Motor controller From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search A motor controller is a device or group

of devices that serves to govern in some predetermined manner the performance of an electric motor.[1] A motor controller might include a manual or automatic means for starting and stopping the motor, selecting for ard or reverse rotation, selecting and regulating the speed, regulating or limiting the tor!ue, and protecting against overloads and faults.["] Contents 1 Applications " #ypes of motor controllers o o o o ".1 $otor starters "." %educed voltage starters ".& Ad'usta(le)speed drives ".* +ntelligent controllers

& ,verload relays * -oss of voltage protection . $otor control centers / 0ervo controllers 1 0tepper motor controllers 2 %eferences

Applications 3very electric motor has to have some sort of controller. #he motor controller ill have differing features and comple4ity depending on the task that the motor ill (e performing. #he simplest case is a s itch to connect a motor to a po er source, such as in small appliances or po er tools. #he s itch may (e manually operated or may (e a relay or contactor connected to some form of sensor to automatically start and stop the motor. #he s itch may have several positions to select different connections of the motor. #his may allo reduced)voltage starting of the motor, reversing control or selection of multiple speeds. ,verload and overcurrent protection may (e omitted in very small motor controllers, hich rely on the supplying circuit to have overcurrent protection. 0mall motors may have (uilt)in overload devices to automatically open the circuit on overload. -arger motors have a protective overload relay or temperature sensing relay included in the controller and fuses or circuit (reakers for overcurrent protection. An automatic motor controller may also include limit s itches or other devices to protect the driven machinery. $ore comple4 motor controllers may (e used to accurately control the speed and tor!ue of the connected motor 5or motors6 and may (e part of closed loop control systems for precise positioning of a driven machine. For e4ample, a numerically controlled lathe ill accurately position the cutting tool according to a preprogrammed profile and compensate for varying load conditions and pertur(ing forces to maintain tool position. Types of motor controllers $otor controllers can (e manually, remotely or automatically operated. #hey may include only the means for starting and stopping the motor or they may include other functions.["][&][*] An electric motor controller can (e classified (y the type of motor it is to drive such as permanent magnet, servo, series, separately e4cited, and alternating current.[.]

A motor controller is connected to a po er source such as a (attery pack or po er supply, and control circuitry in the form of analog or digital input signals. Motor starters 0ee also: $otor soft starter A small motor can (e started (y simply plugging it into an electrical receptacle or (y using a s itch or circuit (reaker. A larger motor re!uires a speciali7ed s itching unit called a motor starter or motor contactor. When energi7ed, a direct on line 58,-6 starter immediately connects the motor terminals directly to the po er supply. %educed)voltage, star)delta or soft starters connects the motor to the po er supply through a voltage reduction device and increases the applied voltage gradually or in steps. ["][&][*] +n smaller si7es a motor starter is a manually operated s itch9 larger motors, or those re!uiring remote or automatic control, use magnetic contactors. :ery large motors running on medium voltage po er supplies 5thousands of volts6 may use po er circuit (reakers as s itching elements. A direct on line 58,-6 or across the line starter applies the full line voltage to the motor terminals. #his is the simplest type of motor starter. A 8,- motor starter also contain protection devices, and in some cases, condition monitoring. 0maller si7es of direct on)line starters are manually operated9 larger si7es use an electromechanical contactor 5relay6 to s itch the motor circuit. 0olid)state direct on line starters also e4ist. A direct on line starter can (e used if the high inrush current of the motor does not cause e4cessive voltage drop in the supply circuit. #he ma4imum si7e of a motor allo ed on a direct on line starter may (e limited (y the supply utility for this reason. For e4ample, a utility may re!uire rural customers to use reduced)voltage starters for motors larger than 1; kW.[/] 8,- starting is sometimes used to start small ater pumps, compressors, fans and conveyor (elts. +n the case of an asynchronous motor, such as the &)phase s!uirrel)cage motor, the motor ill dra a high starting current until it has run up to full speed. #his starting current is typically /)1 times greater than the full load current. #o reduce the inrush current, larger motors ill have reduced) voltage starters or varia(le speed drives in order to minimise voltage dips to the po er supply. A reversing starter can connect the motor for rotation in either direction. 0uch a starter contains t o 8,- circuits<one for clock ise operation and the other for counter)clock ise operation, ith mechanical and electrical interlocks to prevent simultaneous closure. [/] For three phase motors, this is achieved (y transposing any t o phases. 0ingle phase A= motors and direct)current motors re!uire additional devices for reversing rotation. Reduced voltage starters # o or more contactors may (e used to provide reduced voltage starting of a motor. >y using an autotransformer or a series inductance, a lo er voltage is present at the motor terminals, reducing starting tor!ue and inrush current. ,nce the motor has come up to some fraction of its full)load speed, the starter s itches to full voltage at the motor terminals. 0ince the autotransformer or series reactor only carries the heavy motor starting current for a fe seconds, the devices can (e much smaller compared to continuously rated e!uipment. #he transition (et een reduced and full voltage may (e (ased on elapsed time, or triggered hen a current sensor sho s the motor current has (egun to reduce. An autotransformer starter as patented in 1?;2. Adjustable-speed drives $ain article: Ad'usta(le)speed drive An ad'usta(le)speed drive 5A086 or varia(le)speed drive 5:086 is an interconnected com(ination of e!uipment that provides a means of driving and ad'usting the operating speed of a mechanical load. An electrical ad'usta(le)speed drive consists of an electric motor and a speed controller or po er converter plus au4iliary devices and e!uipment. +n common usage, the term @driveA is often applied to 'ust the controller.[&][*] Intelligent controllers An Intelligent Motor Controls 5+$=6 uses a microprocessor to control po er electronic devices used for motor control. +$=s monitor the load on a motor and accordingly match motor tor!ue to motor load. #his is accomplished (y reducing the voltage to the A= terminals and at the same time lo ering current and kvar. #his can provide a measure of energy efficiency improvement for motors that run under light load for a large part of the time, resulting in less heat, noise, and vi(rations generated (y the motor.

