Productivity

Ratio between output and input. Output : desired Input : Man, machine, material, etc.

Concept of Work Content

The amount of work contained in a given job is referred to as work content and is measured in man-hours or machine-hours.

BASIC Work Content: is the minimum time

theoretically required to do a job or operation. This cannot be reduced. This results only if (i) the design and the specifications are perfect, (ii) process of manufacture is exactly followed and (iii) no loss of working time occurs due to any reason. The actual time required to complete an operation or job is more than the basic time in practical situations. This additional portion is called the excess work content.

Reasons for Excess Work Content

A. Work content added due to defects in design or specs of a product
i. Bad design of product ii. Lack of standardisation of components iii.Incorrect specs & quality standards iv.Faulty design of components

C. Ineffective time added due to shortcomings of management

i. Bad working conditions, ii) frequent prod. Interruptions due to breakdown, iii)poor prod. planning and control, iv) lack of safety measures, v) lack of quality mindedness, vi) lack of instruc-tion vii) frequent changes in setups, viii) lack of performance standards, ix) shortage of materials / tools.

B. Work content added due to inefficient methods of manufacture

i. Improper selection of manufacturing process/machine ii. Wrong selection of tools iii.Improper layout of the shop/factory iv.Inefficient methods of material handling

D. Ineffective time added due to reasons attributed to workmen

i. Unauthorised absence from work, ii) substandatd performance, iii) careless-ness in working, iv) unnecessary wastage of time / idleness.

Productivity
Productivity of man
Basic Work Content of product and / or process
Work Content added by defects in design of product or process

Total time of operation under existing conditions

Work Content added by inefficient methods of operations

Ineffective Time due to management problems

Ineffective Time within control of workers

Productivity
Productivity of man
Bad design of product

Lack of standardization

Incorrect Quality Standards

Excess Material Wrong Machine Incorrect Processes operation Wrong Tools Bad Layout Wrong Working method

Productivity
Productivity of man
Excessive Product Variety Lack of Standardization Design Changes Wrong / Lack of Planning

Unavailability of Raw Material

Plant Breakdown Bad Plant Condition Bad Working Condition Accidents Absence, Late coming and / or Idleness Careless Workmanship Accidents

Techniques to reduce Work Content

A. Mngt technique to reduce work content due to product i. Product development, ii. standardisation, iii. value analysis, iv. market/consumer research
B. Mngt technique to reduce work content due to process/ methods i. process planning , ii. method study

C. Mngt techniques to reduce ineffective time due to shortcomings of management Product standardisation and simplification, product specialisation, iii) standardisation of components, iv) production planning & control, v) materials control, vi) plant maintenance, vii) safety measures and improved working conditions. D. Mngt techniques to reduce ineffective time within the control of the workers i) sound personnel policies, ii) Operators training, iii) safety training, iv) financial incentives.

The important functions of production management are setting up most effective method of performing the operation and control the effective utilisation of resources.

Direct means of raising productivity

Approach Type of Improvement Means Cost How quickly results be achieved? Generally years Extent of improvement in productivity No obvious limit Role of Work Study

Capital Investment

Development of new basic process or fundamental improvement of exiting one Install more modern or higher capacity plant or Eqpt. Or modernise existing plant Reduction in Work Content of the Product

Basic or Applied research, pilot plant

High

Method Study to improve ease of operation and maintenance at design stage Method study in Plant Layout and to improve ease of operation when modernising

Capital Investment

Purchase process research

High

Immediately after installation

No obvious limit

Better Managemen t

Product Research, developme nt Qlty Mngt Method study valure analysis

Not high compare to (1) and (2) above.

Generally months

Limited of the same order as that to be expected from later

Method Study (and its extension value analysis) to improve design for ease of production

Better Management

Reduce work content of the process

Process research, pilot plant, process planning, Method study, value analysis

Low

Immediate

Limited, but often of a high order

Method study to reduce wasted effort and time in operating the process by eliminating unnecessary movement Work Measurement to investigate existing practice, locate ineffective time and standards of performance as a basis for: a) Planning & Control, b) Utilisation of Plant, c) Labour cost control, d) Incentive scheme

Better Management

Reduce ineffective time (due to Management or workers)

Work measurement Standardisatio n, product development, PPC, material control, planned maintenance, personnel policy, operator training, incentive scheme

Low

May start slowly but effect grows quickly

Limited, but often of a high order

Management approach to deal with Productivity

To eliminate the excess work content To reduce the ineffective time The technique is known as Work Study.
Work study can be defined as the analytic investigation of the methods, conditions and effectiveness of industrial work and thereby the determination of the ways in which human efforts may most economically be applied.

Definitions.
Work Study is primarily concerned with discovering the best ways of doing the job and establishing standards based on such methods.

Work study is the technique of Method study and work measurement employed to ensure the best possible use of human and material resources in carrying out a specified activity. -ILO

WORK STUDY.
Its a Mgt tool to achieve higher efficiency. It provides us a scientific approach to investigate into forms of work with a view to increase productivity. Concerned primarily with manual work Any industry to survive, must use latest technology & most efficient method, improvised with a consistent aim of producing best quality goods at lower prices. One way to improve is by efficient use of plant, equipment and Labor.

Work Study aims at improving the existing and proposed ways of doing work and establishment of standard time for work performance. Work Study is the most effective tool to enhance productivity because of the fact that it is a straight forward way of increasing the productive efficiency of the organisation and also considers all the factors influencing productivity. Work Study comprises of method study and work measurement.

WORK STUDY
Work study is simply study of work. It is analysis of work dividing it into smaller parts followed by rearrangement of these parts to give the same effectiveness at a lesser cost. Work study examines both the method and duration of the work involved in the process. Work study is a powerful tool for simplification of work
Robert Owen, Taylor and Bedeaux gave their contributions to this topic.

Work study and the Worker

Why workers resist the work study:
It will change their familiar work methods.

Many workers resent being timed.

Fear of being fired.

What is Work Study?

Production system focuses on increasing the efficiency by maximizing the output per hour of employee effort. The important functions of Production Management are setting up the most effective method of performing the operations (std. method) and their control for effective utilization of resources. Work Study (WS) is one of the most important management techniques which is employed to improve the activities in production. It provides a scientific approach to investigate into all forms of work, with a view to increase productivity. The main objective of WS is to assist the management in the optimum use of the human & material resources. Main aim of this WS is to finding the best & most efficient way of using available resources i.e. men, material, money & machinery.

What is Work Study?

