NONTRADITIONAL MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Lecture no. 2 &3

Basic NTM Process Groups:

* Thermal NTM Processes
- Laser Beam Machining (LBM) - Electron Beam Machining (EBM) - Plasma Arc Machining (PAC) - Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

* Mechanical NTM Processes( Plastic deformation / Abrasive Erosion) - Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
- Ultrasonic Machining (USM) - Water Jet Machining (WJM) - Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM)

* Electrochemical NTM Processes

- Electrochemical Machining (ECM) - Electrochemical Grinding (ECG)

* Chemical NTM Processes

- Chemical Machining (CHM) - Thermo chemical Machining (TCM)

* Kinetic Energy ( Atom by atom knocking)

- Ion beam

Laser Beam Machining: An Introduction

LASER MATERIAL PROCESSING Laser basics Properties of laser radiation Different types of lasers in manufacturing Laser processing system: Laser beam transport and delivery system Laser beam absorption in metals, semiconductors and other non- metals Different laser material processing specialties i.e. cutting, welding, drilling, marking, surface hardening, surface alloying, surface cladding, metal forming, rapid prototyping and manufacturing Parameters that influence the processes and their dependence What are the advantages in using lasers in these processes

* What is LASER ? LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation * What is Light? Electromagnetic Radiation : Carries Energy in the direction of propagation Wave nature: Transverse Wave i.e. Oscillation of electric & magnetic fields are transverse to the direction of propagation. Velocity in vacuum or air, c = 3x108m/s, Frequency = , Wavelength = = c/ In a medium of refractive index n, Light velocity, v = c/n Wavelength = c/ n Particle nature: Photon Energy = h, Photon momentum p = h/c h= Plancks constant = 6.626x10-34 J-sec.

Polarization: Plane of Oscillation of Electric Vector :

Plane polarized light: Circularly polarized light: Elliptically polarized light:

Unpolarized light: Randomly polarized light .

What is Stimulated Process?

Light Matter Interaction Simplest Example : An Atom Nucleus (protons & neutrons) and electron shell (electrons) Bohr model of atom Electrons can only have certain values of energy not all values of energy allowed! Electrons can switch between energy levels by gaining or losing energy Electrons can gain energy by absorbing a little packet of light photon: Absorption Can lose energy by emitting a photon: Spontaneous Emission Photon Energy E = E2 E1 = h Planck constant h = 6.626068 10-34 m2 kg / s

Absorption & Spontaneous Emission of Photons

Ordinary Source of Light Emits Light by Spontaneous Emission Process

Stimulated Emission of Radiation

Stimulated Emission Photon
+

Photons

Laser Emits Radiation by Stimulated Process

Probability of Absorption = Probability of Stimulated emission In normal condition ( Thermal Equilibrium) more population in lower energy levels than higher energy levels, Absorption dominates over Stimulated Emission

Stimulated Process to dominate over Absorption Process: More Population in Excited State
N2 N1> N2 N1 Normal Population N1> N2 N2> N1

Population Inversion N2> N1

Absorption N2> N1 Mirror1

Amplification

Laser Beam

Laser

Mirror2

Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

 Characteristics of Stimulated Emission & Optical Resonator: * Stimulating & stimulated Photons have same wavelength, phase, direction, and polarization * Optical resonator support waves parallel to its axis

Laser Beam Properties:Laser Material Coherent Processing Monochromatic Low Beam Divergence / Directional : Focusibility High Brightness High Power and High Power Density Tunability Ultra-short duration pulse

Ordinary Source of light

Ordinary Source of Light : Incoherent: No Phase relation between waves emitted by different atoms Wide frequency spectrum, 1014Hz Emits light in all (4 radian) direction

Laser beam : Coherent- Constant phase relation between waves in time and space Laser emits rays of narrow frequency spectrum, 106-9Hz Emits light in a small angle ( Divergence angle a few milli-radian) Laser Power : mW Several kWs Laser can operate in continuous wave (CW) and pulse mode; Pulse duration ranging from ms ( 10-3s ) to 10s of fs (10-15s) High Power & Low Divergence Exploited in Laser Material Processing

Important components of a laser:

1.Active medium * Solid: Nd:YAG, Optical Fiber * Liquid: Dye Laser * Gas: He-Ne, CO2, Excimer Ar+ ion * Semiconductor Diodes 2. Excitation or Pump Source to produce population inversion in lasing medium. * Optical Pump ( Flash Lamp, Other Laser) : Solid State & Fiber Lasers * Electrical discharge (DC, AC, RF, Pulsed) : Gas Lasers * Current injection : Diode Lasers 3. Optical Resonator formed by a pair of parallel mirrors, one ~100% reflecting and other partial reflecting. They provide feedback into the active medium and facilitates laser beam to build up. Laser beam comes out through the partial reflecting mirror.

