CHAPTER: 1

ORIGIN OF IDEA
1.1 Origin of Idea As India rapidly moving toward evolution of mechanism, so as to meet the basic necessity we needs to travel from one place to another & METRO is the system through which we can reach the required place/destination as early as possible. So METRO SYSTEM and its management should be developed to meet the 21st century standards. Therefore, we should design our metro system with well equipped technology. It will ease our transportation. By the help of this metro system automated version we can do all works as fast as we required neglecting the time factor for travelling. The metro technology has employed many engineers and also increased the standard of travelling such as fully ac, and dust free journey. By making metro system driverless it will become automated and that is what this project is all about.

CHAPTER: 2
INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT
2.1 Introduction to Project This project is all about making a simple and automated version of Delhi metro. In our project we will demonstrate how we can make the driverless metro system. In this project we are using microcontroller pic16f887, which will control all the functioning of the project. We are giving this project a prototype of robot whose movement is controlled by relay .and is connected to microcontroller. A LCD is used just to show which station is coming and act as a reminder for passengers inside the train. The station is the presence provided by ir sensor. Once the ir sensor detech the train . Accordingly it will send 0 or 1 to the controller which is sensed and acted according to the commands in program burned in the microcontroller. Our project has various features like detecting stations automatically when it is going to come and then stopping at stations. The passengers are informed regarding various messages automatically without anyones control. Our project is driverless and after all is in running condition. This project ones installed will work automatically without manual help. Cost of the project is not so high. Complexity of project is not high, so if any problem occurs it can easily be solved out. 2.2 Block Diagram of Project

INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS
A sensor (also called detector) is a converter that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an (today mostly electronic) instrument. For example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter. Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base. There are also innumerable applications for sensors of which most people are never aware. Applications include cars, machines, aerospace, medicine, manufacturing and robotics. A sensor is a device which receives and responds to a signal when touched. A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the measured quantity changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the temperature changes by 1 C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/C (it is basically the slope Dy/Dx assuming a linear characteristic). Sensors that measure very small changes must have very high sensitivities. Sensors also have an impact on what they measure; for instance, a room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats the thermometer. Sensors need to be designed to have a small effect on what is measured; making the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages. Technological progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as micro sensors using MEMS technology.

CHAPTER: 3
MICROCONTROLLER
3.1 Introduction The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industrystandard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and costeffective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Powerdown mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. 3.2 Features Compatible with MCS-51 Products 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz Three-level Program Memory Lock
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 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Three 16-bit Timer/Counters Eight Interrupt Sources Full Duplex UART Serial Channel Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode Watchdog Timer Dual Data Pointer Power-off Flag Fast Programming Time Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Mode) Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option 3.3 Pin Diagram

Figure 3.1 Pin Diagram of pic16f887

3.4 Reset This Block consists of the circuit that is used to reset the Micro-Controller. Basically a high to low pulse is need to be given at the pin number one of the microcontroller (MCLR). This is done by using a resistor, capacitor and a switch. 3.5 Crystal An external clock is given to the microcontroller to set the speed of working. For this we use a crystal, in this case I used a 4MHz crystal. Along with crystals we connect 2 capacitors to avoid sparks and get a stable working of crystal also.

CHAPTER: 4
INTRODUCTION TO LCD

4.1 Introduction The LCD is a dot matrix liquid crystal display that displays alphanumeric, Kana (Japanese) character and symbols. The built - in controller & driver LSIs provide convenient connectively between a dot matrix LCD and most 4 or 8 bit microprocessors or microcontrollers. All the functions required for dot matrix liquid crystal display drive are internally provided. Internal refresh is provided by the LCD. The CMOS technology makes the device ideal for application in hand held, portable and other battery powered instruments with low power consumption.

Figure 4.1 LCD 16*2 Display 4.2 Features o Easy interface with a 4-bit or 8-bit MPU. o Built-in dot matrix LCD controller with font 5 X 7 or 5 X 10 dots. o Display data RAM for 80 characters (80 X 8bits). o Character generator ROM, which provides 160 characters with font X 7 dots and 32 characters with font 5 X 10 dots. o Both display data and character generator RAMs can be read from the MPU. o Internal automatic reset circuit at power ON. o Built-in oscillator circuit (No extra clock required). o Wide range of instruction functions: Clear display, cursor home, o Display ON/OFF, Cursor Shift, Display Shift.