It is especially concerned with productivity. To increase the productivity from a given quantity of resources. Work study is a generic term for the techniques of method study and work measurement. These techniques are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts. They lead systematically to the investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy at the work place in order to affect improvement. Work Study is the systematic examination of the methods of carrying on activities so as to improve the effective use of resources and to set up standards of performance for the activities being carried out.

Components of Work Study

It has three aspects 1. More effective use of plant & equipment 2. More effective use of human effort 3. Evaluation of human work

Work Study - Basic Procedure

8 step process

SELECT

Job or process to be studied All details concerning Job using various techniques Recorded facts critically by asking questions Most economical method
Amount of work involved & set standard time to do the job New method & standard time

RECORD

EXAMINE

DEVELOP

MEASURE

DEFINE
New method as a standard practice New method as agreed standard

INSTALL
MAINTAIN

Applications of work Study

Industries: production operations, research and development Marketing: sales & distribution. Offices: stores & warehouses. Material handling In designing field Building & other construction Transport Hospital Army Agriculture

Advantages/ Objectives of Work Study

METHOD STUDY
Method Study (MS) is the systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more effective methods and reducing costs.
MS aims at determining the most effective method of performing the job, most logical layout of manufacturing facilities, uninterrupted flow of materials throughout the organization. It is concerned with reduction of work content and establishing the one best way of doing the job. MS is a collection of analysis techniques focusing on improving the effectiveness of man and the machine.

Method Study
Methods engineering /work design Breakdown of operation into components Systematic analysis of each component Eliminates un-necessary operations It is systematic recording & examination of existing methods of doing work and developing more effective methods - BSI
MS addresses three broad areas: 1. It is a diagnostic tool (location of faults) 2. It is a remedial tool (improve situation) 3. It is a constructive tool (set standards)

Objectives of Method Study

1. Improvement of manufacturing processes and procedures. 2. Improvement of working conditions. 3. Improvement of plant layout and work place layout. 4. Reducing the human effort and fatigue.

5. Reducing material handling

6. Improvement of plant and equipment design.

7. Improvement in the utility of material, machines and manpower.

8. Standardization of method. 9. Improvement in safety standard.

Method Study
Method study is the technique of systematic recording and critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing work and developing an easier and economical method. Method study examines the way a task (changing the clutch on a car, preparing a flower bed for planting, cleaning a hotel room) is done. The industrial engineer has an eye on operational efficiencies and costs, quality of processes, service reliability, staff safety etc. Method study techniques are applicable from factory/workshop manufacturing to cabin crew activities.

Method Study Flow Chart

Method Study Procedure

SELECT
The work which can be studied with economic advantage All relevant facts about the job / operation
The facts critically (purpose, place, sequence, person)

RECORD

EXAMINE

DEVELOP
method, procedure, layout, equipment, working conditions, materials, quality, instructions

A record of improved method, under prevailing conditions. Reexamine and select the best method

DEFINE INSTALL
MAINTAIN

Plan, arrange and implement the new method as Std.

verify at regular intervals that the improved method is in use

BASIC PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY

The basic procedure for conducting method study is as follows: 1. Select the work to be studied. 2. Record all facts about the method by direct observation. 3. Examine the above facts critically. 4. Develop the most efficient and economic method. 5. Define the new method. 6. Install the new method as std. practice 7. Maintain the new method by regular checking.
Method Study Flow Chart

BASIC PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY

Selecting the work to be studied
There are three factors that should be kept in mind while selecting a job for method study:
1. Economic or cost-effective considerations. 2. Technical considerations. 3. Human considerations.

1. Economic considerations:
It is obviously a waste of time to start or continue a long investigation if the economic importance of a job is small. Questions that should always be asked are:
Will it pay to begin a method study of this job? Or Will it pay to continue this study?

Obvious choices for study are:

A. Key profit-generating or costly operations or ones with the largest Scrap/waste rates. B. Bottlenecks which are holding up other production operations, or lengthy operations that consume a great deal of time. C. Operations involving repetitive work using a great deal of labour and ones that are likely to run for a long time. D. Movements of material over long distances between workstations, those involving the use of a relatively large proportion of labor or which require repeated handling of material. Select Possible Results:
* Increased production rate * Less labor, materials, or equipment * Improved safety * Improved standards of cleanliness * Reduced cost * Improved quality * Reduced scrap

One of the easiest techniques that can be used to identify key operations as listed in part (A) is the Pareto analysis (sometimes also referred to as the ABC analysis of value analysis). The same observation can be extended by saying that among all the operations in a given plant a small number account for the largest share of cost or of profit, or the largest percentage of waste.

To illustrate the point we will consider the following example. Let us assume that a certain enterprise produces 20 different products. Each of these products generates a certain profit. By listing the annual production and profit contribution one obtains the results shown in table 6. The next step consists of rearranging these items in descending order of importance according to profit. The result would then appear like the one shown in table 7. From table 7 it can be seen that three products only, listed as A items, account for 60 per cent of the profit. These are the most profitable and any improvement in methods of producing these particular products would reflect highly on profits. They would be a priority for study. Products listed under B, which are seven in number, contribute 25 per cent of the profit. They could then assume a second importance, while products C would command the last priority since their contribution to profit is minimal. The same type of analysis can be conducted to determine the most costly products or processes or the products or processes that yield the highest waste. Those would then become a priority for study by the work study specialist.

Standard List of points to be covered when selecting a job for Method Study
(Sample list which needs to be adapted to individual needs) 1. Product and operation 2. Person who proposes investigation 3. Reason for proposal 4. Suggested limits of investigation 5. Particulars of the job a) How much is produced or handled per week?
b) What percentage is this of the total produced or handled in the shop or plant?

c) d) e)
f) g) h) i)

How long will the job continue? Will more or less be required in future? How many operatives are employed on the job
a) b) Directly Indirectly

How many operatives are there in each grade and on each rate of pay? What is the average output per operative (per team) per day? What is the daily output compared with the output over a shorter period (an hour)? How is payment made? (team-work, piece work, premium bonus time rate, etc.)

Standard List of points to be covered when selecting a job for Method Study (contd.2)

j)

What is the daily output

a) b) Of the best operative? Of the worst operative?

When were production standards set? Has the job any especially unplesant or injurious features? Is it unpopular (a) with workers, (b) with supervisors? 6. Equipment a) What is the approximate cost of plant and equipment? b) What is the present machine utilisation Index? 7. Layout 1. Is the existing space allowed fo the job enough? 2. Is extra space available?

k) l)

Standard List of points to be covered when selecting a job for Method Study (contd. 3)

8.