Laser Processing Setup Laser Processing Setup * Laser system * Beam Transport system & Beam Delivery System * Workstation

Lasers used in Manufacturing: Lasers those can provide high CW or average laser power required for material processing * Solid State Laser : Nd:YAG Laser- Flash Lamp or Diode Laser Pumped * CO2 Laser * Diode Laser * Fiber Laser * Excimer Lasers * He-Ne Laser for alignment, pointer, metrological applications

Lasers for Materials Processing Applications & their Characteristics

Characteristics Wavelength m Laser power,cw Pulse energy Efficiency % Beam Diverg. Beam Transportation Absorption in metals Life, CW Hrs.) Pulsed (Shots) Size of lasers CO2 Laser 9.6-10.6 Upto 45kW 1-20 J 10-15 1-3 mr. Reflecting mirrors Low ~2-15% ~ 1000s. ~106 Large Nd:YAG Laser 1.06 50W- 2kW 1-100J 220 Diode pump 1 25 mr. Optical fibers Moderate ~5-30% ~200 Life of ~106 lamps Moderate 500-1000 Diode Lasers 0.8-1.0 Up to 4kW 20-40 1x200 mr Optical fibers Moderate ~5-30% ~ 1000s. Compact Excimer Lasers 0.193-0.354 --Avg.1kW 1-10J, 2-3 2 6 mr. Optical fibers High >50% 104-107 (one gas fill) Moderate 500-1000 Pulsed 10s ns Fiber Laser 1.06 10kW 30 1-2 mr. Optical fibers Moderat e ~5-30% Compact 5,00010,000 CW & Pulsed: ms- Sub-ps

Maintenance 1000-2000 intervals (Hr) Mode of operation CW & Pulsed: mssub-s

5,00010,000 CW & Pulsed: CW & ms- Sub-ps Modulated

Focusing of Laser Beam: Laser spot diameter at focal point, dspot =2 f.1/2 F= Focal length of lens, 1/2 = as a finite divergence Half Divergence Angle) = 1/2 = / w0 Lowest order laser beam can be focused to smallest spot size dspot =2 f.g =2f / w0 Real Beam : Usually Higher Order Mixed Modes; Beam Quality: M2 parameter M2 =1 for Lowest order beam For real or higher order modes, M2 >1 Focal spot size of a real beam, dspot= 4M2. .f/ Dr Dr= Laser beam diameter at the lens dspot - Laser Wavelength, M2- Mode Quality Parameter, f-Focal length & 1/Dr

TEM00 Mode Beam Single point tool Better Quality Machining High order Mode Beam Multi-point ( Blunt) Tool Fair Quality

Definitions: Laser Power, PL Joule /s = W Laser Energy, EL= Laser Power PL x Laser Pulse Duration tp Joule Laser Power Density = Laser Intensity I = PL/ Area of beam W/cm2 Laser Energy Density = EL / Area of beam J/cm2 = Laser Fluence
tp PL

Laser in material processing: Laser and target material interactions: Laser Power Density = Laser Power / Laser Beam Area Laser Power Type of Laser Laser Beam Diameter at Focal point of lens Laser Wavelength, Laser Beam Divergence, Laser Beam Quality, M2 Focal Length of Lens, f Absorption of laser beam in the target the form of thermal energy Laser Wavelength, , Material Property, Surface Condition Surface Temperature Heating, Melting, Vaporization / Ablation Processes - Exploited for various processing specialties

Physical phenomena at increasing Laser Intensity

~103W/cm2

~105W/cm2

~106W/cm2

~107W/cm2

Heating of Melting of Surface layer shallow zone Absorptivity, A Temperature Surface condition dependent A Wavelength, Re-melting, Surface Conduction Hardening welding

Formation of Keyhole Strong absorption in keyhole, Weak dependence on Drilling, Deep penetration welding

Formation of Plasma Ionization of Vapor & gas, Absorption in plasma, Shock hardening, Laser Peening

Laser machining : Localized, Non-contact machining Greatly simplified Fixtures High Precision Narrow kerf in laser cutting, Narrow Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), Minimum distortion of work-piece Process any material independent of its hardness Very good process quality, Usually no further post- treatment required. Holes of high aspect ratio, impossible for other methods to machine, Highly flexibility Can process at difficult to reach places We learn more about the Lasers & their Applications in Manufacturing