4.3 Operational Overview 4.3.1 Busy Flag(BF) When the busy flag is HIGH level, it indicates that the controller is in the internal operation mode and the next instruction will not be accepted. When R/W is 1 and Rs is 0, the busy flag is output from DB7. The next instruction must be written after the busy flag goes low. 4.3.2 Address Counter(AC) The address counter (AC) generates the address for the DD RAM, the CG RAM and for the cursor display. When an instruction code for DD or CG RAM address is written to the controller, after deciding whether it is DD RAM or CG RAM, the address information is transferred to AC. After writing into DD or CG RAM display data, AC is automatically incremented (or decremented). The data of AC is output DB0~DB0 when RS is0 and R/W is1. 4.3.3 Character Generator ROM (CG ROM) The character generator ROM generates 5 X 7 dot or 5 X10 dot character pattern from 8-bit character codes. It can generate 160 types of 5 X7 dot character pattern and 32 types of 5 X 10 dot character patterns. When the 8-bit character code of a CG ROM is written to the DD RAM, the character pattern of the CG ROM corresponding to the code is displayed on the LCD display position corresponding to the DD RAM. 4.3.4 Character Generator RAM (CG RAM) The character generator RAM (CG RAM) is the RAM with which the user can generate character patterns by program. The CG RAM has the capacity to store 8 kinds of 5 X 7 dots or 4 kinds of 5 X 10 dots. Programming of this character patterns is explained in CG RAM programming. 4.3.5 Display Data RAM (DD RAM) The display data RAM (DD RAM) stores display data represented in 8-bit (hexadecimal) character codes. Its capacity is 80 X 8 bits, or 80 characters. The display data RAM (DD RAM) that is not used for display can be used as general data RAM. Depending on the 8-bit character code that is written into the DD RAM. LCD will select the character patter

CHAPTER: 5
FABRICATION PROCESS
7.1 PCB Manufacturing Printed Circuit Board, popularly known as PCB provides both physical structure for mounting and holding electronic components as well as the electrical connection between components. A PCB consists of a non-conducting substrate upon which a conductive pattern or circuitry is formed. Copper is the most relevant conductor, although nickel, silver, tin, tinlead and gold may also be used as etch resists or top level metal. When the electronic components have been mounted on the PCB the combination of PCB and components is an electronic assembly, also called a printed circuit assembly(PCA). This assembly is the basic building block for all larger electronic systems, from toys to toasters to telecommunications. The various processes involved in fabrication of plate are:1. Cleaning of plate To start with, general purposes copper clad is selected of desired size according to the circuit layout. The plate is then washed with suitable solvent so as to remove any oxide grease or dust. 2. PCB layout Before any PCB fabrication can be done, we need to design PCB electrical pads for component placing and trace for component connectivity. It can be draw by hand but if your design is very complex, the PCB software will be very helpful. The software have ready to use components footprint, and modification can be easy done, saving you a lot of time and effort as compare to manual drawing. Professional PCB software such as CADSTAR and PROTEL can cost above thousands of dollars. Simple and basic PCB software such as Eagle or Easy-PC is slightly lower in cost, in the range of about $500 to $1200. They are cheaper in cost, but features can be limited. Limitation can be in the form of limited board size, number of board layer or the number of component's pin allowed in the design.

Figure 5.1: PCB Tracking 3. Etching

Figure 5.2 : PCB Terminals

In this all excessive copper is removed from the copper clad laminate, and only the pattern is left behind. Developing is done in a solution of heated tap water and ferric chloride(FeCl3). Two 100ml of tap water around 30 to 40 gms of FeCl3 is added. A few drops of HCL may be added to speed up the process. The board with its copper side facing upward, should be placed in a flat bottomed plastic tray and the aqueous solution of FeCl3 poured. The etching process would take 20 to 30 minutes to complete depending upon the size of the PCB. Then board is washed under the running water and dried. The printed pattern should be clearly visible otherwise allow it to stand in the solution for some more time. 4. Drilling The etching is completed. The original artwork is arranged to maximize the use of the PCB board. 5 small PCB can be fabricated on the 15cm x 10cm board. 3 of the PCB pattern is not formed properly during the developing process, therefore only 2 PCB board can be extracted. Hole is necessary to mount component (example: resistor, capacitor, inductor, board mount switch, DIP integrated circuit IC etc). Before drilling, a dot punch is used to mark the hole position. This serves as a shallow guide for the drill bit to align easily while drilling. Any other sharp pointed tool can be use to do the marking. The drill is fitted with a 1mm drill bit. A 1mm drill bit is thin and can break easily. Hold the drill steady and drill in straight slowly. The hole will be drilled with little force applied. 5. Mounting Components All the components according to the component assembly diagram are mounted in the appropriate holes.

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6. Soldering Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soft soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 400 C (752 F). The filler metal used in the process is called solder. In a soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt and be drawn into the joint by capillary action and to bond to the materials to be joined by wetting action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water-tightness for many uses.

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CHAPTER: 6
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
Components used: The following components are used in the project: 1) Resistances 2) Capacitor 3) Switch 4) PIC16f887 5) Sensors 6) Voltage regulator IC 7805 7) LED 6.1 Resistance A resistor is a two-terminal electrical or electronic component that opposes an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in accordance with Ohm's law: The electrical resistance is equal to the voltage drop across the resistor divided by the current through the resistor while the temperature remains the same. Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. 6.1.1 Identifying resistors Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. Surface-mount resistors are marked numerically. Cases are usually brown, blue, or green, though other colors are occasionally found such as dark red or dark grey. One can also use a multimeter or ohmmeter to test the values of a resistor. 6.1.1.1 Four-band axial resistors Four-band identification is the most commonly used color coding scheme on all resistors. It consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. The scheme is simple: The first two numbers are the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a multiplier, and the fourth is the tolerance of the value. Each color corresponds to a certain number, shown in the chart below. The tolerance for a 4-band resistor will be 1%, 5%, or 10%.