Overload relays A starter ill contain protective devices for the motor. At a minimum this ould include a thermal overload relay. #he thermal overload is designed to open the starting circuit and thus cut the po er to the motor in the event of the motor dra ing too much current from the supply for an e4tended time. #he overload relay has a normally closed contact hich opens due to heat generated (y e4cessive current flo ing through the circuit. #hermal overloads have a small heating device that increases in temperature as the motor running current increases. #here are t o types of thermal overload relay. +n one type, a (i)metallic strip located close to a heater deflects as the heater temperature rises until it mechanically causes the device to trip and open the circuit, cutting po er to the motor should it (ecome overloaded. A thermal overload ill accommodate the (rief high starting current of a motor hile accurately protecting it from a running current overload. #he heater coil and the action of the (i)metallic strip introduce a time delay that affords the motor time to start and settle into normal running current ithout the thermal overload tripping. #hermal overloads can (e manually or automatically resetta(le depending on their application and have an ad'uster that allo s them to (e accurately set to the motor run current. A second type of thermal overload relay uses a eutectic alloy, like a solder, to retain a spring)loaded contact. When too much current passes through the heating element for too long a time, the alloy melts and the spring releases the contact, opening the control circuit and shutting do n the motor. 0ince eutectic alloy elements are not ad'usta(le, they are resistant to casual tampering (ut re!uire changing the heater coil element to match the motor rated current. [/] 3lectronic digital overload relays containing a microprocessor may also (e used, especially for high)value motors. #hese devices model the heating of the motor indings (y monitoring the motor current. #hey can also include metering and communication functions. Loss of voltage protection 0tarters using magnetic contactors usually derive the po er supply for the contactor coil from the same source as the motor supply. An au4iliary contact from the contactor is used to maintain the contactor coil energi7ed after the start command for the motor has (een released. +f a momentary loss of supply voltage occurs, the contactor ill open and not close again until a ne start command is given. this prevents restarting of the motor after a po er failure. #his connection also provides a small degree of protection against lo po er supply voltage and loss of a phase. Bo ever since contactor coils ill hold the circuit closed ith as little as 2;C of normal voltage applied to the coil, this is not a primary means of protecting motors from lo voltage operation. [/] Motor control centers

