Sr. Author No. 1. L. Karthikeyan, V.S. Senthil Kumar (Engg.

Guindly Campus, Anna university, Chennai)

Date of Publish Received: 23/08/2010 Accepted: 22/12/2010 Available online: 05/01/2011

Experiment done Effect of process variables: 1.Axial Force 2.Tool Feed 3.Rotational Speed on the properties: 1.Yield Strength 2.Ductility 3.Ultimate Tensile Strength 4.Micro Hardness were studied, and surface defects were also analyzed under these parameters.

Tools and Materials used w/p Material: AA6063-T6 Aluminium Alloy Tool: Hub dia: 18 Tip dia: 6 Tool tip height: 5.7 RH Thread Pitch 1mm Workpiece: 200x50x10 Machine used: Spl prps FSW m/c Pmax=30 hp Fmax(axial)=25 kN Nmax=3000 rpm Testing Setup: UTM, Vickers microharness tester with load 0.5 Kgf and dwell period 15s Tensile specimen: ASTM B308 Etchant used: Kellers reagent & 0.5% hydrofluoric acid Study Tools: SPSS 17.0, Regression Analysis w/p material: 1050-H24 (soft alloy), 5083-O (hard alloy), 6061-T6 (relatively soft alloy) w/p dimensions: 300x70x5 Tool: 1.simple tool: Shoulder dia: 15 Shoulder concavity: 10o Tip dia: 6 Tool tip height: 4.7 Tilt angle: 3o 2. Ordinary tool with threads: RH Thread Pitch

Conclusion 1. Enhanced mechanical properties achieved with a tool feed of 40.2 mm/min, tool rotational speeds in the range of 1200-1400 rpm and axial force of 10 kN. 2. The maximum increase in the ultimate tensile strength was 46.5%, ductility was 133% and microhardness was 33.4% in relation to the parent material. 3. All the specimens processed with axial force of 8kN yielded process defects. 4. Mathematical model developed using regression analysis. 1. Columnar tool without threads is suitable for soft materials. 2. For 6061-T6, tool shape has almost no effect on microstructure and mechanical properties. 3. For hard alloys, tool shape is decided by rotation speed: (i) at lower speeds(600 rpm)No effect. (ii) at medium

Gap (i) 9% deviation from process variables yield, tensile strengths and Vickers microhardness. (ii) 12% deviation from ductility.

2.

Hidetoshi Fujii, Ling Cui, Masakatsu Maeda, Kiyoshi Nagi (Joining and Welding Research Institute, Osaka University, Japan)

Accepted: 18/11/2005

Effect of tool shape on mechanical properties and microstructure of FSW aluminium alloys.

(i) No exact reasons for the low strengths for other tool shapes were given. He just said that it is due to the formation of more cracks on surface.

0.5mm (opposite to direction of rotation) 3.Tool with triangular prism probe: Circumsbscribed dia: 6mm Machine: Plunge depth controlled FSW machine Testing Setup: Optical microscopy, Two K-type thermocouple (9mm from centre), orientation image microscopy Etchant used: Kellers reagent

speeds (800 rpm)threaded column is best. (iii) at fast speed (1500 rpm)triangular prism tool is best. 4. Mechanical properties at 600 rpm are best and defect free macrostructure was obtained. 5. Temperature at tool base and top surface decreases with the tool feed. 6. Temperature at bottom surface is low for the triangular tool due to low contact area.

3.

H. Bisadi, A. Tavakoli, M. Tour Sangsaraki (Iran university of Science & technology, Tehran, Iran. & Islamic Azad university, Tehran, Iran)

Received: 13/04/2012 Accepted: 16/06/2012 Available online: 28/06/2012

Study of Rotational & Welding speeds on microstructure and mechanical properties of aluminium alloy and commercially pure copper sheet lap joints.

w/p material: 1. Al5083 2. commercially pure Cu sheet. w/p dimensions: Al: 150x100x2.5 Cu: 150x100x3 Tool material: H13 quenched and tempered tool Tool dimensions: Shoulder dia 23 Tool tip dia 5 Tip height: 3.8 Tool tilt angle: 3.5 Shoulder penetration: 0.4 mm w/p Material: AA6061 aluminiumAZ31B magnesium alloys. w/p dimensions: 200*500*6 each (rolled) Al: retreating side Mg: advancing Side.