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Color Black

1st band 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2nd band

3rd band (multiplier) 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 10-1 10-2

4th band (tolerance)

Temp. Coefficient

Brown 1 Red 2

1% (F) 2% (G)

100 ppm 50 ppm 15 ppm 25 ppm

Orange 3 Yellow 4 Green 5 Blue 6

0.5% (D) 0.25% (C) 0.1% (B) 0.05% (A)

Violet 7 Gray 8

White 9 Gold Silver None

5% (J) 10% (K) 20% (M)

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6.1.1.2. Preferred values Resistors are manufactured in values from a few milliohms to about a gigaohm; only a limited range of values from the IEC 60063 preferred number series are commonly available. These series are called E6, E12, E24, E96 and E192. The number tells how many standardized values exist in each decade (e.g. between 10 and 100, or between 100 and 1000). So resistors conforming to the E12 series, can have 12 distinct values between 10 and 100, whereas those confirming to the E24 series would have 24 distinct values. In practice, the discrete component sold as a "resistor" is not a perfect resistance, as defined above. Resistors are often marked with their tolerance (maximum expected variation from the marked resistance). These E numbers correspond to the formula R= 10^(N/E), So for an 1.21 ohm E96 series resistor, N=8 and 10^(8/96)=1.21 ohm. Each multiple of 96 added to the remainder gives the next decade. So a 12.1 ohm resistor would have a N= 8+96 = 104. N can also be found by using the formula E*LOG10(R) = N.

6.1.1.3 5-band axial resistors 5-band identification is used for higher precision (lower tolerance) resistors (1%, 0.5%, 0.25%, 0.1%), to notate the extra digit. The first three bands represent the significant digits, the fourth is the multiplier, and the fifth is the tolerance. 5-band standard tolerance resistors are sometimes encountered, generally on older or specialized resistors. They can be identified by noting a standard tolerance color in the 4th band. The 5th band in this case is the temperature coefficient

6.1.2 Power dissipation The power dissipated by a resistor is the voltage across the resistor multiplied by the current through the resistor:

All three equations are equivalent. The first is derived from Joule's law, and other two are derived from that by Ohm's Law. The total amount of heat energy released is the integral of the power over time

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If the average power dissipated exceeds the power rating of the resistor, the resistor may depart from its nominal resistance, and may be damaged by overheating. Significantly excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it burns out, which could cause a fire in adjacent components and materials. 6.1.3 Series and parallel circuits Resistors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To find their total equivalent resistance (Req):

The parallel property can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in geometry) to simplify equations. For two resistors,

The current through resistors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each resistor can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage. To find their total resistance

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A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series can sometimes be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

However, many resistor networks cannot be split up in this way. Consider a cube, each edge of which has been replaced by a resistor. For example, determining the resistance between two opposite vertices requires matrix methods for the general case. However, if all twelve resistors are equal, the corner-to-corner resistance is 56 of any one of them.

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6.1.4 Technology Carbon composition: Carbon composition resistors consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded wire leadouts or metal end caps to which the leadout wires are attached, which is protected with paint or plastic. The resistive element is made from a mixture of finely ground (powdered) carbon and an insulating material (usually ceramic). The mixture is held together by a resin. The resistance is determined by the ratio of the fill material (the powdered ceramic) and the carbon. Higher concentrations of carbon, a weak conductor, result in lower resistance. Carbon composition resistors were commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not so popular for general use now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence, and stress (carbon composition resistors will change value when stressed with over-voltages). Carbon film: A spiral is used to increase the length and decrease the width of the film, which increases the resistance. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of carbon, (ranging from 9 to 40 m) can make for a variety of resistances. Thick and thin film: Thick film resistors became popular during the 1970s, and most SMD resistors today are of this type. The principal difference between "thin film" and "thick film resistors" isn't necessarily the "thickness" of the film, but rather, how the film is applied to the cylinder (axial resistors) or the surface (SMD resistors). In thick film resistors the "film" is applied using traditional screen-printing technology. Thin film resistors are made by sputtering the resistive material onto the surface of the resistor. Sputtering is a method used in vacuum deposition. The thin film is then etched in a similar manner to the old (subtractive) process for making printed circuit boards: ie the surface is coated with a photo-sensitive material, then covered by a film, irradiated with ultraviolet light, and then the exposed photosensitive coating, and underlying thin film, are etched away. Thin film resistors, like their thick film counterparts, are then usually trimmed to an accurate value by abrasive or laser trimming. Because the time during which the sputtering is performed can be controlled, the thickness of the film of a thin-film resistor can be accurately controlled. The type of the material is also usually different consisting of one or more ceramic (cermet) conductors such as tantalum