A small, early 1?/;s)vintage motor control center for *2; volt motors. A motor control center 5$==6 is an assem(ly of one or more enclosed sections having a common po er (us and principally containing motor control units.[1] $otor control centers are in modern practice a factory assem(ly of several motor starters. A motor control center can include varia(le fre!uency drives, programma(le controllers, and metering and may also (e the electrical service entrance for the (uilding. $otor control centers are usually used for lo voltage three)phase alternating current motors from ";2 : to /;; :. $edium) voltage motor control centers are made for large motors running at "&;; : to around 1.;;; :, using vacuum contactors for s itching and ith separate compartments for po er s itching and control.[1] $otor control centers have (een used since 1?.; (y the automo(ile manufacturing industry hich used large num(ers of electric motors. #oday they are used in many industrial and commercial applications. Where very dusty or corrosive processes are used, the motor control center may (e installed in a separate air)conditioned room, (ut often an $== ill (e on the factory floor ad'acent to the machinery controlled. A motor control center consists of one or more vertical metal ca(inet sections ith po er (us and provision for plug)in mounting of individual motor controllers. :ery large controllers may (e (olted in place (ut smaller controllers can (e unplugged from the ca(inet for testing or maintenance. 3ach motor controller contains a contactor or a solid)state motor controller, overload relays to protect the motor, fuses or a circuit (reaker to provide short)circuit protection, and a disconnecting s itch to isolate the motor circuit. #hree) phase po er enters each controller through separa(le connectors. #he motor is ired to terminals in the controller. $otor control centers provide ire ays for field control and po er ca(les.

3ach motor controller in an $== can (e specified ith a range of options such as separate control transformers, pilot lamps, control s itches, e4tra control terminal (locks, various types of thermal or solid)state overload protection relays, or various classes of po er fuses or types of circuit (reakers. A motor control center can either (e supplied ready for the customer to connect all field iring, or can (e an engineered assem(ly ith internal control and interlocking iring to a central control terminal panel (oard or programma(le controller. $otor control centers 5$==6 usually sit on floors, hich are often re!uired to have a fire)resistance rating. Firestops may (e re!uired for ca(les that penetrate fire)rated floors and alls. ervo controllers $ain article: 0ervo drive $ain article: 0ervomechanism ervo controllers is a ide category of motor control. =ommon features are: precise closed loop position control fast acceleration rates precise speed control

0ervo motors may (e made from several motor types, the most common (eing (rushed 8= motor (rushless 8= motors A= servo motors

0ervo controllers use position feed(ack to close the control loop. #his is commonly implemented ith encoders, resolvers, and Ball effect sensors to directly measure the rotorDs position. A servo may (e controlled using pulse) idth modulation 5EW$6. Bo long the pulse remains high 5typically (et een 1 and " milliseconds6 determines here the motor ill try to position itself. Another control method is pulse and direction. ,ther position feed(ack methods measure the (ack 3$F in the undriven coils to infer the rotor position, or detect the Fick)>ack voltage transient 5spike6 that is generated henever the po er to a coil is instantaneously s itched off. #hese are therefore often called GsensorlessG control methods. tepper motor controllers $ain article: stepping motor A stepper, or stepping, motor is a synchronous, (rushless, high pole count, polyphase motor. =ontrol is usually, (ut not e4clusively, done open loop, i.e. the rotor position is assumed to follo a controlled rotating field. >ecause of this, precise positioning ith steppers is simpler and cheaper than closed loop controls. $odern stepper controllers drive the motor ith much higher voltages than the motor nameplate rated voltage, and limit current through chopping. #he usual setup is to have a positioning controller, kno n as an inde!er, sending step and direction pulses to a separate higher voltage drive circuit hich is responsi(le for commutation and current limiting. "rogrammable logic controller From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search

