referred to happiness as a profound mental state of satisfaction and contentment. This mental state of happiness can be evoked from fulfillment of needs and desires. One participant was blunt in stating that Happiness is the gratification of personal desires (P134). Some elaborated to cover various realms: Happiness is the spiritual and material satisfaction (P11, P62); Happiness is the physical, psychological and social satisfaction. (P17); or simply: Happiness is the satisfaction with the current life circumstances (P6, P79). Whether specific or general, these views of happiness are quite in agreement with the long-held scholarly telic theories, that maintain happiness is gained when some state, goal or need is fulfilled (Diener, 1984). However, there is another dimension to this seemingly straightforward satisfaction/contentment definition of happiness. More participants remarked that happiness is the ability to be content. For instance, Feeling content is the genuine happiness (P135); Happiness is the ability to feel content from the bottom of ones heart (P24, P41, P21). Underlying these definitional statements is the distinct Chinese view that one should be content with ones lot, and sincerely feel thankful for whatever life brings. This calm, meditating Chinese mentality may seem passive, even pessimistic in surface, it is nonetheless a proactive way of re-channeling psychological energy to maintain control when control is seemingly unattainable. Clearly, it has a reflection of the Confucian preaching of accepting and maintaining the existing social order; of the Taoists urge to desire nothing and entrust everything to Natures rules; even of the Buddhists ideal of living a desireless life and cultivating a clear mind. For Chinese, the bliss-like state of contentment and deeply-felt inner happiness need not be the product of actual satisfaction of needs and desires, the happiness is more profound and long-lasting when one adopts a different psychological perspective of accepting and welcoming the fate with gratitudes and heart-felt thankfulness. P91 gave a vivid account of such a state: Happiness is to be truly content with whatever one has at the moment, and naturally feels moved and touched from the bottom of ones heart.

2.Happiness as positive feelings/emotions Satisfaction/contentment often goes hand in hand with various positive feelings and emotions in the happiness experiences. Some participants defined happiness as simple joy (P33, P50, P53, P69), whereas some used more general terms, referring happiness to feelings of a subjective and positive nature (P18, P34, P44, P48, P97, P100). Some were more specific in listing these positive emotions:
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Happiness is a feeling of sweetness, joy, safe, comfortable, being ordinary and feeling comfortable with oneself (P74). Although researchers have often operationalized happiness as positive affectivity and the two constructs are almost synonymous in many SWB studies (Bradburn, 1969; Diener, 1984; Argyle, 1987), being ordinary and feeling comfortable with oneself have never been on the list of happy emotions. Yet more participants mentioned similar feelings of this type of warm, relaxed, long-lasting, heart-touching, deep emotions, as opposed to more exciting, intense, transient, shallow emotions such as joy and elation. P4 wrote: Happiness is a positive feeling of being loved and feeling content. P26 agreed: Happiness is the feeling of being loved and cared about. P27 gave a neat summary of this view of happiness: Happiness is when I am happy, and people around me are happy; when I feel warm, and can give warmth to other people. For Chinese, intense hedonic emotions are not stressed, although they are recognized as part of the happiness experience. Instead, being at ease with oneself reflects the Buddhist wisdom of self retrospection and self transcendence; being loved and loving others is a life practice of the Confucian ideal of promoting group welfare starting from ones most intimate circle of people.

