Biology Term 1 exam Checklist Grade 10

The Immune System What are non specific defenses? Nonspecific defenses are the first lines of protection against any pathogen.

List some common barriers to pathogens? Skin, mucus and tears act as barriers against the entrance of any pathogen. The unbroken skin prevents pathogens from entering the body erms enter the body through an in!ury

What is a blood clot? "lood clot is a temporary barrier until the skin is repaired. What are the function of mucus membranes, #ilia and tears? $ucus membrane secretes a sticky substance called mucus, %hich traps bacteria. #ilia in the nasal cavity help bacteria reaching the stomach %here it get destroyed by the strong acid. Tears contain lyso&yme en&yme, %hich destroys many bacteria by breaking their cell %alls. What are the other organs involved in The immune system? The organs of the immune system include' adenoid, tonsils, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymph vessels and bone marro% What is the function of W"#s, tissue fluids and lymph nodes?
W"#s, tissue fluids and lymph nodes track do%n harmful microorganisms, %hich later can be destroyed.

What are the t%o main types of %hite blood cells? There are many types of W"#s such as lymphocytes and phagocytes (hagocytes'

What are the t%o types of (hagocytes? )umans have t%o types of phagocytes' macrophages and neutrophils

The action of macrophages and neutrophils is accompanied by an increase in body temperature or fever. If the fever is high enough, it can kill pathogens.

What is primary immune response?

*eaction to the first infection is called primary immune response.

What are the effects of )istamine on the body? Which causes the blood vessels to e+pand, redness of in!ury, the eyes to produce tears and the nasal passage to produce more mucus. ,rugs called antihistamine can be used to eliminate the effect of allergic reaction.

What causes -I,S? -I,S is caused by the )I. %hich is a retrovirus composed of *N- and contains an en&yme called reverse transcriptase. Infected individuals may carry the virus for several years before sho%ing the symptoms of the disease.

)o% is )I. -I, transmitted? )I. is transmitted in four general %ays all of %hich involve the e+change of body fluids such as semen, vaginal secretions, and blood or breast milk. The four common %ays of transmission of )I. are' se+ual intercourse, sharing needles, blood transfusion and from an infected mother to her fetus at child birth. -I,S is not transmitted through insects or by casual contacts such as shaking hands. -I,S, so far, has no effective vaccine. (atients receive drugs that relieve their symptoms or to reduce the viral reproduction. -/T and ,,I are t%o drugs given to )I. positive patients but theses t%o drugs tend to have many to+ic side effects.

The Nervous System The nervous system and the endocrine system %ork together to react %ith any changes in the body and in the surrounding environment The nervous system is composed of speciali&ed cells called neurons. Neurons don0t have the ability to divide and are 1uite different in appearance from the other cells of the body. ,escribe the structure of a neuron

- neuron consists of a cell body and t%o types of nerve fibers' dendrites and a+on. The cell body contains a nucleus, cytoplasm and various organelles as mitochondria. cell membrane encloses the %hole neuron. ,endrites are short nerve fibers that carry nerve impulses to the cell body. They are branched e+tensively The -+on is a single elongated nerve fiber that carries a nerve impulse a%ay from the cell body. ,ifferentiate bet%een a neuron and a nerve. Nerve fibers are grouped in bundles called nerves , as they leave the brain or spinal cord ,istinguish bet%een a ganglion and a nerve center

#ell bodies form nerve centers if they are grouped in the brain or spinal cord2 they have a slightly grey color. #ells bodies form ganglia if they are grouped outside the brain and spinal cord. $yelin sheath is a %hite fatty tissue that covers most a+ons. It is formed by speciali&ed cells called Sch%ann cells. The a+on is e+posed at gaps in the myelin sheath called nodes of *anvier. The velocity of a nerve impulse is increased by thicker, myelinated, long a+ons %ith many nodes of *anvier. *eceptors are found in all sense organs as %ell as inside the body as in the !oints and the blood vessels. List and identify the three types of neurons Sensory neurons conduct nerve impulses to%ard the central nervous system 3brain and spinal cord4 $otor neurons conduct nerve impulses a%ay from the central nervous system. Interneuron or association neurons, conduct impulses from a sensory nervous to a motor neuron. They are found inside the central nervous system. There are about 566 billion interneurons in the brain alone. Neurons transmit impulses in the form of nerve impulses of an electrochemical nature. *esting potential is %hen a neuron is not carrying an impulse. Na7 ions are found on the surface of the a+on0s membrane and 87 ions are found inside the membrane %hich makes it polari&ed. When a neuron is stimulated, the permeability of the cell membrane changes. ,uring a stimulus, the polarity of the membrane is reversed, triggering a nerve impulse or an action potential. The process of restoring the polarity of the membrane involves an active transport system called sodium9potassium pump. The activity of this system re1uires -T( and re9 established the original concentration of the Na7 and 87 ions. :+plain the general path%ay of impulses ;sually a nerve impulse moves along a neuron 3dendrite cell body a+on4 and then they synapse %ith another neuron 3dendrite cell body a+on4 or %ith an effector. Identify a synapse and synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are produced by the end of an a+on that diffuse across a synapse. -cetylcholine is a neurotransmitter. #ells make an en&yme called acetycholinesterase that inactivate the neurotransmitter. If this en&yme is absent, a nerve impulse is produced continuously causing the muscle to contract %ithout stop producing a spasm. The impulse travels through the synaptic cleft to stimulate the neighboring neuron.