0iemens 0imatic 01)*;; system at rack, left)to)right: po er supply unit E0*;1 *A,=EH *1/)&, interface module +$ */;); and communication processor =E **&)1. A programmable logic controller 5"LC6 or programmable controller is a digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes, such as control of machinery on factory assem(ly lines, amusement rides, or light fi4tures. E-=s are used in many industries and machines. Hnlike general)purpose computers, the E-= is designed for multiple inputs and output arrangements, e4tended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and resistance to vi(ration and impact. Erograms to control machine operation are typically stored in (attery)(acked)up or non)volatile memory. A E-= is an e4ample of a hard real time system since output results must (e produced in response to input conditions ithin a limited time, other ise unintended operation ill result. Contents 1 Bistory " 8evelopment o ".1 Erogramming

& Functionality * E-= topics o o o o o o *.1 Features *." 0can time *.& 0ystem scale *.* Hser interface *.. =ommunications *./ Erogramming

. E-= compared ith other control systems / 8igital and analog signals o /.1 34ample

#istory

1 0ee also 2 %eferences ? Further reading 1; 34ternal links

#he E-= as invented in response to the needs of the American automotive manufacturing industry. Erogramma(le logic controllers ere initially adopted (y the automotive industry here soft are revision replaced the re) iring of hard) ired control panels hen production models changed. >efore the E-=, control, se!uencing, and safety interlock logic for manufacturing automo(iles as accomplished using hundreds or thousands of relays, cam timers, and drum se!uencers and dedicated closed)loop controllers. #he process for updating such facilities for the yearly model change)over as very time consuming and e4pensive, as electricians needed to individually re ire each and every relay. 8igital computers, (eing general)purpose programma(le devices, ere soon applied to control of industrial processes. 3arly computers re!uired specialist programmers, and stringent operating environmental control for temperature, cleanliness, and po er !uality. Hsing a general)purpose computer for process control re!uired protecting the computer from the plant floor conditions. An

industrial control computer ould have several attri(utes: it ould tolerate the shop)floor environment, it ould support discrete 5(it) form6 input and output in an easily e4tensi(le manner, it ould not re!uire years of training to use, and it ould permit its operation to (e monitored. #he response time of any computer system must (e fast enough to (e useful for control9 the re!uired speed varying according to the nature of the process.[1] . +n 1?/2 I$ Bydramatic 5the automatic transmission division of Ieneral $otors6 issued a re!uest for proposal for an electronic replacement for hard) ired relay systems. #he inning proposal came from >edford Associates of >edford, $assachusetts. #he first E-=, designated the ;2* (ecause it as >edford AssociatesD eighty)fourth pro'ect, as the result. ["] >edford Associates started a ne company dedicated to developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicing this ne product: $odicon, hich stood for $,dular 8+gital =,Jtroller. ,ne of the people ho orked on that pro'ect as 8ick $orley, ho is considered to (e the GfatherG of the E-=. [&] #he $odicon (rand as sold in 1?11 to Iould 3lectronics, and later ac!uired (y Ierman =ompany A3I and then (y French 0chneider 3lectric, the current o ner. ,ne of the very first ;2* models (uilt is no on display at $odiconDs head!uarters in Jorth Andover, $assachusetts. +t as presented to $odicon (y I$, hen the unit as retired after nearly t enty years of uninterrupted service. $odicon used the 2* moniker at the end of its product range until the ?2* made its appearance. #he automotive industry is still one of the largest users of E-=s. $evelopment 3arly E-=s ere designed to replace relay logic systems. #hese E-=s ere programmed in Gladder logicG, hich strongly resem(les a schematic diagram of relay logic. #his program notation as chosen to reduce training demands for the e4isting technicians. ,ther early E-=s used a form of instruction list programming, (ased on a stack)(ased logic solver. $odern E-=s can (e programmed in a variety of ays, from ladder logic to less traditional programming languages such as >A0+= and =. Another method is 0tate -ogic, a very high)level programming language designed to program E-=s (ased on state transition diagrams. $any early E-=s did not have accompanying programming terminals that ere capa(le of graphical representation of the logic, and so the logic as instead represented as a series of logic e4pressions in some version of >oolean format, similar to >oolean alge(ra. As programming terminals evolved, it (ecame more common for ladder logic to (e used, for the aforementioned reasons and (ecause it as a familiar format used for electromechanical control panels. Je er formats such as 0tate -ogic and Function >lock 5 hich is similar to the ay logic is depicted hen using digital integrated logic circuits6 e4ist, (ut they are still not as popular as ladder logic. A primary reason for this is that E-=s solve the logic in a predicta(le and repeating se!uence, and ladder logic allo s the programmer 5the person riting the logic6 to see any issues ith the timing of the logic se!uence more easily than ould (e possi(le in other formats. "rogramming 3arly E-=s, up to the mid)1?2;s, ere programmed using proprietary programming panels or special)purpose programming terminals, hich often had dedicated function keys representing the various logical elements of E-= programs. ["] Erograms ere stored on cassette tape cartridges. Facilities for printing and documentation ere minimal due to lack of memory capacity. #he very oldest E-=s used non)volatile magnetic core memory. $ore recently, E-=s are programmed using application soft are on personal computers. #he computer is connected to the E-= through 3thernet, %0)"&", %0)*2. or %0)*"" ca(ling. #he programming soft are allo s entry and editing of the ladder)style logic. Ienerally the soft are provides functions for de(ugging and trou(leshooting the E-= soft are, for e4ample, (y highlighting portions of the logic to sho current status during operation or via simulation. #he soft are ill upload and do nload the E-= program, for (ackup and restoration purposes. +n some models of programma(le controller, the program is transferred from a personal computer to the E-= through a programming (oard hich rites the program into a remova(le chip such as an 33E%,$ or 3E%,$. %unctionality #he functionality of the E-= has evolved over the years to include se!uential relay control, motion control, process control, distri(uted control systems and net orking. #he data handling, storage, processing po er and communication capa(ilities of some modern E-=s are appro4imately e!uivalent to desktop computers. E-=)like programming com(ined ith remote +K, hard are, allo a general)purpose desktop computer to overlap some E-=s in certain applications. %egarding the practicality of these desktop computer (ased logic controllers, it is important to note that they have not (een generally accepted in heavy industry (ecause the desktop computers run on less sta(le operating systems than do E-=s, and (ecause the desktop computer hard are is typically not designed to the same levels of tolerance to temperature, humidity, vi(ration, and longevity as the processors used in E-=s. +n addition to the hard are limitations of desktop (ased logic, operating systems such as Windo s do not lend themselves to deterministic logic