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nitride (TaN), ruthenium dioxide (RuO2), lead oxide (PbO), bismuth ruthenate (Bi2Ru2O7), nickel chromium (NiCr), and/or bismuth iridate (Bi2Ir2O7). By contrast, thick film resistors, may use the same conductive ceramics, but they are mixed with sintered (powdered) glass, and some kind of liquid so that the composite can be screenprinted. This composite of glass and conductive ceramic (cermet) material is then fused (baked) in an oven at about 850 C. Traditionally thick film resistors had tolerances of 5%, but in the last few decades, standard tolerances have improved to 2% and 1%. But beware, temperature coefficients of thick film resistors are tyically 200 ppm, or 250 ppm, depending on the resistance. Thus a 40 degree Celsius (70 F) temperature change can add another 1% variation to a 1% resistor. Thin film resistors are usually specified with tolerances of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, and 1%, and with temperature coefficients of 5 to 25 ppm. They are usually far more expensive than their thick film cousins. Note, though, that SMD thin film resistors, with 0.5% tolerances, and with 25 ppm temperature coefficients, when bought in full size reel quantities, are about twice the cost of a 1%, 250 ppm thick film resistors. Metal film: A common type of axial resistor today is referred to as a metal-film resistor. MELF (Metal Electrode Leadless Face) resistors often use the same technology, but are a cylindrically shaped resistor designed for surface mounting. [Note that other types of resistors, eg carbon composition, are also available in "MELF" packages]. Metal film resistors are usually coated with nickel chromium (NiCr), but might be coated with any of the cermet materials listed above for thin film resistors. Unlike thin film resistors, the material may be applied using different techniques than sputtering (though that is one such technique). Also, unlike thin-film resistors, the resistance value is determined by cutting a helix through the coating rather than by etching. [This is similar to the way carbon resistors are made.] The result is a reasonable tolerance (0.5, 1, or 2%) and a temperature coefficient of (usually) 25 or 50 ppm.

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Wirewound: Wirewound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to two caps, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. The wire leads are usually between 0.6 and 0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For higher power wirewound resistors, either a ceramic outer case or an aluminium outer case on top of an insulating layer is used. The aluminium cased types are designed to be attached to a heatsink to dissipate the heat; the rated power is dependant on being used with a suitable heatsink, e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor will overheat at around one fifth of the power dissipation if not used with a heatsink. Because wirewound resistors are coils they have more inductance than other types of resistor, although this property can be minimized by winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction. Foil resistor: Foil resistors have had the best precision and stability ever since they were introduced in 1958 by Felix Zandman. One of the important parameters influencing stability is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). Although the TCR of foil resistors is considered extremely low, this characteristic has been further refined over the years.

6.2 Capacitor A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast , batteries store energy via chemical reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance. This is the ratio of

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the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, which is equal to one coulomb per volt. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow.

Figure 6.1 Capacitors A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

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The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to its equilibrium position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is

Here Q is the charge stored in the capacitor, V is the voltage across the capacitor, and C is the capacitance. In the case of a fluctuating voltage V(t), the stored energy also fluctuates and hence power must flow into or out of the capacitor. This power can be found by taking the time derivative of the stored energy:

Current-voltage relation The current I(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a charge Q(t) passing through it, but actual chargeselectronscannot pass through the dielectric layer of a capacitor. Rather, an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage, as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of

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integration is added to represent the initial voltage V(t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation:

Taking the derivative of this and multiplying by C yields the derivative form

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in a magnetic field rather than an electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L. DC circuits

A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor. A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC source of voltage V0 is known as a charging circuit. If the capacitor is initially uncharged while the switch is open, and the switch is closed at t0, it follows from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation:

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the resistor is V0. The initial current is then I(0) =V0/R. With this assumption, solving the differential equation yields

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where 0 = RC is the time constant of the system. As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the voltages across the resistor and the current through the entire circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential decay, but with the initial capacitor voltage replacing V0 and the final voltage being zero. Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and resistance, describes the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at a given frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal to be constructed from a spectrum of frequencies, whence the circuit's reaction to the various frequencies may be found. The reactance and impedance of a capacitor are respectively

where j is the imaginary unit and is the angular frequency of the sinusoidal signal. The j phase indicates that the AC voltage V = ZI lags the AC current by 90: the positive current phase corresponds to increasing voltage as the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to instantaneous constant voltage, etc. Impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and increasing frequency. This implies that a higher-frequency signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage amplitude per current amplitudean AC "short circuit" or AC coupling. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the reactance will be high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit in AC analysisthose frequencies have been "filtered out". 6.3 Switch In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts can

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be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is nonconducting. The mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) can be either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (push-for "on" or push-for "off") type. A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be padlocked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock. An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise timeand fall time during state changes, and would change state without "bouncing" between on and off positions. Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current and voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved, however this can lead to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal properties is required in the design of large networks of switches, as for example used in telephone exchanges.