In bet%een each nerve impulse, there is a time called refractory period %here a neuron rests and no nerve impulses can be generated %ithin the membranes. It lasts for a thousandth of a second only. If the stimulus is less than a neuron0s threshold, no nerve impulse is sent.

The nervous system is divided into t%o main parts' 5. #entral nervous system 3#NS4 %hich includes the brain and spinal cord <. (eripheral nervous system 3(NS4 %hich includes all the nerves in the body outside the brain and spinal cord. The brain is protected by the skull. It is covered by three distinct membranes, the meninges. These membranes protect and nourish both the brain and the spinal cord. The membranes of the meninges are' dura mater 3outer layer4, arachnoid 3middle layer4 and the pia mater 3inner layer4. The space bet%een the t%o inner meninges is filled %ith cerebrospinal fluid %hich cushions the brain and the spinal cord against shock and removes %aste materials from brain. Inflammation of the meninges causes meningitis. #erebrum is the largest part of the brain and divided into right and left hemispheres, %hich are connected together by corpus callosum %hich in turn allo%s communications bet%een the t%o sides of the brain. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body The left hemisphere is speciali&ed for mathematics and logic, %hereas, the right one is speciali&ed for arts and music. The cerebrum receives sensory impulses from the sense organs. It controls voluntary muscles of the body. In case of cerebral palsy, a person may lose the ability to control certain muscles controlled by the damaged motor area. The cerebrum controls many functions that are associated %ith mental processed including reasoning, memori&ing, creativity and intelligence. Thalamus and hypothalamus lie %ithin the cerebrum. Thalamus acts as a sensory relay center. )ypothalamus is involved in maintaining homeostasis. It also controls the movement of food in the digestive tract and some feelings as rage and plays a crucial role in linking the nervous and the endocrine systems. The cerebellum is located beneath the back of the cerebrum,. It coordinates voluntary muscle movements, maintain body balance and produce smooth movements. ,amage to the cerebellum results in !erky unrefined movements. The brain stem contains all the parts that connect the spinal cord and the cerebrum. It has three parts' medulla oblongata, pos and the midbrain. $edulla oblongata connects to the spinal cord. It controls breathing, s%allo%ing, heart beat rate and blood pressure. $any nerve impulses cross in the medulla oblongata and

this e+plain %hy each hemisphere receives and send signals to the opposite side of the body. The pons connects the cerebrum to the cerebellum. The midbrain controls the movement of the eyes and si&e of the pupils. The spinal cord is surrounded by the meninges and protected by the vertebrae, %hich make up the backbone. It links the brain and the other parts of the body. It consists of ascending and descending interneurons. -ny in!ury in the spinal cord can lead to the loss of control over the organs under the damaged part. Spinal cord controls refle+es. The spinal cord carries information to%ard and a%ay from the brain. Sensory information from the body enters the spinal cord through the dorsal roots. Instructions to the body0s many motor neurons e+it the spinal cord through the ventral roots. The peripheral nervous system includes all the nerves that connect the central nervous system to other parts of the body. The peripheral nervous system can be divided into t%o parts' somatic and autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system transmits impulses to and from skeletal muscles. It includes 5< pairs of cranial nerves that emerge from the brain and =5 pairs of spinal nerves that branch from the spinal cord. >ptic and auditory nerves are e+amples of cranial nerves that carry sensory impulses from the eye and ear respectively to the brain. :ach spinal nerve has t%o roots that meet outside the spinal cord. >ne root consists of sensory neurons2 the other is made of motor neurons. The autonomic nervous system controls automatic functions involving glands, smooth muscles and cardiac muscles. -utonomic nervous system is divided into t%o systems' the parasympathetic and sympathetic system (arasympathetic nerves control internal organs %hen conditions are normal. The sympathetic nerves take control in case of danger of danger or stress in %hich a person either fights or run a%ay. *eceptors are found in sense organs and in various parts of the body such as blood vessels and !oints.