9.

Product 1. Are the frequent design changes causing modifications? 2. Can the product be altered for easier manufacture? 3. What quality is demanded? 4. When and how is the product inspected? What savings or increase in productivity may be expected from a method improvement? a) Through reduction in the work content of the product or process. b) Through better machine utilisation. c) Through better utilisation of labour.

2. Technical or technological considerations:

One of the important considerations is the desire by management to acquire more advanced technology, i.e. in equipment or in processes. Therefore, management may want to computerize its office paperwork or its inventory system, or to introduce automation in the production operations. Before such steps are taken, a method study can point out the most important needs of the enterprise in this respect. The introduction of new technology should therefore constitute an important factor in the choice of methods of work to be investigated. Based on the technical knowledge of the process Jobs having inconsistent quality, Operations generating lot of scrap, Frequent complaint from workers, Extensive paperwork, Repetitive work (automation), Hazardous work etc.

3. Human considerations: Most difficult to foretell, because of mental and emotional nature. Certain operations are often a cause of dissatisfaction by workers. Select an unpopular job - That may bring on fatigue or monotony or may be unsafe to operate or inconsistent earnings. The level of satisfaction should point to a need for method study. In a similar fashion, a choice of a particular job for study may lead to anxiety or ill feeling. The suggestion given here is to leave it alone.

2. Record: All the details about the existing method are recorded. This is done by directly observing the work. Records are useful for BEFORE and AFTER comparison to assess effectiveness of proposed method. Recording techniques are designed to simplify & standardize recording work.
COMMONLY USED RECORDING TECHNIQUES
1. Outline Process Charts 2. Flow Process Chart 3. Two Handed Process Chart 4. Multiple Activity Chart 5. Simo Chart 6. Flow Diagrams 7. String Diagrams 8. Cyclegraph 9. Chronocyclegraph 10. Travel Chart
Man Type Material Type

Equipment Type USING TIME SCALE

Typical Industrial problems and appropriate method study technique

Type of Job Complete sequence of manufacture Factory Layout: Movement of materials Examples Manufacture of an electric motor from raw material to dispatch Movement of diesel engine cylinder head through all machining operations Recording Technique Outline Process Chart Flow Process Chart Flow Diagram Outline Process Chart Flow Process Chart (Mat) Flow Diagram Travel Chart, Models

Factory Layout: Movement of Workers

Handling of Materials

Cooks preparing meals in a restaurant kitchen

Putting materials into & taking them out of stores Light assembly work on a bench

Flow Process Chart (Men) String diagram Travel Chart

Flow Process Chart (Mat) Flow Diagram String diagram Flow process Chart (Man) Two handed process Chart Multiple activity Chart Simo Chart, Cyclegraph

Workplace layout

Typical Industrial problems and appropriate method study technique

Type of Job Examples Recording Technique

Automatic machine operation

Movement of operatives at work

Assembly line, operator looking after semiautomatic lathe

Multiple activity chart Flow Process Chart (Eqpt)

Female operatives on short- Films, Film analysis, cycle repetition work Simo Chart Memotion photography Micromotion analysis

Symbols are used to represent the activities like operation, inspection, transport, storage and delay. Grouping of activities: Five sets of activities can be grouped in two categories Those in which something actually happens to the work-piece (it is moved, worked upon or examined) Those in which it is not being touched (in storage or in delay)
Objective is to maximize proportion of do activities. All other activities, however necessary, are considered non-productive

BASIC PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY

3. Examine: Critical examination is done by questioning technique. This step comes after the method is recorded by suitable charts and diagrams. The individual activity is examined by putting a number of questions.
Critical examination is conducted wherein each activity, in turn, being subjected to a systematic and progressive series of questions. The questioning sequence used follows a well-established pattern which examines:

the The The the the

PURPOSE for which PLACE at which SEQUENCE in which PERSON by whom MEANS by which

the activities are undertaken.

PRIMARY QUESTIONS
In the first stage of the questioning technique, the purpose, place, sequence, person and means of every activity recorded are systematically questioned, and a reason for each reply is required.

SECONDARY QUESTIONS
The secondary questions cover the second stage of the questioning technique, during which the answers to the primary questions are subjected to further query to determine whether possible alternatives of place, sequence, persons and means are practicable and preferred as a means of improvement upon the existing method.
PURPOSE PLACE SEQUENCE What else might be done? What should be done?

Where else might be done? Where should be done? When else might be done? When should be done?
Who else might be done? Who should be done? How else might be done? How should be done?

PERSON
MEANS

These questions, in the above sequence, must be asked systematically every time a method study is undertaken. They are the basis of successful method study.

BASIC PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY

4. Develop : Answer to the questions will result in the development of alternatives and of a better method. Develop the most efficient and economic method. Ex: Sending letters to customers. 5. Define: Once a complete study of a job has been made and a new method is developed, it is necessary to obtain the approval of the management before installing it. The work study man should prepare a report giving details of the existing and proposed methods, reasons for change, advantages, limitations, savings expected, tools & equipment required etc..

DEFINING THE IMPROVED METHOD

The report should show:
1.

2.

3.

Relative costs in material, labour and overheads of the two methods, and savings expected. The cost of installing the new method, including the cost of new equipment and of re-laying out shops or working areas Executive actions required to implement the new method.

It should also give details regarding :

1.

2. 3.

The tools and equipment to be used A description of the method A diagram of the work place layout, jigs/fixtures etc.

BASIC PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY

6. Install: This step is the most difficult stage in method study. Here the active support of both management and trade union is required. Here the work study man requires skill in getting along with other people and winning their trust.
a) Gaining acceptance of the change by the Management b) Gaining acceptance of the change by the workers c) Maintaining close contact with the progress of the job until satisfied that it is running as intended

7. Maintain: The work study man must see that the new method introduced is followed. The workers after some time may slip back to the old methods. This should not be allowed. The new method may have defects. There may be difficulties also. This should be rectified in time by the work study man.