3.Happiness as a harmonious homeostasis Happiness can be defined as a state of harmony within the individual as well as between the individual and his surroundings. P13 wrote: Happiness is to achieve a harmonious balance between ones body and mind. Others thought that: Happiness is a quality of the mind, is a spiritual state of fitness (P32, P141). The concept of harmonious homeostasis seems to capture the core implication of happiness being a dynamic process of achieving and maintaining a good fit from within to outward. P98 declared that: Happiness is the ability to pursue a balanced satisfaction between ones ideals and physical, psychological realities. P99 defined happiness as a physical, psychological and social (interpersonal) equilibrium. P111 elaborated on this view, saying that: Happiness is the inner well-being and contentment, as well as the feeling of harmony with the external world. It is also trust, safty and stability. Headey and Wearing (1989) proposed a dynamic equilibrium model to explain individual differences in SWB. However, their key interest was to synthesize the top-down theories (e.g. personality effects) and the bottom-up theories (eg. life events influences). Hence, mechanisms of fluctuation on stability of SWB were their focal concern, rather than the nature of happiness. The Chinese concept of homeostasis, however, has a philosophical depth. According to the ancient
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Yin-Yang theory, homeostasis is the ideal state for the entire universe, a state of harmony with the great natural principles (Hong, 1944). The Yin-Yang theory of great Chinese antiquity, is a life philosophy and a dualistic cosmic theory, which explains all activities of the universe, including human life. The centre thesis is that the universe consists of two basic principles of nature, Yin and Yang; through the change of relationships between these two opposing forces, all creations were born and are still constantly changing, hence keeping a state of homeostasis in nature, societies and human beings. Happiness is but one particular domain submissive to the influences of Yin and Yang. The above presented view of happiness corresponds nicely to this Yin-Yang philosophy, stressing a state of homeostasis in the human mind and body, in the individual and his social, spiritual and natural environment. This holistic view of happiness thus surpasses the Western view of equilibrium as a process mechanism. Harmony between Heaven, Earth and People is also the ultimate happiness aspired by Taoism.

4. Happiness as achievement and hope Some participants stressed the sense of achievement and worth as a defining feature of happiness, which often leads to satisfaction and contentment. P8 wrote that: Happiness is a sense of achievement and satisfaction in ones interested realms. This state of happiness is usually brought about through the attainment of goals and rewards for efforts. P67 viewed happiness as the dreams coming true, while P45 viewed happiness as a sense of achievement, rewards for ones efforts. This view of happiness can be seen as another form of the telic theories (Diener, 1984), emphasizing happiness as an end state, as a product of goal fulfillment. Among Chinese, such a view of happiness is unusually uplifting, active, initiating, and focuses on individual agency and autonomy. As P125 put it Happiness is a feeling of joy and contentment gained in the process of striving for ones ideals and goals. This view of happiness also has a future dimension to it. P76 wrote that: Happiness is a feeling of worth in the present life, and a longing towards the future. P118 agreed: Happiness is satisfaction with the present circumstance, and holding positive outlook for the future development. Happiness is not only focused on the present, but also oriented towards the future. Therefore, the common practice of using (present) life satisfaction as a proxy for happiness is restricting and incomplete (Diener, 1984; Argyle, 1987). Furthermore, if happiness inherently implies an optimistic approach towards the future, the finding that optimism as a personality trait consistently correlates with reported happiness is to be expected (Myers & Diener, 1996). For Chinese, hope and keeping faith is even more important than actual achievement and goal
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fulfillment. Confucian, Taoism and Buddhism all preach a philosophy of submission to, rather than conquering the environment. Hope and faith thus become important strategies of maintaining personal control, albeit psychological, in the face of hardship and uncertainty. It is understandable that hope should be intricately related to Chinese happiness.

5.Happiness as freedom from ill-being So far, the four accounts of happiness all adopt a perspective of possessing or achieving something, be it a fulfillment, a feeling/emotion, an accomplishment or hopeful outlook. However, happiness can also be defined from the opposing perpective of not having something bad, unpleasant, undesirable or unsettling. For instance, P68 stated that: Happiness is a life without worries. P119 gave a more detailed account: Happiness can be defined in four aspects: (1) free of physical sufferings, illnesses or disabilities; (2) being socially acceptable, getting along well with other people, being respected and cared for, not being isolated; (3) free of worries and hardships, being able to live a carefree and joyful life; (4) possessing a healthy, normal mind, being accepted by the society. This elaborate definition of happiness actually alternates between two opposing perspectives yet managed to convey a rather coherent and meaningful view. It seems that having and not having may be equally important in peoples thoughts about happiness. The scholarly debate of whether happiness and unhappiness are two conceptually distinct constructs or two sides of a coin (Diener, 1984; Argyle, 1987) seems irrelevant in the folk psychology theories of happiness. It is proposed that the relationship between happiness and unhappiness is dialectical, each dependent on the other for contrast and meaning, and under certain conditions, each can transform into the other. This point will be further discussed later.