*eceptors are specific and selective. :+' receptors of hearing %ill not respond to light, no matter ho% intense it is. *eceptors are transducers, %hich means change one type of energy to another. :+' photoreceptors change light energy to electric energy. -ll impulses are electrochemically the same, but depending on %here they reach into the brain, a person can feel different sensations. $echanoreceptors respond to mechanical pressure. (hotoreceptors respond to light. #hemo receptors respond to chemicals. Thermo receptors respond to heat and pain receptors respond to pain. Skin is a sense organ that contains receptors for pressure, heat, pain and touch. Tongue is the ma!or sense organ of taste. #hemo receptors for taste are grouped in taste buds found on the top, sides and the base of the tongue and some are in the throat. There are four different receptors for taste' s%eet, sour, bitter and salty. Taste receptors are not found in the center of the tongue, the tip of your tongue detects the s%eet and salty tastes, the sides detect the sour tastes and the back of the tongue detects the bitter tastes. Taste center is found in the cerebrum. The ability to taste depends also on the sense of smell. If you close your nose, your sense of taste doesn0t %ork. The nose is the main sense organ of smell. It contains olfactory receptors embedded in the mucus membrane. Those receptors produce a nerve impulse that travels through the olfactory nerve to the olfactory region in the cerebrum. Thousands of odors can be distinguished simply because odors are combination of seven basic odors. )umans have binocular vision, and stereoscopic vision. The eyeball is protected inside the body socket of the skull and is surrounded by a fatty tissue. :yelids and eyelashes protect the eye through the blinking refle+. The eyeball is removed by three sets of muscles and is lubricated by tears produced by the lacrimal gland. The layers of the eye are' con!unctiva, cornea, sclera, choroid, iris, pupil lens and the retina.

*etina contains photoreceptors called cones and rods. #ones detect color, produce sharp images and are sensitive in bright light. *ods are sensitive in dim light, produce a black and %hite image. ?ovea is the area of the retina that produces the sharpest image. It contains a large concentration of cones. The optic nerve leaves the eye at the blind spot, %hich contains no receptors. The eyeball is supported by t%o fluids' a1ueous humor and vitreous humor. Light passes through the con!unctiva, cornea, a1ueous humor, pupil, lens, vitreous humor to the retina. (hotoreceptors contain light sensitive pigments. *od cells contain rhodospin %hich splits do%n to form a protein and retinenceor retinal. This creates a nerve impulse, %hich travels through the optic nerve into the cerebrum, %here an image is interpreted. There are three types of cone cells. >ne detects the blue color, another one detects the red color and the third one detects the green color. If all three cones are stimulated at once, %e see %hite color. ,epending on the combination of cones being stimulated, different colors can be seen. #ommon disorders of the eye include myopia and hyperopia. The ear is speciali&ed for t%o functions,' hearing and maintaining balance. The ear is divided into three regions' the outer ear, middle ear and inner ear. (inna of the outer ear collects and channels sound %aves into the auditory canal, causing the eardrum to vibrate. -ir enters and leaves the middle ear through the :ustachian tube enabling the eardrum to vibrate freely. The auditory canal is lined %ith cells that secrete ear%a+ and cilia %hich clear foreign particles from the auditory canal. The vibration of the eardrum is transmitted to the three bones of the middle ear' the hammer, anvil and stirrup. The stirrup transmits the vibrations to the oval %indo%. The inner ear consists of the cochlea.

The bending of the hair that line the organ of #orti triggers nerve impulses that travels along the auditory nerve to the auditory region in the cerebrum %here they are interpreted as sound. "alance is maintained %ith the help of proprioceptors in the inner ear. The structures involved in balance include the three semicircular canals, the utricle and saccule. The three fluid filled canals are at right angles to each other %hich allo% you to sense motion in three dimensions. When your head changes position, the fluid stimulates mechanoreceptors %hich produce a nerve impulse that travels to the cerebellum, %here motions of the head in space are interpreted. The movement of the hair in the utricle and saccule provides information about the position of the head and is important in maintaining body posture. (roprioceptors are also found in muscles, !oints and tendons. They provide information about muscle tension. They send nerve messages to the cerebellum to maintain balance and posture.

#hapter =' The :ndocrine System 3pg' =@ 9 AA4 The control of a human body is a result of the coordinated control of the endocrine and nervous system. The endocrine system uses chemical messengers called hormones to control specific target cells %hereas2 the nervous system controls the body through messages bet%een neurons. The endocrine response is slo% %hereas the nerve response is fast. The endocrine system has long term response %hereas, the nervous system has short term response. :ndocrine glands are ductless glands that produce hormones directly into the bloodstream. :+ocrine glands secrete their products through tubes or ducts and have only local effects. :ndocrine glands are located through out the body. :ndocrine glands include'

59 (ituitary gland B the C$asterD :ndocrine gland. It has t%o lobes' posterior and anterior. The anterior lobe produces' L), ?S), TS), ) and prolactin. The posterior lobe doesn0t produce hormones but it stores hormones produced by the hypothalamus including -,) and o+ytocin. <9 The thyroid gland' it is located in the trachea, secretes thyro+in, %hich contains iodine and calcitonin %hich causes calcium to be stored in the bones. =9 The parathyroid' are four small glands embedded %ithin the thyroid. They produce parathormone %hich increases the level of calcium in the blood. A9 The pineal gland' a gland located inside the brain and produces melatonin hormone, E9 The thymus' located in the chest, produces thymosin. Thymus has a role in defense since T cells mature in the thymus. F9 The pancreas is an endocrine gland since it secretes insulin and glucagon directly into the bloodstream and e+ocrine gland since it secretes pancreatic !uices. The liver and muscles stores sugar in the form of glycogen.

lycogen in the liver changes to glucose, %hich is poured into the bloodstream. lucagon counterbalances the effect of insulin.