e4ecution, ith the result that the logic may not al ays respond to changes in logic state or input status ith the e4treme consistency in timing as is e4pected from E-=s. 0till, such desktop logic applications find use in less critical situations, such as la(oratory automation and use in small facilities here the application is less demanding and critical, (ecause they are generally much less e4pensive than E-=s. +n more recent years, small products called E-%s 5programma(le logic relays6, and also (y similar names, have (ecome more common and accepted. #hese are very much like E-=s, and are used in light industry here only a fe points of +K, 5i.e. a fe signals coming in from the real orld and a fe going out6 are involved, and lo cost is desired. #hese small devices are typically made in a common physical si7e and shape (y several manufacturers, and (randed (y the makers of larger E-=s to fill out their lo end product range. Eopular names include E+=, =ontroller, JAJ, E-=, and other names implying very small controllers. $ost of these have (et een 2 and 1" digital inputs, * and 2 digital outputs, and up to " analog inputs. 0i7e is usually a(out *G ide, &G high, and &G deep. $ost such devices include a tiny postage stamp si7ed -=8 screen for vie ing simplified ladder logic 5only a very small portion of the program (eing visi(le at a given time6 and status of +K, points, and typically these screens are accompanied (y a *) ay rocker push)(utton plus four more separate push)(uttons, similar to the key (uttons on a :=% remote control, and used to navigate and edit the logic. $ost have a small plug for connecting via %0)"&" or %0)*2. to a personal computer so that programmers can use simple Windo s applications for programming instead of (eing forced to use the tiny -=8 and push)(utton set for this purpose. Hnlike regular E-=s that are usually modular and greatly e4panda(le, the E-%s are usually not modular or e4panda(le, (ut their price can (e t o orders of magnitude less than a E-= and they still offer ro(ust design and deterministic e4ecution of the logic. "LC topics %eatures