Happiness is a harmonious state of existence Happiness is a state of being where one maintains a harmonious relationship with oneself, and with the environment. This harmonious relationship is of fundamental importance to ones survival and well-being. However, this relationship is also dynamic and has to be diligently kept. In order to maintain this harmonious relationship, several conditions have to be met. 1.The individual has to be satisfied or content From previous discussions on the view of happiness as satisfaction/contentment, we can conclude that one way to attain satisfaction and contentment in life is through the gratification of human needs and the fulfillment of personal goals and desires. Needs, goals, and desires can reside in
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every realm of the human existence, but the following were specifically mentioned by our participants: (1) to be loved, cared about, especially in ones cardinal relationships with family members, friends, and lover/spouse; (2) material abundance; (3) health; (4) biopsychosocial equilibrium; (5) self-worth; (6) peace; (7) free of ill-being; and (8) self-actualization. Previously, using qualitative interviews, Lu and Shih (1997) found a similar list of sources of happiness among Chinese community adults. These prominent sources are: (1) being respected; (2) harmonious interpersonal relationships; (3) material gratification; (4) work achievement; (5) being at ease with life; (6) self-control and self-actualization; (7) pleasure and positive affect; (8) health; and (9) downward social comparisons. Adopting a folk psychology approach, Chiasson, Dube and Blondin (1996) found more similarities than differences in factors people perceived as contributing to happiness across French-speaking Canadian, English-specking Canadian, American, and Salvadoran student groups. The most often mentioned factors were family relationships, pursuing and reaching valued goals, having a positive attitude toward self, and having friends. From a somewhat different perspective of lay theories, Furnham and Cheng (2000) found six general factors in their 38-item Causes of happiness questionnaire in a group of British students. They were: mental strength and personality traits, personal advantages, achievement and freedom in life and work, social support and self-esteem, security, optimism and contentment. While this study used pre-determined lay beliefs, the present study, Lu and Shih (1997), Chiasson, Dube and Blondin (1996) all allowed free-range responses from participants, hence lending more credits to the trustworthiness of revealing what people truly think about happiness, both college students and community adults. It thus seems that conditions people perceive as conducive to happiness are rather similar across age/cohort and cultural groups. They broadly include interpersonal factors, such as money, achievement, health and self-worth, as well as interpersonal factors, such as harmonious relationships, being loved, respected, and cared about, . For Chinese, however, interpersonal goals are the most important to subjective well-being, underlined by a desire for solidarity and loyalty so deeply woven in the cultural tradition (Lu, 1998). The Confucian wu lun, five cardinal relationships, form the backbone of a Chinese persons social world, and were repeatedly mentioned by our participants in relation to happiness. They are ones relation with the emperor (supervisor being his modern proxy), with father, with spouse, with brother, and with friends. Harmony on these realms virtually ascertains ones harmonious relationships with the self and the external environment, as other life domains are but servents serving the master: family and clan. For example, making money is to prosper the family, and career achievements are to glorify the family name.
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However, for the Chinese there is yet another way of feeling satisfied and content: not desiring and being sincerely grateful to life. Human desires can be fulfilled through hard-driving and persistent striving, as highly valued in the Western culture; or desires can be eliminated through even harder suppression and self-cultivation. When a simple life style is adopted, a clear mind is set, a desireless state finally breaks the vicious circle of reproduction of desires, frustration, and misery. Happiness then can be truely long-lasting and peaceful. The spiritual cultivation and mind work preached by all schools of Chinese philosophy open up another passage to the depth of happiness, which is generally unavailable to the Westerners.