Recording Techniques in Method study

Indicating Process Sequence Outline process chart

Using a time scale Multiple activity chart

Diagrams indicating movements Flow Diagrams

Flow process chart

Man type chart

Simo chart

String Diagram
Cycle Graph Chrono-cycle Graph Travel Chart

P.M.T.S. chart

Material type chart

Machine type chart Two -Handed process chart

Symbols used in Charts

OPERATION: A large circle indicates operation. An operation takes place when there is a change in physical or chemical characteristics of an object. Occurs when an object is intentionally changed in one or more of its characteristics. An assembly or disassembly is also an operation. When information is given or received or when planning or calculating takes place it is also called operation. Example: Reducing the diameter of an object in a lathe. Hardening the surface of an object by heat treatment. Drilling, Painting, Chemical reaction, Data Entry, Cutting, Sorting, etc.

INSPECTION: A square indicates inspection. Inspection is checking an object for its quality, quantity or identifications. Example: Checking the diameter of a rod. Examine the quantity or quality, read steam gauge on boiler, detect the defectives. Counting the number of products produced. of an object by heat treatment.

Symbols used in Charts contd.

TRANSPORTATION: An arrow indicates transport. This refers to the movement of an object or operator or equipment from one place to another. When the movement takes

place during an operation, it is not called transport. Example: Moving the material by a trolley Operator going to the stores to get some tool, Using elevator, carrying, moving with material handling devices . DELAY: A large capital letter D indicates delay. This is also called as temporary storage. Delay occurs when an object or operator is waiting for the next activity. Occurs
when the immediate performance or the next planned action does not take place. Example: An operator waiting to get a tool in the stores. Work pieces stocked near the machine before the next operation. Work In Process inventory waiting to be processed, Employee waiting for an elevator, Waiting for accumulation of a certain quantity for packaging STORAGE: An equilateral triangle standing on its vertex represents storage. Storage takes place when an object is stored and protected against unauthorized removal.

Example: Raw material in the store room, finished products inventory, archived documents.

ASME Standard Symbols

Why Charts?

It gives a complete picture of what is being done and helps to understand the facts and its relationship to one another. Details on the chart must be obtained from direct observation. Should not be from memory. Neatness and accuracy is important. Increased value if following is included:
1. 2. 3.

4.
5.

Product, equipment details (code#, drawing#) Job or process being carried out Location and time (date) of the study Observers name Chart reference number

(A) MACRO MOTION CHARTS

1.Operation Process Chart Uses Also called Outline process chart Birds eye view of whole process Records only major activities and inspections Uses only two symbols i.e. operations & inspection Constructed by placing symbols one below another

Visualize sequence of operations & inspections in process Know where operations selected fits into the entire process

OPERATION PROCESS / OUTLINE PROCESS Chart:

Example : Manufacture of Electric Motor
Conventions followed in preparing the chart 1. Write title at the top of the chart. 2. Begin the chart from the right hand side top corner. 3. Represent the main component at the right extreme. 4. Represent the sequence of operations and inspections by their symbols. Connect them by vertical flow lines. 5. Record the brief description of the activity to the right side of the symbols. 6. Note down the time for each activity to the left of the symbol. 7. Number all operations in one serial order. Start from the right hand top (from number 1). 8. Similarly number all inspections in another serial order (starting from 1). 9. Continue numbering, till the entry of the second component. 10. Show the entry of purchased parts by horizontal lines.

7
14
11 7

1
4
1

4 4

Record- Example Outline Chart

Turn shank Remove chip Dimensions Degreasing Cadmium plating Final check

Face both sides

Drill hole Final check

Face, turn, cut Face opposite end Dimension and finish Straddle mill four flats Remove burr Final inspection of machining Degreasing Cadmium plating Final check

Assemble and drill

Fit stop pin

Final check

Switch Rotor

Ex: Outline process chart of Plywood manufacture

Record- Example Outline Chart

2. Flow Process Chart

A flow process chart is a graphical representation of the sequence of all the activities (operation, inspection, transport, delay and storage) taking place in a process. It is the detail version of outline process chart recording all the events. Process chart symbols are used here to represent the activities. Gives sequence of flow of work. Constructed same as operation process chart 1. The details must be obtained by direct observationcharts must not be based Three types on memory.
1. Material type (records how the material is handled or treated). 2. Man type (records what the worker does). 3. Equipment type (records how the equipment or machine is used).
2. All the facts must be correctly recorded. 3. No assumptions should be made. 4. Make it easy for future reference. 5. All charts must have the following details: (a) Name of the product, material or equipment that is observed. (b) Starting point and ending point. (c) The location where the activities take place. (d) The chart reference number, sheet number and number of total sheets. (e) Key to the symbols used must be stated.

Uses

Reduce idle time and delays Reduce distance travelled Reduce production cycle time To relocate inspection stages

Ex: Machine/ Equipment Flow Process Chart: Biscuit Making

Flow Process Chart - Example

Ex: Process chart for making a Cheese Sandwich

Distance in meter Symbol Process description

10 10

Move to cabinet Get loaf of bread Remove two slices of bread

Lay slices on table top Close loaf of bread Replace loaf on shelf Open butter Spread butter on top slice Inspect sandwich Move to serving area Serve sandwich

Ex: Flow Process Chart Emergency ward

Process: Subject: Beginning: Ending: Emergency room admission Ankle injury patient Enter emergency room Leave hospital
Insert Step Append Step

Summary
Activity Operation Transport Inspect Delay Store

Number of steps
5 9 2 3

Time (min)
23 11 8 8

Distance (ft)
815

Remove Step
Step no. Time (min) Distance

(ft)

Step description
X
X X X X X X X

1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

0.50 10.0 0.75 3.00 0.75

1.00 1.00 4.00 5.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 4.00 2.00 4.00 1.00

15 40 40
60 200 200 60 180 20

Enter emergency room, approach patient window Sit down and fill out patient history Nurse escorts patient to ER triage room Nurse inspects injury Return to waiting room
Wait for available bed Go to ER bed Wait for doctor Doctor inspects injury and questions patient Nurse takes patient to radiology Technician x-rays patient Return to bed in ER Wait for doctor to return Doctor provides diagnosis and advice Return to emergency entrance area

X
X X X X X X

16 17 18 19

X
X X X

Check out Walk to pharmacy Pick up prescription Leave the building

3.Two Handed Process Chart

It is the process chart in which the activities of two hands of the operator are recorded. Motions of both hands of worker are Right hand-Left hand chart recorded independently. It shows whether the two hands of the operator are idle or moving in relation to one another, in a timescale. It is generally used for repetitive operations. Confined to work carried out at a single workplace Visualize complete sequence of activities in repetitive task Study work station layout
Operation: Represents the activities grasp, position, use, release etc. of a tool, component or material. Transport: Represents the movement of the hand or limb to or from the work or a tool or material. Delay: Refers to the time when the hand or limb is idle. Storage (Hold): The term hold is used here instead of storage to refer to the time when the work is held by

hand. The activity inspection by hand is considered as an operation. Hence, the symbol for inspection is not used in this chart. Two-handed process chart can be used for assembly, machining and clerical jobs.