=ontrol panel ith E-= 5grey elements in the center6. #he unit consists of separate elements, from left to right9 po er supply, controller, relay units for in) and output #he main difference from other computers is that E-=s are armored for severe conditions 5such as dust, moisture, heat, cold6 and have the facility for e4tensive inputKoutput 5+K,6 arrangements. #hese connect the E-= to sensors and actuators. E-=s read limit s itches, analog process varia(les 5such as temperature and pressure6, and the positions of comple4 positioning systems. 0ome use machine vision.[*] ,n the actuator side, E-=s operate electric motors, pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders, magnetic relays, solenoids, or analog outputs. #he inputKoutput arrangements may (e (uilt into a simple E-=, or the E-= may have e4ternal +K, modules attached to a computer net ork that plugs into the E-=. can time A E-= program is generally e4ecuted repeatedly as long as the controlled system is running. #he status of physical input points is copied to an area of memory accessi(le to the processor, sometimes called the G+K, +mage #a(leG. #he program is then run from its first instruction rung do n to the last rung. +t takes some time for the processor of the E-= to evaluate all the rungs and update the +K, image ta(le ith the status of outputs.[.] #his scan time may (e a fe milliseconds for a small program or on a fast processor, (ut older E-=s running very large programs could take much longer 5say, up to 1;; ms6 to e4ecute the program. +f the scan time as too long, the response of the E-= to process conditions ould (e too slo to (e useful. As E-=s (ecame more advanced, methods ere developed to change the se!uence of ladder e4ecution, and su(routines ere implemented.[/] #his simplified programming and could also (e used to save scan time for high)speed processes9 for e4ample, parts of the program used only for setting up the machine could (e segregated from those parts re!uired to operate at higher speed. 0pecial)purpose +K, modules, such as timer modules or counter modules, could (e used here the scan time of the processor as too long to relia(ly pick up, for e4ample, counting pulses and interpreting !uadrature from a shaft encoder. #he relatively slo E-= could still interpret the counted values to control a machine, (ut the accumulation of pulses as done (y a dedicated module that as unaffected (y the speed of the program e4ecution. ystem scale

A small E-= ill have a fi4ed num(er of connections (uilt in for inputs and outputs. #ypically, e4pansions are availa(le if the (ase model has insufficient +K,. $odular E-=s have a chassis 5also called a rack6 into hich are placed modules ith different functions. #he processor and selection of +K, modules are customi7ed for the particular application. 0everal racks can (e administered (y a single processor, and may have thousands of inputs and outputs. A special high speed serial +K, link is used so that racks can (e distri(uted a ay from the processor, reducing the iring costs for large plants. &ser interface 0ee also: Hser interface and -ist of human)computer interaction topics E-=s may need to interact ith people for the purpose of configuration, alarm reporting or everyday control. A human)machine interface 5B$+6 is employed for this purpose. B$+s are also referred to as man)machine interfaces 5$$+s6 and graphical user interface 5IH+s6. A simple system may use (uttons and lights to interact ith the user. #e4t displays are availa(le as ell as graphical touch screens. $ore comple4 systems use programming and monitoring soft are installed on a computer, ith the E-= connected via a communication interface. Communications E-=s have (uilt in communications ports, usually ?)pin %0)"&", (ut optionally 3+A)*2. or 3thernet. $od(us, >A=net or 8F1 is usually included as one of the communications protocols. ,ther options include various field(uses such as 8eviceJet or Erofi(us. ,ther communications protocols that may (e used are listed in the -ist of automation protocols. $ost modern E-=s can communicate over a net ork to some other system, such as a computer running a 0=A8A 50upervisory =ontrol And 8ata Ac!uisition6 system or e( (ro ser. E-=s used in larger +K, systems may have peer)to)peer 5E"E6 communication (et een processors. #his allo s separate parts of a comple4 process to have individual control hile allo ing the su(systems to co)ordinate over the communication link. #hese communication links are also often used for B$+ devices such as keypads or E=)type orkstations. "rogramming E-= programs are typically ritten in a special application on a personal computer, then do nloaded (y a direct)connection ca(le or over a net ork to the E-=. #he program is stored in the E-= either in (attery)(acked)up %A$ or some other non)volatile flash memory. ,ften, a single E-= can (e programmed to replace thousands of relays.[1] Hnder the +3= /11&1)& standard, E-=s can (e programmed using standards)(ased programming languages. A graphical programming notation called 0e!uential Function =harts is availa(le on certain programma(le controllers. +nitially most E-=s utili7ed -adder -ogic 8iagram Erogramming, a model hich emulated electromechanical control panel devices 5such as the contact and coils of relays6 hich E-=s replaced. #his model remains common today. +3= /11&1)& currently defines five programming languages for programma(le control systems: function (lock diagram 5F>86, ladder diagram 5-86, structured te4t 50#9 similar to the Eascal programming language6, instruction list 5+-9 similar to assem(ly language6 and se!uential function chart 50F=6.[2] #hese techni!ues emphasi7e logical organi7ation of operations.[1] While the fundamental concepts of E-= programming are common to all manufacturers, differences in +K, addressing, memory organi7ation and instruction sets mean that E-= programs are never perfectly interchangea(le (et een different makers. 3ven ithin the same product line of a single manufacturer, different models may not (e directly compati(le. "LC compared 'ith other control systems