4.

S. Malarvizhi, V. Balasubrama nian (Centre for Materials Joining & Research, Annamalai University,

Received: 23/01/2012 Accepted: 02/04/2012 Available online: 12/04/2012

Influences of tool shoulder diameter to plate thickness ratio on stir zone formation and tensile properties of dissimilar joints.

1. Joint fabricated with a tool shoulder dia of 21 mm (3.5 times the plate thickness) yielded maximum tensile strength of 192 MPa.

1. Magnesim advancing and aluminium retreating.

Tamil Nadu, India.)

Tool material: High speed steel Tool dimensions: Probe dia: 6 Height: 5.7 Shoulder dia: 12-24 (2-4 times of plate thickness) Testing Setup: Eletromechanical controlled UTM and Light Optical Microscope. w/p material: AA5083-H111 (retreating) & AA6351-T6 (advancing) aluminium alloys w/p dimensions: 100*50*6 (rolled) Tool types: 1. Straight square 2. straight hexagon 3. straight octagon 4. tapered square 5. tapered octagon Tool rotation speeds: 600 rpm, 950 rpm, 1300 rpm

5.

R. Palanivel, P.Koshy Mathews, N.Murugan, I.Dinaharan (Coimbatore Tamilnadu)

Received: 14/01/2012 Accepted: 16/03/2012 Available online: 23/03/2012

Effect of tool rotational speed and pin profile on microstructure and tensile strength of dissimilar FSW

6.

Weifeng Xu, Jinhe Liu,

Received: 19/10/2012

Influence of welding

w/p material: 2219-T62 Al alloy

1. Out of unmixed region, mechanically mixed region and mixed flow region, rotation speed & pin profile influenced the formation of mixed flow region. 2. Tapered tools and at 600 rpm, no mixed flow region was obtained. 3. straight square pin and at 950 rpm, highest strength of 273Mpa was observed. 4. Variation in tensile strength is due to material flow behaviour, loss of cold work in the HAZ of AA5083 and overaging of precipitates of AA6351 and defects in weld zone. 5. Tapered tools caused tunnel defect at the bottom of the joints. 1. Larger grain sizes were

(i) FSW in different rolling directions.

Hongqiang Zhu, Li Fu

Accepted: 26/12/2012 Available online: 03/01/2013

parameters and tool pin profile on microstructure and mechanical properties along the thickness in a FSW aluminium alloy

w/p dimensions: 400*100*12mm thick rolled plate (welding // to rolling direction) Tool material: H13 steel Tool types 1. threaded and tapered with three spiral flutes 2. threaded and tapered with triangle Tool dimensions: Shoulder dia: 26 Probe height: 11.7 Threaded pin of dia 11.8 (root), 5.9 (head) Tilt angle: 2.5o Rotational speeds: 300, 400 & 500rpm Traverse speeds: 60, 80 & 100mm/min

observed in top section, smaller in bottom. 2. size of grains decreased and distribution of second-phase particles were more diffuse at N=300 than 500rpm. 3. Grain size was finer for the three spiral flute tool 4. strength and ductility of top is slightly higher for first tool and increases with traverse speed or decrease of rotational speed. 5. tensile fracture occur at 45o (in Nugget) & brittle normal to stress axis (in HAZ)

7.

B. Ashok Kumar, N. Murugan TamilNadu

Received: 11/10/2013 Accepted: 22/12/2013 Available online: 08/01/2014

Influence of welding parameters on AA6061-T6 AlN (aluminium nitride) composite AMC (aluminium matrix composites)

w/p material: AA6061-T6/AINp w/p dimensions: 100x50x6 Tool material: High carbon high chromium steel (HCHCr), oil hardened to 60-62 HRC Tool dimensions: Square tool:

Regression models, and optimization techniques were used to test results.

8.