2.The individual is the agent of his own happiness There is often a false belief that traditional Chinese philosophies are passive and pessimistic. In fact, even the Taoists not doing (wu wei) is not doing nothing, rather doing things according to the Natures force. The Confucian system asserts that fate determines while man strives. Many of our participants took this more uplifting view and assumed more personal responsibility in formulating their happiness conceptions. Three aspects of the human agency were mentioned. First, the individual is dynamic, and should strive to create a meaningful life for himself. For instance, P125 wrote that: Happiness is not a given fact, it is created through personal striving. He went on to claim that Happiness is a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction, after one has done what one should and tried ones best. P111 agreed that: A human life is a constant pursue of happiness. Putting ones ideas into practice is one way of pursuing happiness. Second, the personal striving must be governed by moral principles, and a meaningful life is a virtuous life. For example, P10 thought that: Not harming others was the pre-condition for striving for personal goals and happiness. P2 wrote that: A moral belief system is the foundation of ones happiness. P14 also believed that: Our happiness must be judged with the criterion of moral obligations. Morality has a central place in the Confucian philosophy and is held as a defining feature of becoming a man (zuo ren). It is with morality, the Chinese culture battles the self-destructive pursuit of hedonic pleasures, thus maintaining harmony and stability in the greater society. Third, the individual should assume autonomy, but at the same time accept whatever fate may bring him. As several participants mentioned that Happiness is to be free to adopt ones own life style and do what one wants with life, however, one has to be open-minded and accept whatever life has installed for one with great ease (P65, P72, P90, P98, and P105). In conclusion, the Chinese notion of human agency is fundamentally different from that
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advocated in the Western culture, and is pre-determined by fate. The Chinese strategies of executing human agency are also different from the Western ones, as they focus on accepting and coming to terms with the results, no matter good or bad. When man has done his work, the rest is up to the Heaven.

3.Spiritual enrichment should be more emphasized than material satisfaction As many of our participants believed that happiness is fundamentally a quality of the mind. The human mind perceives, interprets, interacts with the external world, and generates various positive feelings if relationships between the individual and himself, between the individual and his environment are harmonious. A large majority of our participants noted that happiness is more of some inner feelings than a mere reflection of the objective world. It is of course not likely that happiness can bread in a material vacuum for most ordinary people, however, the dignity and peace accomplished by Buddist munks under extreme material and physical hardships do provide a striking demonstration of mind power. Chuan-Tzu, the great Taoist philosopher, sang and danced joyfully to celebrate the death of his wife, for Taoism views death as a dreamless sleep, a transition to a new life, a purification of imperfect human form, and a passport to eternal happiness. Confucian philosophy too stresses mind work to suppress selfish desires and irrational demands in order to be virtuous and serve the group. All these Chinese traditional teachings place great emphasis on spiritual enrichment, and play down, even deny the role of material gratification, physical comfort, and hedonic pleasures in the happiness experience. P122 ascribed to this solemn view of happiness: Only when the spirit is rich, the mind is peaceful and steady, happiness is then possible. Happiness is an inner feeling, not resides in the external material world. P40 agreed that Happiness is a feeling generated by ones mind, not a judgement imposed from the outside. P55 was certain that If the mind is not content, happiness will not exist. It should be said that referring happiness as an individual mental state and spiritual-focused is not a monopoly of the Chinese cultural tradition, such viewpoints can be found in the philosophies/religions of other cultures too. For instance, ancient Greek philosopher Democritus (461-371 B.C.) asserted that the basis for the ultimate human happiness is the peace of soul and self-discipline with moral and reason. In the eyes of ancient Greek philosophers, virtue is almost synonym of happiness, and only through virtuous human activities can happiness be achieved. In the East, India is another great cultural heritage which adopts a predominant spiritual and transcendental approach to life in general, including happiness conceptions of course. Bearing in mind such pan-cultural consensus on viewing happiness as a mental and spiritual state, it is thus worthwhile for
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scholars to re-evaluate our SWB research paradigms. If happiness is believed to be mainly the work of the human mind, which is largely independent of, if not irrelevant to the external conditions, then the search for objective indicators of a happy person is doomed to be futile (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Diener, 1984; Argrle, 1987; Myers & Diener, 1996). Instead, we should pay more attention to how people interpret and generate meanings from the external world, for instance, in the track of judgement theory (Rim, 1993).