Allen)>radley E-= installed in a control panel E-=s are ell adapted to a range of automation tasks. #hese are typically industrial processes in manufacturing here the cost of developing and maintaining the automation system is high relative to the total cost of the automation, and here changes to the system ould (e e4pected

during its operational life. E-=s contain input and output devices compati(le ith industrial pilot devices and controls9 little electrical design is re!uired, and the design pro(lem centers on e4pressing the desired se!uence of operations. E-= applications are typically highly customi7ed systems, so the cost of a packaged E-= is lo compared to the cost of a specific custom)(uilt controller design. ,n the other hand, in the case of mass)produced goods, customi7ed control systems are economical. #his is due to the lo er cost of the components, hich can (e optimally chosen instead of a GgenericG solution, and here the non)recurring engineering charges are spread over thousands or millions of units. For high volume or very simple fi4ed automation tasks, different techni!ues are used. For e4ample, a consumer dish asher ould (e controlled (y an electromechanical cam timer costing only a fe dollars in production !uantities. A microcontroller)(ased design ould (e appropriate here hundreds or thousands of units ill (e produced and so the development cost 5design of po er supplies, inputKoutput hard are and necessary testing and certification6 can (e spread over many sales, and here the end)user ould not need to alter the control. Automotive applications are an e4ample9 millions of units are (uilt each year, and very fe end)users alter the programming of these controllers. Bo ever, some specialty vehicles such as transit (uses economically use E-=s instead of custom)designed controls, (ecause the volumes are lo and the development cost ould (e uneconomical.[?] :ery comple4 process control, such as used in the chemical industry, may re!uire algorithms and performance (eyond the capa(ility of even high)performance E-=s. :ery high)speed or precision controls may also re!uire customi7ed solutions9 for e4ample, aircraft flight controls. 0ingle)(oard computers using semi)customi7ed or fully proprietary hard are may (e chosen for very demanding control applications here the high development and maintenance cost can (e supported. G0oft E-=sG running on desktop)type computers can interface ith industrial +K, hard are hile e4ecuting programs ithin a version of commercial operating systems adapted for process control needs.[?] Erogramma(le controllers are idely used in motion control, positioning control and tor!ue control. 0ome manufacturers produce motion control units to (e integrated ith E-= so that I)code 5involving a =J= machine6 can (e used to instruct machine movements.[citation needed] E-=s may include logic for single)varia(le feed(ack analog control loop, a Gproportional, integral, derivativeG or GE+8 controllerG. A E+8 loop could (e used to control the temperature of a manufacturing process, for e4ample. Bistorically E-=s ere usually configured ith only a fe analog control loops9 here processes re!uired hundreds or thousands of loops, a distri(uted control system 58=06 ould instead (e used. As E-=s have (ecome more po erful, the (oundary (et een 8=0 and E-= applications has (ecome less distinct. E-=s have similar functionality as %emote #erminal Hnits. An %#H, ho ever, usually does not support control algorithms or control loops. As hard are rapidly (ecomes more po erful and cheaper, %#Hs, E-=s and 8=0s are increasingly (eginning to overlap in responsi(ilities, and many vendors sell %#Hs ith E-=)like features and vice versa. #he industry has standardi7ed on the +3= /11&1) & functional (lock language for creating programs to run on %#Hs and E-=s, although nearly all vendors also offer proprietary alternatives and associated development environments. +n recent years G0afetyG E-=s have started to (ecome popular, either as standalone models 5Eil7 EJ,L $ulti, 0ick etc.6 or as functionality and safety)rated hard are added to e4isting controller architectures 5Allen >radley Iuardlogi4, 0iemens F)series etc.6. #hese differ from conventional E-= types as (eing suita(le for use in safety)critical applications for hich E-=s have traditionally (een supplemented ith hard) ired safety relays. For e4ample, a 0afety E-= might (e used to control access to a ro(ot cell ith trapped)key access, or perhaps to manage the shutdo n response to an emergency stop on a conveyor production line. 0uch E-=s typically have a restricted regular instruction set augmented ith safety)specific instructions designed to interface ith emergency stops, light screens and so forth. #he fle4i(ility that such systems offer has resulted in rapid gro th of demand for these controllers. $igital and analog signals 8igital or discrete signals (ehave as (inary s itches, yielding simply an ,n or ,ff signal 51 or ;, #rue or False, respectively6. Eush (uttons, -imit s itches, and photoelectric sensors are e4amples of devices providing a discrete signal. 8iscrete signals are sent using either voltage or current, here a specific range is designated as On and another as Off. For e4ample, a E-= might use "* : 8= +K,, ith values a(ove "" : 8= representing On, values (elo ":8= representing Off, and intermediate values undefined. +nitially, E-=s had only discrete +K,. Analog signals are like volume controls, ith a range of values (et een 7ero and full)scale. #hese are typically interpreted as integer values 5counts6 (y the E-=, ith various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and the num(er of (its availa(le to store the data. As E-=s typically use 1/)(it signed (inary processors, the integer values are limited (et een )&",1/2 and M&",1/1. Eressure, temperature, flo , and eight are often represented (y analog signals. Analog signals can use voltage or current ith a magnitude