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Figure 6.2: Switch 6.4 PIC16F887 The PIC16F887 is one of the latest products from Microchip. It features all the components which modern microcontrollers normally have. For its low price, wide range of application, high quality and easy availability, it is an ideal solution in applications such as: the control of different processes in industry, machine control devices, measurement of different values etc. Some of its main features are listed below. RISC architecture Only 35 instructions to learn All single-cycle instructions except branches Operating frequency 0-20 MHz Precision internal oscillator Factory calibrated Software selectable frequency range of 8MHz to 31KHz Power supply voltage 2.0-5.5V Consumption: 220uA (2.0V, 4MHz), 11uA (2.0 V, 32 KHz) 50nA (stand-by mode) Power-Saving Sleep Mode Brown-out Reset (BOR) with software control option 35 input/output pins High current source/sink for direct LED drive Software and individually programmable pull-up resistor Interrupt-on-Change pin

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8K ROM memory in FLASH technology Chip can be reprogrammed up to 100.000 times In-Circuit Serial Programming Option Chip can be programmed even embedded in the target device 256 bytes EEPROM memory Data can be written more than 1.000.000 times 368 bytes RAM memory A/D converter 14-channels 10-bit resolution 3 independent timers/counters Watch-dog timer Analogue comparator module with Two analogue comparators Fixed voltage reference (0.6V) Programmable on-chip voltage reference PWM output steering control Enhanced USART module Auto-Baud Detect Master Synchronous Serial Port (MSSP) Supports SPI and I2C mode

Figure 6.3 : PIC

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6.5 LCD INTRODUCTION: The LCD is a dot matrix liquid crystal display that displays alphanumeric, Kana (Japanese) character and symbols. The built - in controller & driver LSIs provide convenient connectively between a dot matrix LCD and most 4 or 8 bit microprocessors or microcontrollers. All the functions required for dot matrix liquid crystal display drive are internally provided. Internal refresh is provided by the LCD. The CMOS technology makes the device ideal for application in hand held, portable and other battery powered instruments with low power consumption.

FEATURES: Easy interface with a 4-bit or 8-bit MPU. Built-in dot matrix LCD controller with font 5 X 7 or 5 X 10 dots. Display data RAM for 80 characters (80 X 8bits). Character generator ROM, which provides 160 characters with font 5 X 7 dots and 32

characters with font 5 X 10 dots. Both display data and character generator RAMs can be read from the MPU. Internal automatic reset circuit at power ON. Built-in oscillator circuit (No extra clock required). Wide range of instruction functions: Clear display, cursor home, Display ON/OFF, Cursor Shift, Display Shift.

OPERATIONAL OVERVIEW: 1. BUSY FLAG (BF): When the busy flag is HIGH level, it indicates that the controller is in the internal operation mode and the next instruction will not be accepted. When R/W is 1 and Rs is 0, the busy flag is output from DB7. Thenext instruction must be written after the busy flag goes low. 2. ADDRESS COUNTER (AC): The address counter (AC) generates the address for the DD RAM, the CG RAM and for the cursor display. When an instruction code for DD or CG RAM address is written to the controller, after deciding whether it is DD RAM or CG RAM, the address information is transferred to AC. After writing into DD or CG RAM display data,

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AC is automatically incremented (or decremented). The data of AC is output DB0~DB0 when RS is0 and R/W is1. 3. CHARACTER GENERATOR ROM (CG ROM): The character generator ROM generates 5 X 7 dot or 5 X10 dot character pattern from 8-bit character codes. It can generate 160 types of 5 X7 dot character pattern and 32 types of 5 X 10 dot character patterns. When the 8-bit character code of a CG ROM is written to the DD RAM, the character pattern of the CG ROM corresponding to the code is displayed on the LCD display position corresponding to the DD RAM. 4. CHARACTER GENERATOR RAM (CG RAM): The character generator RAM (CG RAM) is the RAM with which the user can generate character patterns by program. The CG RAM has the capacity to store 8 kinds of 5 X 7 dots or 4 kinds of 5 X 10 dots. Programming of this character patterns is explained in CG RAM programming. 5. DISPLAY DATA RAM (DD RAM): The display data RAM (DD RAM) stores display data represented in 8-bit (hexadecimal) character codes. Its capacity is 80 X 8 bits, or 80 characters. The display data RAM (DD RAM) that is not used for display can be used as general data RAM. Depending on the 8-bit character code that is written into the DD RAM. LCD will select the character pattern either from Character Generator RAM (CG RAM) or from Character Generator ROM (CG ROM). 1-line Display (N=O) 1 2 3 4 5 78 79 80 Display position

00 01 02 03 04 -- -- -- 4D 4E 4F

Line-1

DD RAM address

When the display characters are less than 80, the display begins at the home position. For example, 8 characters X 1 line will be like 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
00

8
01

Display position
02 03 04 05 06 07

DD RAM address

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When the display shift operation is performed, the DD RAM address moves as:
00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07

(Left shift display)

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07

(Right shift display) 2-line Display (N=1) 1 2 3 4 5 6 -- -- 39 40 Display position

00 01 02 03 04 05 -- -- 26 27

Line-1 DD RAM address

40 41 42 43 44 45 -- -- 66 67

Note that the first line end address and the second line start address are not consecutive. When the capacity is less than 40 X 2, the 2 lines are displayed from the home position. For example 16 characters X 2 lines will be like: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Display position