Mohsen Baharami, Mohd. Kazem Besharati. Tehran, Iran

Received: 13/04/2013 Accepted: 14/07/2013 Available online: 24/07/2013

Role of pin geometry in microstructure and mechanical properties of AA7075 aluminium alloy with SiC injection.

w/p material: AA7075/SiC nano composite w/p dimensions: 100x60x6mm thick Tool material: H13, heat treated to 58HRC tool types: 1. threaded tapered(TT) 2. triangular(T) 3. square(S) 4. four flute square (FS) 5. four flute cylindrical(FC) Tool dimensions: Circumscribed circle: 6mm Pin Depth: 5.7 mm profile formation: width: 0.2mm depth: 5mm Parameters: RPM: 1250 Speed: 40mm/min w/p material: AA7075/SiC nano composite

1.TT distribute SiC most uniformly, whereas FC least. 2. Highest UTS was obtained with T tool, whereas FC lowest. 3. All but FC tool made specimen fractured from the base metal. 4. FC tool showed highest harness of 124HV.

Check fixture pic

9.

Mohsen Baharami, Mohd. Kazem

Received: 22/02/2013 Accepted:

Investigate the effect of SiC nanoparticles on mechanical

1. high powder dispersion at 1250 rpm 2. SiC

Besharati. Tehran, Iran

02/07/2013 Available online: 12/07/2013

properties of FSW joints at different rotational and travelling speeds.

w/p dimensions: 100x60x6mm thick Tool material: H13, heat treated to 58HRC tool dimensions: threaded taper pin tool: shoulder dia: 16mm tip height: 5.7mm profile formation: width: 0.2mm depth: 5mm parameters: N=800, 1000, 1250 rpm Travelling speed: 30.5, 40, 50 mm/min w/p material: AA6061 plate w/p thickness: 1mm & 2mm Tool type: Rotation anvil & pin less shouldered tool w/p material: AA6061 & AA7075 w/p dimensions: 300x50x6.3mm thick Tool dimensions: Threaded conical probe with three flats Shoulder dia: 15mm Probe dia: 5mm Parameters: N=1200rpm

nanoparticles refined microstructure by impeding recrystallized grain growth, multiplying grain growth, multiplying nucleation sites. 3. UTS at 1250 rpm 40mm/min was 31% superior than without SiC. 4. 76.1% more elongation with SiC

10.

Chase D. Cox, Brian T. Gibson, David R. DeLapp Nashville, U.S.

Received: 01/08/2013 Accepted: 08/10/2013 Available online: 10/10/2013 Received: 12/08/2013 Accepted: 29/10/2013 Available online: 09/11/2013

A method for double sided firction stir spot welding (FSSW)

1. significantly reduce the axial forces experienced by weld machine 2. stronger spot welds than traditional FSSW 1. mixing is effective with AA6061 on advancing side. 2. grain size of 7075 is smaller. 3. grain size decreases with increasing speed 4.All joints failed at HAZ of 6061 where minimum hardness, and good ductility was located. 5. UTS of joints increases with decrease in heat input 1. Pead residual stress occur on advancing side. 2. Most significant effect on RS is of feed rate. Metals of AA6xxx & AA7xxx series

11.

J.F. Guo, H.C. Chen, C.N. Sun, G. Bi, Z. Sun, J. Wei Singapore

FSW of dissimilar materials & effects of process parameters

12.

Yashar Javadi, Seyedali sadeghi Semnan, Iran

Received: 29/07/2013 Accepted: 08/10/2013 Available

Taguchi optimization and Ultrasonic measurement of residual stresses in FSW

w/p material: AA5086 al w/p dimensions: 150x100x8mm tool material:

Effect of force is not considered. *Also effect of w/p material and clamping force may be

online: 17/10/2013

Hole drilling method was used for measurement

H13, pin height=7.8mm Process parameters: N=400, 800rpm V=12, 100 mm/min d= 6, 8 mm D= 20, 24 mm w/p material: Ti-6Al-4V & Al-6Mg

3. then of rotational speed. 4. d & D has no effect on residual stresses.

calculated.

13.

Bo Li, Zhenhua Zhang, Yifu Shen, Weiye Hu, Lei Luo Nanjing, PR China

Received: 26/05/2013 Accepted: 07/07/2013 Available online: 18/07/2013

Dissimilar FSW on Al & Ti alloy employing a modified butt joint configuration: influence of process variables on the weld interfaces and tensile properties. Dissimilar FSW of Aluminium alloy & advanced high strength steel

1. tensile strength of the joint reach 92% of the parent material. 2. defects were negligible.

Geometry can be employed to other materials too.

14.