proportional to the value of the process signal. For e4ample, an analog ; ) 1; : input or *)"; mA ould (e converted into an integer value of ; ) &"1/1. =urrent inputs are less sensitive to electrical noise 5i.e. from elders or electric motor starts6 than voltage inputs. (!ample As an e4ample, say a facility needs to store ater in a tank. #he ater is dra n from the tank (y another system, as needed, and our e4ample system must manage the ater level in the tank (y controlling the valve that refills the tank. 0ho n is a Gladder diagramG hich sho s the control system. A ladder diagram is a method of dra ing control circuits hich pre)dates E-=s9 it is also a type of E-= user interface hich uses the same method of representing a circuit. 0ho n are: # o inputs 5from the lo and high level s itches6 represented (y contacts of the float s itches An output to the fill valve, la(elled as the fill valve hich it controls An GimaginaryG contact operated (y the fill valve hich is created in soft are and the program. A logical control scheme created (y the interconnection of these items in soft are

#he E-= has t o digital inputs from float s itches 5-o -evel and Bigh -evel6. When the ater level is (elo (oth s itches, the s itch contacts are closed providing signals to (oth the G-o -evelG and GBigh -evelG inputs to the E-=. #he E-= uses a digital output to open the inlet valve to fill the tank. #he soft are)created GFill :alveG contact latches the circuit so that even hen the G-o -evelG input goes a ay as the ater (egins to rise, the fill valve remains on. ,nce the ater level rises enough so that the GBigh -evelG s itch is off 5up6, the E-= ill shut the inlet to stop the ater from overflo ing9 #his is an e4ample of seal)in 5latching6 logic. #he output is sealed in until a high level condition (reaks the circuit. After that the fill valve remains closed 5inactive6 until the level drops so lo that the lo level s itch is activated, and the descri(ed process is repeated.

N N N -o -evel Bigh -evel Fill :alve N N))))))[K]))))))N))))))[K]))))))))))))))))))))))5,H#6)))))))))N N N N N N N N N N N Fill :alve N N N))))))[ ]))))))N N N N N N