00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F

Line-1
40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F

DDRAM address Line-2 When display shift is performed, the DD RAM address move as:
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E 0F 10

Left shift
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E 4F 50

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27 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 0A 0B 0C 0D 0E

Right shift display

67 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 4A 4B 4C 4D 4E

4. INSTRUCTION CODE: The instruction code is a command set through which the LCD is controlled by the MPU. Prior to internal execution of the instruction code, control information is temporally stored in the internal resisters of the LCD, to allow interface from LCDs internal operation to various types of MPUs, which operate at different speeds or allow to interface to peripheral control ICs. The LCD begins operation upon receipt of the instruction code input from the MPU. There are four types of instruction, those that: 1. 2. 3. 4. Designate LCD functions such as display format, data length, etc. Define internal RAM address. Perform data transfer with internal RAM. Others.

Normally the, 3rd category of instruction are used frequently, Automatic incrementing (or decrementing) of LCD internal RAM address after each data write lessens the MPU program load. The display shift is performed concurrently with display data write, enabling the user to develop system in minimum time with maximum programming efficiency. When an instruction is executing during internal operation, no instruction other than busy flag/address read instruction will be executed. The busy flag is set to1 while the LCD is internally processing an instruction. LCD signals that it is ready to accept the instruction by resetting the Busy flag. It is therefore to be ensured that the instructions are written to the LCD only while the busy flag is 0. There are two ways of doing this: 1. Read the Busy flag and ensure it is 0 before writing any instruction to the LCD. 2. Provide a sufficiently large delay between instructions to the LCD.

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INSTRUCTION TABLE:

Instruction

Code

Description

Execute time (max)

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

Clear display

Clears all display and returns cursor to home position (address 0).

1.64mS

Cursor at home

Returns the cursor to the home position (address 0). Also returns the display being shifted to original position. DDRAM contents remain unchanged.

1.64mS

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Entry mode set

I/D

Sets the cursors move direction and specifies shift of display. These operations are performed during data write and read.

40S

Display ON/OFF control

Sets ON/OFF of all display (D) cursor ON/OFF (C), and blink of cursor position character (B).

40S

Cursor/d 0 isplay shift

1 S/C R/L *

Moves the cursor and shifts the display without changing DDRAM contents.

40S

Function 0 set

DL N

Sets

interface

data

length

(DL)

40S

number of display lines (L) and character font (F).

CGRA M address set

ACG

Sets the CGRAM address. CGRAM data is sent and received after this setting.

40S

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DDRA M address set

ADD

Sets the DDRAM address. DDRAM data is sent and received after this setting.

40S

Busy flag/address read

BF

AC

Reads busy flag (BF) indicating internal operations are being performed and reads address counter contents.

40S

CGRA M/DDR AM write

Write data

Writes data into DDRAM or CGRAM.

40S

CGRA M/DDR AM read

Read data

Reads data from DDRAM or CGRAM.

40S

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Description of instruction code: 1. Clear display: RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

When this instruction is executed, the LCD display cleared and returned to its original status if it is shifted. The cursor goes to left edge of the display (the left end of the first line if 2-line mode). Space code 20 (hexadecimal) (character pattern for character code 20 is blank pattern) is written into all DD RAM addresses. Sets DD RAM address 0 in address counter (AC). Sets I/D = 1 (Increment Mode) of Entry Mode. S of Entry Mode Doesnt change. 2. Return home: RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Code Higher order bits * NO effect The cursor or blink goes to the left edge of the display (to the left end of the first line in the 2 line display mode). The display returns to its original status if it was shifted. DD RAM contents do not change. Sets the DD RAM address 0 in address counter. 3. Entry Mode Set: RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D S

Lower order bits

Code

Higher order bits

Lower order bits

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I/D: when the I/D is set, the 8-bit character code is written or read to and from the DD RAM, the cursor shifts to the right by 1 character position (I/D = 1; increment) or to the left by 1 character position (I/D =0; decrement). The address is incremented (I/D = 1) or decremented (I/D =0) by 1 at this time. Even after the character pattern code is writ ten or read to end from the CG RAM, the address counter (A/C) is incremented (I/D = 1) or decremented (I/D = 0) by 1. S: Shift the entire to the right or to the left when s is 1; to the left when I/D =1 and to the right when I/D = 0. Thus it looks as if the cursor stands still the display moves. The display does not shift when reading from the DD RAM when or when writing in to or reading out from the CG RAM when S=0. 4. Display ON/OFF Control: RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D C B

Code Higher order bits Lower order bits

D: The display is ON when D = 1 and OFF when D = 0. When off due to D = 0, display data remains in the DD RAM. It can be displayed immediately by setting d = 1. C: The cursor is displayed when C = 1 and goes off when C = 0. Even if the cursor disappears, the function of I/D, etc. does not change during display data write. The cursor is displayed using 5 dots in the 8th line when the 5x7 dot character font is selected and 5 dots in the 11th line when the 5x10 dot character font is selected. B: The character indicated by the cursor blinks when B = 1. The blink is displayed by switching all black dots and display characters at 409.6 ms interval when fCP or fOSC = 250 kHz. The cursor and the blink can be set to display simultaneously. (The blink interval changes according to the reciprocal of fCP or fOSC. 409.6 X 250/270 = 379.2 ms when fCP + 270kHz).