Ex: Two-Handed Process Chart

1. 2. Provide all information about the job in the chart. Study the operation cycle a few times before starting to record. Record one hand at a time. First record the activities of the hand which starts the work first. Do not combine the different activities like operations, transport etc.

3.
4.

5.

Summary of the number of each activity can be tabulated at the bottom of the chart. The chart is first drawn for the existing method. This chart is analyzed and if it is found that one hand is over loaded than the other, modification are done in the layout of the workplace or in the sequence of activities. Then a new chart is made for the proposed cycle. This assists in finding a better method of performing the task and to train the operator in the preferred method.

Example of a Two-Handed Process Chart:

(Cutting Glass Tubes)

Example of a Two-Handed Process Chart:

(Cutting Glass Tubes)

Ex: Two-handed process Chart

Ex: Left-Hand-Right-Hand Chart

Standard format of a Two-handed process flowchart

Example of a Two-handed process flowchart Fixing Screw on a Assembly

Example of a Two-handed process flowchart Fixing Screw on a Assembly

Example of a Two-handed process flowchart

4. Multiple Activity Chart or Man-machine Chart

A man-machine/ Multiple Activity Chart chart is a chart in which the activities of more than one worker or machine are recorded. Activities are recorded on a common time scale to show the inter-relationship. It is used when a worker operates a number of machines at a time. It is also used when a number of workers jointly do a job. (Determine no. of machines handled by one operator). The chart shows the idle time of the worker or machine during the process. (Study idle time) Work load is evenly distributed among the workers or machines by this the idle time of worker or machine is reduced. Multiple activity chart is very useful in planning team work in production or maintenance. (Determine no. of operators required). Only two symbols are used in man-machine/ Multiple Activity Chart :
Idle

Working

Purpose of Multiple Activity Chart

To detect the idle time on machine and workers (The chart shows the exact
time relationship between the working cycle of the person and operating cycle of the machine).

To optimize work distribution between workers and machines. To decide number of workers in a group. To balance the work team To examine the activities. It is used for recording the complex movements of material or men. Used to find out the most economical route.
Planning team work. Plant repair & maintenance. Job construction. It is used to check whether the work station is correctly located.

Application of Multiple Activity Chart:

Example of Multiple Activity Chart:

Facing & Centering Operations

Multiple activity chart for doing three loads of laundry

Time
# Sec

Operator
Load clothes & detergent in machine 1 Idle Remove clothes from machine 1 Load clothes into machine 2 Load clothes & detergent into machine 1 Idle Remove clothes from machine 2

Machine 1 Washer
Being loaded Run Being unloaded Idle Being loaded Run Idle

Machine 2 Dryer
Idle Idle Idle Being loaded Run Run Being unloaded

Hang clothes

Idle

Idle

Ex: Worker-Machine Chart for a Gourmet Coffee Store

Diagrams
Diagrams gives pictorial view of the layout of workplace on which locations of different equipment, machines etc. are indicated. The movement of subject(man or machine) is then indicated on the diagram by a line or a string. The diagram are valuable in highlighting the movement so the analyst can take steps to simplify or reduce it so as to obtain saving in time. The most commonly used method study diagrams are: o Flow diagram o String diagram o Travel chart o Cyclegraph and Chronocyclegraph

Types of LAYOUT FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF LAYOUT: (A) layout by FIXED position, material to be processed dont travel round the plant but stays in one place. When product is bulky, heavy and only few units are made (Ship Building, Aircraft construction, Manufacture of large Diesel engines) (B) layout by PROCESS, Operations of the same nature are grouped together. Cutting in garment industry, stitching in another area. This is mostly chosen where great many products share the same machine. (C) Layout by PRODUCT, or LINE layout (Mass production) all m/c & equipment necessary is set in the same area and in the sequence of manufacturing process. (D) layout by GROUP. Group production methods.

Types of LAYOUT

1.Flow diagram
Drawing of working area & showing location of various activities Shows the route followed and selects the optimum one Study different layout and selecting optimum one Study traffic and frequency over different routes

Procedure :
Layout of workplace is drawn to scale Relative positions of the m/c tools, storage & inspection benches are marked on the scale Path followed by the subject under study is tracked by drawing lines Each movement is serially numbered & indicated by arrow for direction Different colors are used to denote different types of movements

Flow diagram
Its a top view of the work area correctly indicating the positions of machining and other locations affecting the movement of subject. Therefor it gives on-the-spot observation of the paths of movement of product sometimes using symbols of process charts.

80

2. String diagram
Scale layout drawing Length of a string is used to record extent & pattern of movements of a worker within a limited area. Movements difficult to trace on flow diagram can be shown Shows the route followed and selects the optimum one Study different layout and selecting optimum one Study traffic and frequency over different routes

Procedure :
A Layout of workplace is drawn to scale Pins are fixed into boards to mark locations of workstations Pins are also driven at turning points of the routes A measured length of thread is taken to trace the movements The distance covered by object is obtained by measuring the remaining part of the thread and subtracting it from original length

END

START
83

FOLD

DRILL+CUT

RIVET

MARK

OQC

IQC

SHEET METAL

STACK

END END

STAR START

Comparison Scale 1cm = 2feet

Before
SHEET METAL CHECK = 10 ft

After
SHEET METAL IQC = 2.8 ft.

CHECK CUT CUT DRILL DRILL FOLD FOLD RIVET RIVET CHECK CHECK STACK TOTAL

= = = = = = =

12 ft 9 ft 10 ft 10 ft 14 ft 12 ft 67 ft

IQC MARK = 5 ft. MARK DRILL &CUT= 6ft DRILL &CUT FOLD = 6 ft. FOLD RIVET = 5 ft. RIVET OQC = 5 ft. TOTAL = 30 ft.

86

87

88

89

90

91

CLASSIFICATION OF MOVEMENTS Class 1 2 3 4 5 Pivot Knuckle Wrist Elbow Shoulder Trunk Body member(s) moved Finger Hand and Finger Forearm, hand and fingers Upper arm, forearm, hand and fingers Torso, Upper arm, forearm, hand and fingers

93

94

95

96

97

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

110

111

112

113

Work Measurement:
Improve Productivity, Reduce Costs, Improve Profits

Work measurement is the application of a set of techniques designed to establish the quantum of work to be done in a given time for a qualified worker to carry out specified jobs, under specified conditions at a defined level of performance.