4.The individual has to maintain a positive outlook for the future Happiness is not just here and now, to achieve a harmonious relationship with oneself and with the external world, one has to set the mind towards future too. For if future is gloomy, the preseat happiness will only be short lived; if the mind is unsettling, happiness will not dwell. The future orientation of happiness can be secured through: (1) acceptance of gaps between realities and ideals (P79); (2) having courage to face the reality (P106, P123); and (3) keeping faith and hope, opening up the mind towards future and staying optimistic disregarding external circumstances (P6, P76). Optimism keeps happiness alive and lasting (P84). As discussed earlier, amending the existing SWB research programmes to capture this future dimension in happiness is necessary. To find out how people manage to maintain a positive outlook under some exceptional hardships will be particularly insightful for our understanding of human happiness (Carver et al., 1993).

The dialectical relationship between happiness and unhappiness Philosophers and psychologists have long debated on the nature of relationship between happiness and unhappiness. Buddhist philosophy cuts a deep breach between happiness and unhappiness: unhappiness or misery is the truth of human existence, whereas happiness can only be found in the Paradise of the west. Taoist philosophy too casts happiness and unhappiness in a all-or-none relationship. Chuan-Tzu claimed that perfect happiness is in the absence of happiness. In other words, if one searches for happiness, unhappiness results; if one does nothing, happiness is found. In Taoism as well as Buddhism, happiness and unhappiness can not co-exist. However, Chinese folk wisdom takes a more flexible stance on the relationship between happiness and unhappiness. As briefly discussed earlier, the ancient Yin-Yang philosophy takes a cosmological view that everything from the cosmos to human life is a never-ending, cyclic process of change, between good and bad, happiness and misery, well-being and ill-being. In the Book of Change,
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the ancient but still influential philosophical work, good things are said to be inevitably followed by bad things; misfortune will be replaced by blessing. This cyclic view of life is best expressed in the case of happiness/unhappiness: Happiness is dependent on unhappiness, while unhappiness is hidden in happiness (Lu, 1998). It is probable that the relationship between happiness and unhappiness can be a dialectical one. Happiness and unhappiness are two distinct entities, but locked in a never-ending relationship of interdependence: each depends on the other for contrast and meaning. Without happiness, unhappiness will not be threatening and distressing; without unhappiness, happiness will not be precious and worthy of pursuit. Moreover, this relationship between the two opposites is also dynamic and constantly changing. Happiness and unhappiness are conflictual, but they each can transform, and integrate at a higher level. However, the conflicts may still be present at this higher lever, hence integration and resolution are always possibilities at an even higher lever. So goes on this process of conflict, integration and resolution. Buddhist philosophy may be misinterpreted as escapist and pessimistic, it in fact urges people to play down the significance of here and now, and to view everything from a wider perspective and at a higher level. This is the Buddhist wisdom of seeing a mountain as not a mountain; seeing a mountain as a mountain again. Seeing a mountain as not a mountain is to transcend the reality of mountain; however, seeing a mountain as a mountain again is to further transcend ones mind set of not a mountain. Some of our participants views on happiness reflected this dialectical relationship with unhappiness. One characteristic of this dialectical relationship is the contrast between happiness and unhappiness. P38, P49 and P100 all stated that happiness results from its contrast with unhappiness. P97 went on to explain: When someone loses freedom, he then realizes the happiness of having freedom. When love is gone (especially those who are forced to be separated from loved ones), they then painfully realize how happy they were being in love. This is a case of contrasting the present unhappiness with the previous happiness intrapersonally. The contrast can also occur interpersonally. P100 explained: If someone has just been forsaken by his girlfriend, he will surely feel miserable; however, if he realizes that there are more misery and tragedy in the ICU, he will feel less unfortunate. In any case, happiness must be set against unhappiness, and unhappiness is sharpened against happiness. P38 thus concluded: If we are to feel happiness, we must first go through lifes trial of frustration. Because if everything goes smoothly, it is hard to feel the existence of happiness. Another characteristic of the dialectical relationship between happiness and unhappiness is its dynamic and transformational nature. P47 noted that: When we go through different stages of life, the
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happiness we pursue will change constantly. Transient but intense sensual pleasures may bring happiness to a young man, but are carefully avoided when he grows older, as these may breed unhappiness even danger. The central thesis of proposing a dialectical view is that both happiness and unhappiness are relative, changeable, and interdependent. The views of happiness and unhappiness as two parallels, or as two poles of a dimension may both be restrictive. Instead, the energy and transformation mechanisms involved in this dialectical relationship deserve more concerted research efforts.