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5. Cursor Or Display Shift:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

0 0 0 0 0 1 S/C R/L * *

Code

Higher order bits

Lower order bits * No effect

Shifts cursor position or display to the right or left without writing or reading display data. This function is used to correct or search for the display. In a 2-line display, the cursor moves to the second line when it is passes the 40th digit of the 1st list. Notice that the 1st and 2nd line displays will shift at the same time. When the displayed data is shifted repeatedly each line only moves horizontally. The 2nd line display does not shift into the 1st line position.

S/C 0

R/L 0 Shifts the cursor position to the left. (AC is decremented by one).

Shifts the cursor position to the right (AC is incremented by one).

Shifts the entire display to the left. The cursor follows the display shift.

Shifts the entire display to the right. The cursor follows the display shift.

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Address counter (AC) contents do not change if the only action performed is shift display. 6. Function Set:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

0 0 0 0 1 DL N F * *

Code

Higher order bits

Lower order bits * No effect

DL: Sets interface data length When DL =1, the data input/output to and from the MPU is carried out by mean s of 8 bits DB7 to DB0. When DL =`0, the data input/output to and from the MPU is carried out in two steps through the 4 bits DB7 to DB4. N: Sets number of display lines The 2-line display mode of the LCD is selected when N =1, while the 1-Line display mode is selected when N = 0 F: Sets character font The 5x7 dots character font is selected when F =0, while the 5x10 dots character font is selected when F = 11 and N =0. 7. Set CG Ram Address: RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
0 0 0 1 A5 A4 A3 A2 A1 A0

Code

Higher order bits

Lower order bits

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Sets CG RAM address in to the Address Counter in binary A5 to A0. In the 5 X 10 font mode A5 & A4 define the CG RAM block number while A3-Ao define the row with in the block. In the 5 X 7 font mode the CG RAM block is defined by A5-A3 while A2- A0 define the row. 8. Set DD Ram Address: RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
0 0 1 B6 B5 B4 B3 B2 B1 B0

Code Higher order bits Lower order bits

Sets the DD RAM address into the address counter in binary B6 to B0. Data then written or read from the LCD pertains to the DD RAM. However, when N= 0 (1-line display), B6 to B0 is 00~ 4F (hexa). When N = 1 (2-line display), B6 to B0 is 00 ~ 27 (hexa) for the first line, and 40~67 (hexa) for the second line. 9. Read Busy Flag And Address: RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
0 1 BF C6 C5 C4 C3 C2 C1 C0

Code Higher order bits Lower order bits

Reads the busy flag (BF) that indicates the system is now internally executing a previously received instruction. BF = 1 indicates that internal operation is in progress. The next instruction will not be accepted until BF goes 0. Check the BF status before the next write operation.At the same time, the value of the address counter expressed in binary C6 toC0 is read. The address counter is used by both CG and DD RAM addresses, and its value is determined by the previous instruction.

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10. Write Data To CG To DD RAM: RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0
1 0 D D D D D D D D

Code Higher order bits Lower order bits

Writes binary 8 data DDDDDDDD to the CG or the DD RAM. Whether the CG or DD RAM is to be written in to is determined by previous specification of CG RAM or DD RAM address setting. After write, the address is automatically incremented or decremented by 1 according to entry mode. The entry mode also determines display shift. 11. Read Data From CG Or DD RAM:

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0

1 1 D D D D D D D D

Code Higher order bits Lower order bits

Reads binary 8 bit data DDDDDDDD from the CG or DD RAM. The previous designation determines whether the CG or DD RAM is to be read. Before entering the read instruction, you must execute either the CG RAM or DD RAM address set instruction. If you do not, the first read data would be invalid.

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The address set instruction need not be executed just before the read instruction when shifting the cursor-by-cursor shift instruction (when reading out DD RAM). The cursor shift instruction operation is the same as that of the DD RAMs address set instruction.

After a read, the entry mode automatically increases or decreases the address by 1. However, display shift is not executed no matter what the entry mode is.

6.5 SENSORS:

Figure 6.4 Sensors The circuit is quite self explanatory. The LM358 OpAmp is used in the comparator mode.The IR (photodiode) is used in a potential divider in a reverse bias mode. A thresholdvoltage is set at the inverting terminal of the OpAmp using a potentiometer. So when theInfra Red light reflects from a HEATER surface, the resistance of the photodiode woulddecrease and this in turn when exceeds the threshold voltage will make the output of theOpAmp go high.Output at pin 7 of comparator saturates transistor BC548 NPN which inturn switch on the Buzzer LM 358 has two OpAmps in its 8 pin package, thus two IRsensors could be built out of 1IC. We can also use LM 324 which has 4 OpAmps inside it The Infrared emitter detector circuit is very useful if you plan to make a line following robot, or a robot with basic object or obstacle detection. Infrared emitter detector pair sensors are fairly easy to implement, although involved some level of testing and calibration to get right. They can be used for obstacle detection, motion detection, transmitters, encoders, and color detection (such as for line following).