Xun Liu, Shuhuai Lan, Jun Ni Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Received: 22/10/2013 Accepted: 01/02/2014 Available online: 07/02/2014

Tool material: WC-13 wt.% Co matrix material w/p material: AA6061-T6, TRIP (transformation induced plasticity) 780/800 steel w/p dimensions: tsteel= 1.4mm thick, tal=1.5 mm thick tool: conically tapered tool tool dimensions: shoulder dia: 12.7mm tip dia: 3.91mm tip height: 1.2 mm angle: 20o with axis tool material: Tungsten carbide with 10% cobalt w/p material: ABS w/p dimensions: 300x80x6mm Tool type: Conical threaded tool Tool dimensions: Tool length: 5.9mm dbase=10mm dtip=6mm Parameters:

15.

N. Mendes, A. Loureiro, C. Martins, P. Neto, J.N. Pires Coimbra, Portugal

Received: 17/12/2013 Accepted: 13/02/2014 Available online: 20/02/2014

Effect of FSW parameters on Acrylonitrile butadiene Styrene (ABS) plate welds

1. Maximum tensile strength obtained is 85% of Al alloy. 2. Intermetallic compound layer (IMC) of FeAl & Fe3Al with thickness of less than 1 m was formed at Al-Fe interface in advancing side, which contribute to joint strength. 3. welding speed has negligible effect on IMC formation. 4. under low N & small tool offset, FeAl was formed. 1. If N>1250 & F>1.5 => no defects. 2. Axial force contributes to material mixing and prevents formation of cavities in retreating side. 3. High N & high F => high strength efficiency. 4. (R/v)>10 lead to good weld

Dislocation motion at nugget.

16.

Mehdi Pirizadeh, Taher Azdast, Samrand Rash Ahmadi Urmia, Iran

Received: 03/05/2013 Accepted: 15/08/2013 Available online: 25/08/2013

FSW of thermoplastic using a newly designed tool

N=1000-1500 rpm v=50-200 mm/min Faxial=.75-4 KN w/p material: ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) sheets

crown appearance.

17.

Pooya Pourahmad, Mehrdad Abbasi Islamic Azad university, Karaj, Iran

Received: 09/05/2012 Accepted: 20/09/2012

Dissimilar FSW of Al6013 & Mg & study of material flow and phase transformations

18.

Tracie Prater

Received: 03/12/2012

FSW of metal matrix composites (MMCs) &

1. Root defect and back slit was eliminated 2. Tensile strength w/p dimensions: decreases with 100x80x5 mm sheets increase in rotational speed. Tool material: 3.Both low and 304 steel T300 series high traverse speed decreases FSW Parameters: heat generation Shape of pin: simple & => low tensile convex strength. N= 400, 600, 800 rpm 4. Convex pin had V= 20, 40, 60 mm/min large TS than simple pin w/p materials: 1. Defect free Al6013 & Mg welding when N=1600rpm, w/p dimensions: v=35mm/min, 100x100x10 angle = 3o and tool 1mm offset Tool: towards Al H13 steel heat treated 2.From X-ray, it to 900oC for 1 hr & was observed quenched in oil. that, displacement of Tool dimensions: the implanted Conical Tool steel was bigger D= 20mm in advancing side. d1= 6mm 3. In upper layer, d2= 4mm Al3Mg2 or beta h= 6mm layer formed due to high Parameters: temperature & N=800-2000 rpm extrusion effect V= 31-75 mm/min of Shoulder. Tilt angle= 2 & 3o 4. Thickness of Offset: -1, 0, 1 mm Al3Mg2 was 4um & 12um after 1 h & 2 h of heating respectively. After 4 hr, Al12Mg17 23um thick was formed. 5. Tensile strength was increased after 1 hr of heat treatment. w/p material: Al359/SiC/20p

Pre & Post heating effect can be analyzed

Accepted: 10/07/2013 Available online: 02/08/2013

analyzation of tool w/p size: wear. .635 cm Tool material: Tungsten carbide, HSS, Hardened Steel tool with diamond coating w/p material: rare-earth containing ZEK100 mg alloy sheets w/p dimensions: 1.4 mm thick Tool type: Cylindrical unthreaded tool Tool material: H13 Tool dimensions: D=12mm d=5mm H=1.8mm

19.