Happiness can be achieved Happiness may be difficult to define, and constantly changing, however, most people believe that its pursuit is worthy and happiness can be achieved. Our participants listed four broad categories of abilities, or wisdoms in Chinese term, to ensure a successful pursuit of happiness.

1.The wisdom of discovery As happiness is a quality of the mind, a subjective and relative inner state of feelings, participants believed that happiness should not be searched outward, but inward instead. P125 questioned: If we dont know what we need, what we are searching for, what we are waiting for, and just live a life day by day, how can there be any happiness? P2 agreed that: The foundation of happiness is in your mind: having faith, and knowing what one is searching for. Happiness needs not be searched outside, instead one needs to build up ones own mind. Therefore, the starting point of a search for happiness is retrospection and mind work: to understand oneself, to work on oneself, and to focus ones mind from outward demands to inward search. P115 commented that: People regard happiness as brought by external events, hence can be achieved through hard striving outward. They dont realize that happiness is in fact a subtle inner feeling, and can only be found through hard striving inward.

2. The wisdom of contentment and gratitude As discussed earlier under the notion of happiness definitions, being content with ones lot, and feeling sincerely thankful for whatever life brings is a distinct Chinese perspective in conceptualizing happiness. Many participants highlighted this wisdom of contentment and gratitude as a key to genuine happiness. Those who feel content are often happy, One should be content for and treasure whatever one has got are two popular Chinese idioms most often quoted in our participants writings about happiness (eg. P52, P53, P81, P114). According to Confucian, Taoism and Buddhism, the most
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effective way to achieve psychological contentment is to eliminate excessive desires. P114 remarked that In the search for happiness, we might better start with reducing our greedy desires.

3.The wisdom of giving One way to express ones gratitude for life is to give back, benefiting other people and the greater society, P21 commented that: Discovering ones own happiness, learning to be grateful, and finally giving out to other people, is in the pursuit of a more divine happiness. P114 also agreed that: Giving is more fortunate than receiving. Those who are not greedy, not selfish are truly happy people. P64 was more specific: As long as I treat people sincerely, doing my best to help friends and giving them a sense of security, I then feel happy. This altruistic way to achieve happiness is reminiscent of the Confucian collectivist oriented conception of happiness.

4.The wisdom of self-cultivation Traditional Chinese philosophers are more concerned with practical issues of being a man, as opposed to Western philosophers intense interest on abstract knowledge. Self-cultivation is a prime method of transforming ideas into action. Learning and self-constraint are Confucian ways of self-cultivation, synchronizing with the Nature is the Taoist way of life practice, whereas meditation and rituals are Buddhist ways of mind work. Regardless of schools and methods, common goals of self-cultivation are to surpass selfish desires, to break out the constraints of here and now, and to gear ones mind to a broader and higher horizon. As P54 remarked that: Happiness does not involve things happening to us, it is actually about how we view these things. P69 also remarked that: Happiness is dependent on our perspectives of seeing things. Happiness and unhappiness are separated with a split of thought. Keeping a clear mind to transcend reality is the task of self-cultivation.

Final reflections Causes of happiness vs. conceptions of happiness Throughout the discussions on happiness, both from a philosophical and a folk point of view, there seems a prevailing propensity of including the causes of happiness in its conceptions. There might be several causes responsible for such a phenomenon. First, in some viewpoints of happiness, certain acts, beliefs or circumstances are seen as preconditions for a state of mind to be categorized as happiness. Confucians hold moral as the necessary condition for human happiness. Ancient Greek philosophers too regarded virtue as a
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precondition for happiness. Second, for ordinary people, philosophical and ethical contemplations are too removed from their mundane existence, so is the abstract and illusive definitions of happiness. However, subjective experiences of a happy state may be blessed, or observed on other people. Hence, beliefs on causes of happiness are direct results of attributions made on such real happy experiences. In other words, causes of happiness are the relatively concrete and tangible components of the generally abstract and illusive conceptions of happiness. Not surprisingly, both lay people and scholars have found them attainable and rewarding subjects of intellectual inquiries Chiasson, Dube & Blondin, 1996; Furnham & Cheng, 2000; Lu & Shih, 1997). Finally, both setting preconditions for happiness and making attributions on real happy experiences may have utilitarian functions as well. Knowing/believing what causes happiness can serve to guide concerted efforts in the pursuit of happiness. Having set moral as the precondition for happiness, Confucians further point out that happiness can be achieved through knowledge, benevolence, and harmony of the group (Wu, 1992, p.31). These are the three ways of self-cultivation to accomplish the Confucian moral greatness. We should be aware that although causes of happiness may be psychologically more accessible when people think about happiness, and scientifically more operationalizable to explore, there are still much more to a comprehensive happiness conception.