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6.5.1 Infrared Emitter Detector Basic Circuit R1 is to prevent the emitter (clear) LED from melting itself. Look at the emitter spec sheet to find maximum power. Make sure you choose Vcc^2/R1 an R1 < value so that

Power_spec.

Or just use R1 = 120 ohms if you are lazy and trust me. R2 should be larger then the maximum resistance of the detector. Measure the resistance of the detector (black) when it is pointing into a dark area and then choose the next larger resister. This means Vout is close to maximum when there is no signal. Or just use R2 = 11kohms

Or use a 20kohm Pot here in series with a 100ohm resistor for white line following calibration. 6.5.2 Infrared Emitter Detector Amplified Signal Circuit

R1 = 150 ohms (calculate as above) R2 = 220 Kohms (calculate as above, or use Pot for white line following) R3 = 4.7 Kohms R4 = 10 Kohms OP1 = Operational Amplifier LM358 package includes two op amps. Vcc = +5 Volts

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8.5.3Notes: R3 and R4 determine the amplification of the op amp, gain = 1 + R4/R3. An appropriate ratio can be determined by connecting up the circuit and measuring the voltage entering the op amp and knowing the threshold value needed at Vout. Vout = (1 + R4/R3)Vin so just solve for the ratio using the values for Vout and Vin. Additional Notes: LED and detector have very narrow emission and detection angles, so it matters a LOT how you place them. Place the LED and detector an 1/8 to a 1/4 inch apart maximum, basically parallel and almost contacting. opaque to visible light (that means light doesn't pass through it, like wood, black plastic, metal), but are transparent to IR light. Black plastic is a good example. Many forms of black plastic are transparent to IR light, and therefore doesn't make a good shielding material. Aluminum foil covered with electrical tape works as a great shielding material. video cameras can see IR light. This is really useful, since you can aim your video camera at the robot, and see the emitted IR light. Many emitters are strong enough that if you aim the robot at a white wall, and turn off all other lights in the room, you can see how the IR light is projected from your robot. Good debugging aid. IR detection card that is available from Radio Shack, and other places. This little card has a material that changes the wavelength of IR light into something you can see. When IR strikes this card, it causes the card to light up and sparkle. Output your IR values on your computer screen real time to optimize positioning and Pot calibration (depends on if you want range detection or white line detection). You may also want to read the sensor interpretation tutorial. LED is the emitter or detector. This is the mnemonic I use to remember, dark colors absorb more light than clear, so the dark LED is the detector. Please note that this isn't always true, as I've heard of a blue emitter and clear detector sold by RadioShack. The easiest way to tell is point a digital camera at it, as most cameras can see IR light. re sunlight does not interfere with your sensor readings. The general rule of thumb with sunlight shielding is if you cannot see any

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data reading difference inside or outside, your sheilding is effective enough to work. Film canisters or electrical tape works very well. A modulated signal (such as in remote controls) also reduces external interference.

of distance.

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CHAPTER: 7
RESULT AND PROBLEM FACED
Through this project I have presented a complete design considering the various specifications of each and every parts, devices, components and various accessories that were integrated in order to achieve the accomplishment of our undertaken project successfully. Under the guidance of our expertise faculty members and technical workshops we have made the project named METRO TRAIN PROTOTYPE. Now the project is in working condition. Initiall on pressing RESET robot start moving in forward direction and when magnet is brought near reed switch it stops displaying various messages on LCD. After a while it starts moving again. We faced many problems during the execution of our project: First problem is of selecting any project which is feasible at optimum cost. Making circuit diagram was really a great challenge. In EXPRESS PCB, it has taken some considerable time in order to give a simple look to the layout. During execution, a problem faced was when the motor start to run the display of LCD used to get lost. When rechargeable batteries are connected to LM293D the motor start running before RESET. This problem was not understandable thats why we decided to run our project without batteries due to lack of time for its solution and finally our project came in working condition

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CHAPTER: 8
FUTURE SCOPE
As per users requirement this whole program is designed. We can add some additional constraint to this project. As for as future scope is concerned about this project following points can be taken into consideration: Auto braking system can be added in order to withstand any emergency condition and stopping train automatically with obstacle detection. Buzzers can be used to improve the functioning, error correction and more sophisticated explanation of the project. I hope that this project will help in providing new era to DELHI METRO.

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REFERENCES
Electronics For You Magazine, July 2012 http://www.authorstream.com/Presentation/ravi121089-347786-metro-train-prototypeproject-slides-education-ppt-powerpoint/ https://www.google.co.in/#q=metro+train+prototype+pdf The 8051 microcontrollers: Muhammed Ali Mazidi www.scribd.com/doc/.../Electronics-Minor-Project-Metro-Train-Prototype http://www.google.co.in/imgres?imgurl=http://www.indiastudychannel.com/attachments/Proj ects/1140-221258metrockt1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.indiastudychannel.com/projects/1140-Model-MetroTrain

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