H.M. Rao, R.I. Rodriguez, J.B. Jordon Tuscaloosa, USA

Received: 28/08/2013 Accepted: 16/12/2013 Available online: 19/12/2013

FSSW of rareearth containing ZEK100 magnesium alloy sheets (Lap joint), and influence of effective sheet thickness, interfacial hook width, shoulder plunge depth.

20.

Emad Salari, Mohammad Jahazi Tehran, Iran & Montreal, Canada

Received: 30/08/2013 Accepted: 06/02/2014 Available online: 13/02/2014

Influence of Tool geometry, N on FSLW (friction stir lap welding) of 5456 aluminium alloy sheets.

w/p material: AA5456 aluminium alloy with two different tempers: T321 & O w/p dimensions t=5, 2.5mm Tool types: 1. Conical thread pin (CTP) 2. cylindrical conical thread pin (CCTP) 3. stepped conical thread pin (SCTP) 4.Flared Triflute pin (FTP) Parameters: N= 600, 800rpm

21.

Hyung-Seop Shin

Available online:

Dissimilar Friction stir spot welding

w/p material: BMG

1. Increase in N decreases hardness 2. Coupons with large effective upper sheet thickness had highest lap shear strength. 3. 1500 rpm and 0.2 mm plunge depth gave highest lap shear strength. 4. Large effective sheet thickness => interfacial shear failure. 5. small effective sheet thickness => Nugget pullout failure. 1. Highest Joint performance was obtained with SCTP 2. Reason for above point is higher contact surface and better plasticity of material due to its threads and steps. 3. Joint with 600 rpm gave better tensile properties, irrespective of the tool shape. 4. Hook defect height & effective lower plate thickness were used as a quality criterian for welded joints. 1. In case of triangular pin

Effect of V & F tool geometry, not observed.

BMG & Ni based alloy.

20/12/2012 Andong Kyungbuk, Republic of Korea

of Bulk metallic glass & light weight alloys. Effect of Tool geometry.

(Zr41.5Ti13.8Cu12.5Ni10Be 22.5) with Al alloy (A5052-H32), and Mg alloy (AZ31B) w/p dimensions: BMG: 10x80x1 Al & Mg: 15x100x1 Tool dimensions: D= 6mm d=2.5mm (circumsubscribed in case of tt) h=1.1mm Tool types: Triangular & cylindrical Parameters: Plunge speed: 6mm/min Plunge depths: 1.8, 1.9 & 2mm N=2700rpm w/p material: S12C low carbon steel w/p dimensions: 100x30x1.6mm thick tool material: WC-Co based tool Tool dimensions: D= 12mm (concave) d= 4mm h=1.9mm (unthreaded) Parameters: N=800rpm, F=2500kg

tool, its sharp edge produced much more chips due to dominant cutting effect rather than stirring effect, which lowers the vertical load & temperature. 2. Effect of tool geometry on failure load only existed at smaller tool plunge depth. 3. The above effect was dominant in case of BMG-Mg alloy.

22.

Y.F. Sun, J.M. Shen, Y. Morisada, H. Fujii Osaka University, Ibaraki, Japan

Received: 25/06/2013 Accepted: 20/08/2013 Available online: 27/08/2013

FSSW of Low carbon steel, preheated by high frequency induction (Lap joints)

1. Grain size increased due to preheating due to slow cooling rate after welding 2. TMAZ with preheating contains a low fraction of low angle boundary. 3. With preheating, load and shear load carrying capacity gets increased.

Temperature variation can be done.

23.

Long Wan, Yongxian Huang Harbin, Peoples Republic of china

Received: 13/07/2013 Accepted: 29/09/2013 Available online: 10/10/2013

Self Support Friction Stir Welding( SSFSW) of Aluminium alloy & study of microstructure & microhardness

w/p material: Al6082-T6 w/p dimensions: 300x100x5mm thick Parameters: N=800rpm Tilt angle= 4o Plunge depth= 0.1mm Tool material:

1. weld shape made was slightly hour glass shaped. All four zones presented in joint due to introduction of lower shoulder. 2. Av. microhardness in WNZ near TMAZ was lowest due to

1.Lower concave surface shoulder 2. Other parameters could be checked using this tool

HSS Tool type: Self support tool made of two shoulders (upper concave & lower convex)

overaging & coarser second phase particles 3. TMAZ experienced both temperature and deformation during FSW & form highly deformed structure. 4. Grain size decreases with increasing distance from the weld centreline in HAZ, But grain structure didnt alter.