Heritage vs. adoption in happiness conceptions From the aforementioned limited extant empirical literature, we can tentatively conclude that the propensity of including the causes of happiness in its conceptions may not be distinct in the Chinese culture. In fact, the reflections made above are sufficiently general to be applied to other cultures too. Furthermore, even with a focus deliberately set on the Chinese cultural contexts, some viewpoints presented in this paper do not merely reflect Chinese traditions, such as referring happiness as an individual mental and spiritual state, which can be found in other cultures too. Moreover, it can be argued that in spite of Chinese background, Taiwanese society may no longer be a pure heritage of Chinese traditional culture. As a matter of fact, neither Hong Kong nor Mainland China is. After decades of economic globalization, political interactions, strategic alliance, and systematic cultural communications, it seems that very few cultures in todays world can withstand the strict test of being pure to their heritages. With no doubt, the cultural asymmetry does exist, namely, the Eastern cultures are faced with greater impacts and challenges brought by the invading Western cultures than vice versa. However, against this background of vast scale imposed cultural evolution in Asian
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territories, Taiwan stands out as a rather special and intriguing case. First, Taiwan has the best preservation of the Chinese cultural heritages among Chinese dominated societies in the world, due to historical and political reasons. Since 1949, the Communists took over power in Mainland China and the Nationalist government expelled established their anti-Communist base in Taiwan. The two sides are officially still at war with each other. Although the war of guns has ceased for many decades, but the one with competing ideologies and fierce rhetoric still prevails across the Taiwan Strait. The Nationalist government orchestrated a political campaign to preserve Chinese cultural heritages, in order to rival the Communists anti-tradition stance. This political engineering has far-reaching influences and consequently core Chinese values such as fillial piety still pervade through every aspect of life in Taiwan. Materials on Chinese cultural heritages are part of the core curriculum in statutory education for every Taiwanese, which is not the case in any other Chinese societies. Second, Taiwan has been a major gateway for Western influences into Asia, besides Hong Kong. The help and alliance of the Western world, especially the USA, secured the safety and survival of the early exiled government. Consequently, Western influences are welcome and profound, which laid the ground for the still ongoing democratization in Taiwan. American life style is also evident around every street corner in big cities of Taiwan. Hence, the historical anti-communist stance of the Taiwanese government has created a blend of traditional Chinese cultural heritages and Western capitalism in modern Taiwan. Living in a cross-stream of Chinese and Western cultural influences, contemporary Taiwanese people exhibit an amazing capacity for both cultural preservation and cultural adaptation. A recent study (Lu et al., 2001) has found that Taiwanese people possess traditional Chinese collectivistic values (interdependent self-construal and harmony beliefs), as well as Western individualistic values (independent self-construal and control beliefs). Furthermore, both sets of values contribute to happiness. Hwang (1996) examined perceived generational value differences among Taiwanese college students. He found very little changes on importance attached to core traditional values between the two generations. However, some traditional values are receding among the younger Taiwanese. Nonetheless, traditional and modern values can coexist in the process of societal modernization. They may even integrate to form a new value system to guide modern life practice for contemporary Taiwanese. It seems that in the face of the vast-scale cultural invasion from the West, and the rapid transition from an agricultural and autocratic society to an industrial and democratic society, Taiwanese people have not relinquished traditional Chinese ideology, philosophies, values and practices. Instead, they have made pragmatic use of the Western culture, learning, adopting and assimilating useful
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ideology, philosophies, values and practices to enhance adjustment in the modern world (Quah, 1995). An attitude favoring both cultural preservation and cultural adaptation for dealing with the apparent conflicts between strong traditionality and requisite modernity seems to be the most favorable outcome for people in Taiwan. This should also be the case for happiness conceptions explored in this study. It may not be very meaningful even possible to tease out heritage vs. adoption in happiness conceptions, nonetheless, we need to be aware that the Taiwans young generation are living testimony that heritage and adoption not only can coexist, but also are equally important for human happiness.