 We have seen how total time to manufacture a product is increased by: adding undesirable features to product, bad operation of the processes, and ineffective time added because of worker and management. All this leads to decreased productivity.

Time Study/ Work Measurement

Work measurement is identified as a scientific method of fixing standard of production or standard time for a given job. To manage, one must measure first. Work measurement means the application of a set of techniques intended to establish the
i. Amount of work to be done by an operator ii. At a given time iii. Under a specific condition and iv. At defined level of performance.

 Work measurement (WM) is concerned with investigating, reducing and eliminating ineffective time, whatever may be the cause. WM is the means of measuring the time taken in the performance of an operation or series of operations in such a way that the ineffective time is shown up and can be separated out. In practice, proving existence of the ineffective time is the most difficult task. After existence is proved, nature and extent is easy to see!

 WM is also used to set standard times to carry out the work, so that any ineffective time is not included later. Any addition to the standard time would show up as excess time and thus can be brought to attention. Since, standard times are set for all the activities through WM, it has earned bad reputation amongst workers. Major reason for that has been the initial focus of the WM methods, which essentially targeted only the worker controllable ineffective times. Management controllable ineffective times were ignored traditionally.

Use of Work Measurement

1. Assessment of manpower requirements 2. Planning 3. Estimation of Production costs 4. Cost reduction and cost control 5. Improved methods 6. Basis for Incentives 7. Comparing alternative methods 8. Standard data 9. Performance appraisal 10. Training needs assessment

Work Measurement
Work Measurement (WM) is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance. (British Standard Glossary of Terms in Work Study)
The purpose of WM is to reveal the nature & extent of ineffective time so that action can be taken to reveal the eliminate it and then set standards of performance.

Two critical issues in work study: 1. Method study should precede the work measurement, always. 2. Elimination of management controllable ineffective time should precede the elimination of the ineffective time within the control of the workers.

PURPOSE OF WORK MEASUREMENT

To reduce the amount of ineffective time Provides management with a means of identifying the causes of ineffective time. Use of Work Measurement:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 1. 2. 3. To find ineffective time in a process To set standard for output level To plan workforce needs To evaluate workers performance To determine available capacity To determine price or cost of product To compare work methods To facilitate operations schedules To establish wage incentive schemes Training of new employees Checking employee progress
1. Assessment of manpower requirements 2. Planning 3. Estimation of Production costs 4. Cost reduction and cost control 5. Improved methods 6. Basis for Incentives 7. Comparing alternative methods 8. Standard data 9. Performance appraisal 10. Training needs assessment

General criteria where WM can be applied for measurable jobs:

Work should be identifiable in terms of No. of units a worker performed, Work should be performed in a reasonably consistent manner, and There should be considerable volume of work to justify performing the study.

THE TECHNIQUES OF WORK MEASUREMENT

1. 2. 3. 4.

Stop-watch time study Direct observational methods Work sampling Predetermined time standards(PTS) Indirect methods Standard Data

The choice of technique depends on:

The level of details desired and The nature of work itself

Steps in Work Measurement

Select the job to be timed (Bottleneck operations, repetitive jobs, jobs with great amount of manual
labour, frequent overtime, new job/component, if cost of operation is high, introduce/revise incentive scheme etc)

Standardise the method of working; Select Operator

Record all the relevant data relating to the circumstances in which the work is being done, the method and the elements of activity in them

Examine the recorded data and the detailed breakdown critically to ensure that the most effective method and motions are being used and that unproductive and foreign elements are separated from productive elements Measure the quantity of work involved in each element, in terms of time, using the appropriate work measurement techniques
Compile the standard time for the operation which will include time allowances to cover relaxation, personal needs, contingencies, etc. Define precisely the series of activities and methods of operations for which the time has been compiled and issue the time as standard for the activities and methods specified.

TIME STUDY
Basic Steps

1. Obtaining and recording all available information about the job, operator and the surrounding conditions likely to affect the execution of the work 2. Recording the complete description of the method, breaking down the operation into 'elements' 3. Measuring with a stopwatch and recording the time taken by the operator to perform each 'element' of the operation. 4. Assessing the rating 5. Extending observed time to 'basic times' 6. Determining the allowances to be made over and above the basic time for the operation 7. Determining the 'standard time' for the operation.

Time Study
Time Study is the application of WM technique to establish time for a QUALIFIED WORKER to carry out a SPECIFIED TASK

under SPECIFIED CONDITIONS and at the DEFINED LEVEL

OF PERFORMANCE.
How much time one should take to reach Wgl Stn?

* Breaking into the work elements

To separate productive & non-productive time To assess rating of the worker To identify different types of elements & to measure their timings To determine fatigue allowance To prepare detailed work specifications To fix Std. time for repetitive elements

* Time for each work element

Each element should have definite beginning & end Element should be as short as possible to be conveniently timed (0.04 min) Manual & M/c elements should be separately timed Constant separate from variable Occasional & foreign to be timed separately

* Rate of performance * Time of similar work elements should be compared to keep the standard time constant * Study a number of cycles instead of one or two * Extreme values to be discarded

Steps in Work Measurement (Contd.)

Divide the job into elements. The division of

jobs is necessary for the following reasons.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Provide better understanding. Break the study into manageable size. Workers efficiency thorough out job. Distinguish between various parts. Isolate man and machines.
Ex: Dividing Drilling into elements

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Selecting the work piece and placing it in jig. Tightening the screw Advancing the drill towards the work piece Drilling Withdrawing the drill from the operation Loosening the screw Removing piece from jig Removing the chips

Time the elements. Stop watch is generally used in the

system. Either of continuous or Fly-back method is used for recording time.

Steps in Work Measurement (Contd.)

The number of cycles to be timed.

There should be sufficient readings to get reasonably accurate results. It depends on 1. Variation in times of element. 2. Degree of accuracy required. 3. Prescribed level of confidence. RATING is gauging and comparing the pace or the performance of a worker against a STD performance level set by the TS Engineer.

Rating of operator.

Objective rating.

Here emphasis is laid on speed and difficulty experienced in performing a job. At first operator is rated on normal speed and movement. Then other factors are considered. (based on (i) the amount of body used (ii) foot movement involved (iii) eye-hand coordination
(iv) weight moved or lifted (v) handling requirements etc.).