24.

Yong Zhao, Lilong Zhou, Qingzhao Wang, Keng Yan, Jiasheng Zou Jiangsu, China

Received: 29/08/2013 Accepted: 09/12/2013 Available online: 16/12/2013

FSW of 6013 Al alloy (T-Lap & TButt-Lap Joints), and analyzing defects & tensile properties of coupons.

w/p material: 6013-T4 w/p dimensions: 210x110x2.5 Tool material: H15 Tool type: Concave shoulder conical unthreaded tool Tool dimensions:

Parameters: N=1000rpm

1. No tunnel defect obtained with v=100mm/min Area of tunnel defect increases with V 2. Kissing defects are found at double corners of T-Joint 3. Highest tensile strength found in T-Butt-Lap Joint at v=200mm/min 3. Kissing bond area is characterized with brittle fracture, whereas, metallic bonding area near top surface is marked by ductile fracture. 4.In shins tensile failure was due to kissing defect

25.

D. Trimble, J. Monaghan, G.E. ODonnell Dublin, Ireland

----------------

Force generation during FSW of AA2024-T3, through rotating component dynamometer & with FEM

V= 100, 200, 300, 400 mm/min Fillet radius= 2mm, 3mm w/p material: AA2024-T3 w/p dimensions: 260x80x4.8 Tool material: H13 steel tool Tool types: 1. threaded cylindrical 2. smooth cylindrical Tool dimensions: D=18mm (concave with 7o recess angle) d= 6.5mm h=4.6mm Parameters: N=450 rpm V=90, 180mm/min Tilt angle=2o

whereas, in stringer, it is due to tunnel defect. 1. Max. forces occur during plunge stage, and reduce significantly (35%) during the translational stage. 2. During plunging damage to tool pin may occur & during translation damage to shoulder is more likely to occur. 3. threaded tool increase intimate mixing & material deformation. Therefore lower max. vertical & welding forces, higher weld strength & elongation were recorded for it. 1. Abrasive effect of tool reduce particle sizes but didnt alter particle shape. Grain refinement was observed. 2. Hardness slightly increased in TMAZ, but was comparable in nugget zone. 3. Low cycle fatigue life gets decreased.

26.

L. Ceschini, I. Boromei, G. Minak Bologna, Italy

Received: 17/07/2006 Accepted: 29/07/2006 Available online: 17/10/2006

Effect of FSW on microstructure, tensile & fatigue properties of AA7005 aluminium composite

w/p material: AA7005/10pAl2O3p w/p dimensions: 100x50x7 Tool material: Ferro-Titanit Tool dimensions: D=18mm d= 8mm h=6.8mm left hand screw with 1.25 pitch Parameters: F=12kN N=600rpm V=300rpm

27.

Vijay Soundraraja n, Srdja Zekovic

Received: 05/01/2005 Accepted: 15/02/2005

Thermomechanical model with adaptive boundary conditions for

w/p material: 6061-T6 w/p dimensions: 200x50x6.4

1. Residual stresses are determined in w/p after welding,

Richardson, USA

FSW of Al6061 Available online: 21/04/2005 Tool material: CPM 1V Tool dimensions: Shank dia: 19mm D= 24mm d= 5.2mm

28.

M. Jariyaboon, A.J. Davenport, R. Ambat, B.J. Connolly Birmingham, U.K. Lynby, Denmark Bristol, U.K. Cranfield, U.K.

Received: 12/01/2006 Accepted: 23/05/2006 Available online: 05/09/2005

Effect of welding parameters on corrosion behaviour of FSW

w/p material: AA2024-T351 w/p dimensions: 25x10x6.35 mm tool type: M8 thread tool Parameters: N=215, 350, 468 rpm V=75, 95, 154mm/min

dominant part of which are thermal stresses. 2.w/p surface temperature right under the tool reaches very close to the solidus temperature during FEM thermal analysis. 1. rotation speed is main parameter for location of welds. 2. for low N, corrosion corrosion attack is in nugget zone due to significant increase in anodic reactivity. 3. At higher N, corrosion attack is in HAZ region due to presence of sensitized grain boundaries. Nugget shows cathodic reactivity which protects region from attack.

Corrosion due to other parameters, such as temperature, force, ground formation.

29.