A final quote It is becoming to conclude this paper with a poem from one of our participants essays.

Where does happiness come from

Happiness is a warm feeling so attractive everyone likes to get closer but it is abstract, can not be touched If you are to search for it you dont know where it comes from

Happiness is from your heart just fill your heart with love Looking at people with love experiencing the encounter between people with love You will feel happy

Happiness is inside everyones mind Everyones thoughts control their existence As long as you can experience, knowing to treasure Happiness is no longer a privilege of the rich ordinary people can possess happiness, even more
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Therefore, dont say that you are not happy You just dont know how to experience Happiness is from your heart

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Chiang, S.M.: 1996, The philosophy of happiness: A history of Chinese life philosophy (Hong Yei Publication, Taipei). Chiasson, N., L. Dube and J. Blondin: 1996, Happiness: A look into the folk psychology of four cultural groups, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 27, pp. 673-691. Diener, E.: 1984, Subjective well-being, Psychological Bulletin 95, pp. 542-575. Diener, E., E.M. Suh, R.E. Lucas and H.L. Smith: 1999, Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress, Psychological Bulletin 125, pp. 276-302. Furnham, A. and H. Cheng: 2000, Lay theories of happiness, Journal of Happiness Studies 1, pp. 227-246. Headey, B. and A. Wearing: 1989, Personality, life events, and subjective well-being: Toward a dynamic equilibrium Model, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57, pp.731-739. Hong, Y.L.: 1944, History of Chinese philosophy, Yin-Yang (San-Wu Books, Beijing). Hornby, A.S., E.V. Gatenby and H. Wakefield: 1948, The advanced learners dictionary of current English (Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK). Hwang, K. K.: 1996, The modern transformation of the Confucian values: Theoretical analysis and empirical research, Indigenous Psychological Research in Chinese Societies 3, pp. 276-338. Lu, L.: 1995, The relationship between subjective well-being and psychosocial variables in Taiwan, The Journal of Social Psychology 135, pp. 351-357. Lu, L. and J.B. Shih: 1997, Sources of happiness: A qualitative approach, Journal of Social Psychology 137, pp.181-187. Lu, L.: 1998, The meaning, measure, and correlates of happiness among Chinese people, Proceedings of the National Science Council: Part C 8, pp. 115-137.
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Lu, L., R. Gilmour, S.F. Kao, T.H. Eng, C.H. Hu, J.G. Chern, S.W. Huang and J.B. Shih: 2001, Two ways to achieve happiness: When the East meets the West, Personality and Individual Differences 30, pp. 1161-1174. Myers, D.G. and E. Diener: 1996, The pursuit of happiness, Scientific American 6, pp. 10-19. Quah, S.H.: 1995, Socio-culture factors and productivity: The case of Singapore, In K. K. Hwang (Eds.), Easternization: Socio-culture Impact on Productivity (Asian Productivity Organization, Tokyo), pp. 131-156. Rim, Y.: 1993, Values, happiness and family structure variables, Personality and Individual Differences 15, pp. 595-598. Ryff, C.D.: 1989, Happiness is everything, or is it? Exploration on the meaning of psychological well-being, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57, pp. 1069-1081. Veenhoven, R.: 1984, Conditions of happiness (D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, The Netherlands). Wu, Y.: 1991, The new transcription of "shang shu" (Shan Min Books, Taipei). Wu, J.H.: 1992, Sources of inner happiness (Tong Da Books, Taipei). Yang, K.S. and P.S. Cheng: 1987, Confucianized values, individual modernity, and organizational behaviour: An empirical test of a post-Confucian hypothesis, Bulletin of the Institute of Ethnology, Academia Sinica 64, pp. 1-49.

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