Allowances.

A FAIR DAY'S WORK

Amount of work that can be produced by a qualified employee when working at normal pace and effectively utilizing his time where work is not restricted by process limitations. Qualified Worker is one who is accepted as having the necessary physical attributes, who possesses the required intelligence and education, and has acquired the necessary skill and knowledge to carry out the work in hand to satisfactory standards of safety, quantity and quality. (Choose the operator among many doing the job under study).

STANDARD PERFORMANCE
It is the rate of output which qualified workers will naturally achieve without over-exertion as an average over the working day or shift, provided that they know and adhere to the specified method and provided that they are motivated to apply themselves to their work.

STANDARD RATING
Rating is the assessment of the worker's rate of working relative to the observers' concept of the rate corresponding to standard pace.

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF WORKING (outside the control of worker) 1. Variation in the quality of materials used 2. Changes in the operating efficiency of the equipment 3. Changes in climatic and surrounding conditions of operation.

FACTORS WITHIN THE CONTROL OF WORKER

a. Acceptable variations in the quality of the product b. Variations due to his ability

c. Variations due to his attitude

Thus, rarely the time taken to perform an element of operation by the operator is constant from piece to piece of the job. Therefore, enough cycles are to be timed to get representative time of each element. No. of Observations required, =
( ()

Where, N = actual No. of observations taken in pilot study. And x = each observed elemental time

If accuracy level required is 10% the co-eff is 20; for 5% it is 40; for 2.5% it is 80.

SCALES OF RATING

Rating factor

100-133 60-80

75-100

The figure 100 represents standard performance. If the operator is apparently performing with less effective speed, than the assigned factor is less than 100. If, on the other hand, the effective rate of working is above standard, the operator gets a factor above hundred. Essential idea being: Observed time x Rating = Constant

0-100

Performance Rating

(this 100 is Standard rating)

10. Calculating standard time of the job

Basic constituents of Standard Time are: Elemental times (Observed times) Compensation for the difference in operatives pace of performance and standard performance. Relaxation allowance Interference and Contingency allowances Policy allowance
Constituents of Standard Time
Normal Time Personal Needs Allowance Relaxation Allowance Fatigue Allowance Total Allowance

Policy Allowance

Standard Time

Interference Allowance

Contingency Allowance

Standard Time
Normal or Basic Time of elements of the job when added, gives BASIC TIME of the job. Because nobody can work continuously some additional time (given as allowances) is required to be added to Basic Time to arrive at Standard Time.

Standard Time is calculated by taking the Normal

Time and adding allowances for Personal Needs, Fatigue, Contingency, Interference etc.

 = Observed Time Or

Performance Rating

The expression often used in practice for Standard Time is:

= Normal Time ( 1 + ) Some times the allowances are allowed to be applied to the total work period, then

= ( 1 )

Illustrated Examples
An industrial operation consists of FIVE elements with following observed times and the performance ratings:
Element
A B C D Ele me nt A Observe d Time (Min.) 0.20 Performan ce Rating (%) 85

Normal or Basic Time (Min)

Observed Time (Min.)

0.20 0.08 0.50 0.12

Performance Rating (%)

85 80 90 85

B C D E

0.08 0.50 0.12 0.10

80 90 85 80

0.064

0.450 0.102 0.080 0.866

0.10

80

Assuming rest and personal allowances as 15% and contingency allowance as 2% of the basic time, calculate standard time per piece.

Standard Time computation of an ordinary manual operation:

An operator working on a Pillar Drill performed the following elements for which the observed times and ratings are given hereunder:
Element Code A B C D E Element Description Position job into a drill jig Switch on the M/c & lower drill Drill hole Raise drill and switch off M/c Remove job from jig Obseved Time 0.20 0.008 2.20 0.05 0.10 Rating 80 100 90 80 110 Relaxation allowance 11% 11% 13% 11% 11%

(i)Calculate normal time of each element and normal time of the job, (ii) Also calculate standard time of the job.
Element Code A Element Description Position job into a drill jig Obsd Time 0.20 Rating 80 Relaxa Work content/ allowan Std time 11%

0.1776

B
C D E

Switch on the M/c & lower drill

Drill hole Raise drill and switch off M/c Remove job from jig

0.008
2.20 0.05 0.10

100
90 80 110

11%
13% 11% 11%

0.0888
2.2374 0.0444 0.1221 2.6703 min

Standard Time of the Job

A cylindrical grinding operation involves elements detailed below along with their related data:
Elemen t code Element description Obsrd time Rati ng Remark

A B C D E F G H I J

Pickup job & tighten carrier Position until between centres Advance wheel to job Grind to size Spark off Withdraw wheel to clear job Measure Release job from between cetres Loosen carrier & keep the job aside Dress wheel

0.2 0.05 0.03 0.78 0.06 0.05 0.02 0.06 0.10 0.04

90 80 100 100 100 100 85 80 90 90

------Once in 5 pieces

Assuming rest & personal allowance as 13% and contingency allowance as 2%, calculate standard time of the job.

Solution:

--Once in 20 jobs

Eleme nt

Obsd time

rating

Norm al time 0.18 0.04 0.03 0.78 0.06 0.50

freq

NT/ cycle

Tota l Allo w 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15%

Work content / cycle 0.207 0.046 0.0345 0.897 0.069 0.0575

A B C D E F

0.20 0.05 0.03 0.78 0.06 0.05

90 80 100 100 100 100

1 1 1 1 1 1

0.18 0.04 0.03 0.78 0.06 0.05

G
H I J

0.20
0.06 0.10 0.40

85
80 90 90

0.17
0.048 0.09 0.36

1/5
1 1 1/20

0.034
0.048 0.09 0.018 1.330

15%
15% 15% 15%

0.0391
0.0552 0.1035 0.0207 1.5295

Standard time computation when Stop Watch readings are given:

A time study was conducted on a job consisting of three elements. The stop watch readings of the first five cycles using cumulative timing method are given below:
ELEME NT 1 A B C 10 25 64 STOP WATCH READINGS in hundredth of a minute 2 73 88 128 3 139 155 193 4 203 218 257 5 266 280 320

The rating factors were estimated at 80, 100, 110 for the three elements respectively (on the rating scale of 100 corresponding to normal performance). The allowance for personal needs, rest etc. amount to 12%. Calculate the standard time for the job.

Eleme nt

Elemental Individual time (centiminutes) 1 2 3 4 5

Ave. time of Rating elements (Min)

Normal (or Basic) time

Allowances

Work Content

A B C

10 15 39

09 15 40

11 16 38

10 15 39

09 14 40

0.098 0.150 0.392

80 100 110

0.0784 0.1500 0.4312

12% 12% 12%

0.0878 0.1680 0.4829

0.7387

Uses of time standards

To provide information on which the planning and scheduling of production can be based, including the plant and labor requirements for carrying out the program of work and utilization of resources. To provide information on which estimates for tenders, selling prices and delivery promises can be based. To set standards of machine utilization and labor performance which can be used for incentive scheme. To provide information for labor-cost control and to enable standard costs to be fixed and maintained.

Work /Activity Sampling

For long cycle operations and for activities where Time Study is not possible, Work Sampling is applied. Ex. Office work, supervisory work, activities in stores etc. The second common technique for measuring a job is called Work Sampling. It involves observing a portion or sample of work activity and based on the findings of this sample, statements can be made about the activity. The time it takes to make an observation depends on what is being observed. Many a times only a glance is needed to determine the activity and majority of studies require only several seconds of observation.

Work Sampling
Work Sampling is a technique in which a large number of

instantaneous observations are made over a period of time of a group of machine, processes or people. Work sampling is a method of finding the percentage occurrence of a certain activity by statistical sampling and random observations.
Each observation records what is happening at that instant and the percentage of observations recorded for a particular activity or delay is a measure of the percentage of time during which that activity or delay occurs. (Also known as Activity Sampling, Ratio Delay Study,
Observation Ratio Study, Snap Reading Method and Random Observation Method)

Work sampling is a method of finding the percentage occurrence of a certain activity by statistical sampling and random observations. Work sampling is the process of making sufficient random observations of an operators activities to determine the relative amount of time the operator spends on the various activities associated with the job. The major goal of work sampling is to determine how long, or how much of the work day, is spent on specific types of work. Work sampling may identify the fact that certain operators spend a large portion of their time waiting for work, or performing paperwork tasks, or even performing activities that are not included in their job descriptions. One of the basic foundations of statistical sampling theory is the concept that the larger the sample size, the results will be more accurate.

In work sampling, a sufficient number of observations must be made to be sure that the results accurately summarize the work performed. There are statistical formulas to help determine how many observations should be made.

Number of observations in Work Sampling

One of the basic foundations of statistical sampling theory is the concept that the larger the sample size, the results will be more accurate. In work sampling, a sufficient number of observations must be made to be sure that the results accurately summarize the work performed. There are statistical formulas to help determine how many observations should be made.

For 95 % accuracy (confidence level)

Sp = 2 { p (1 p) / N }
Sp is significance level, p is extent of the phenomenon (problem) being observed in a pilot study expressed as decimals, and N is total number of observations. N is then divided into number of machines, days, operators, etc.

A few words about sampling

Sampling is mainly based on probability. Probability has been defined as the degree to which an event is likely to occur. A simple and often-mentioned example that illustrates the point is that of tossing a coin.

The law of probability says that we are likely to have 50 heads and 50 tails in every 100 tosses of the coin. The greater the number of tosses, the more chance we have of arriving at a ratio of 50 heads to 50 tails.
The size of the sample is therefore important, and we can express our confidence in whether or not the sample is representative by using a certain confidence level.

Establishing confidence levels

Let us go back to our previous example and toss five coins at a time, and then record the number of times we have heads and the number of times we have tails for each toss of these five coins. Let us then repeat this operation 100 times.

Using Work Sampling

Make tours of observations on representative of normal working days Tours should be carried out in random intervals, random numbers could be generated to decide on the order Familiarity of the observer with the process is not critical, though beneficial.

CONDUCTING A STUDY
It is recommended that a uniform procedure should be followed to perform a work sampling study is to 1. Establish the Purpose
First, the objective of the study should be established. Work sampling can be used to determine an overall perspective on the work done. 2. Identify the Subjects

Second, the people performing the task must be identified, i.e. general office work is being studied with the objective of determining overall productivity.

3. Identify the Measure of Output

The third step in making the study is the identification of the measure of the output produced or the types of activities performed on the jobs being studied. This step is especially important if the objective of the study is to measure productivity with the intent of setting a standard.

4. Establish a Time Period

Fourth, the time period during which the study will be conducted must be established. Starting and stopping points for the study must be defined as well.

5. Define the Activities

This step involves defining the activities that are performed by the people under study. For example, the definition used in a machine utilization study, including only the categories of working, idle, and idle-mechanical breakdown.

6. Determine the Number of Observations Needed

After the work elements are defined, the number of observations for the desired accuracy at the desired confidence level must be determined. If a reasonable guess cannot be made, then a trial study of perhaps 20 to 40 observations should be made to get an estimate.

7. Schedule the Observations

Once the number of required observations has been determined, either from appropriate statistical calculations or from tables, and the actual observations must be scheduled. Typically, the analyst will assign an equal number of observations each day during the course of the study. For example, if 800 observations are required and 20 work days are established as an appropriate observation time, 40 observations should be recorded each day. A random number table can be used to establish the random times for each observation.

8. Inform the Personnel Involved

Before the study is actually performed, the personnel involved should be informed about the objective of the study and the methodology that will be employed.

9. Record the Raw Data

The next is the actual recording of the raw data. Although this recording can be performed by anyone, it is desirable that a trained analyst be employed. It is also very important that the observations be made at exactly the same location every time. After the data have been collected, they must be summarized.

10. Summarize the Data

To make things easier, it is more convenient to speak of a 95 per cent confidence level than of a 95.45 per cent confidence level. To achieve this we can change our calculations and obtain:
95 per cent confidence level or 95 per cent of the area under the curve = 1.96 p 99 per cent confidence level or 99 per cent of the area under the curve = 2.58 p 99.9 per cent confidence level or 99.9 per cent of the area under the curve = 3.3 p

In this case we can say that if we take a large sample at random we can be confident that in 95 per cent of the cases our observations will fall within 1.96 p

Number of Samples
p(1 - p) n

e=z
Probability that true proportion will fall within confidence interval

p-e

p Confidence interval

p+e

Number of Samples
n=

p(1 - p)
z e
2

Desired Confidence (%) 90 95 96 97 98 99

n = required sample size p = estimate of proportion time an activity takes place z = number of standard deviations for desired confidence e = maximum error allowable

1.65 1.96 2.05 2.17 2.33 2.58

Determination of sample size

As well as defining the confidence level for our observations we have to decide on the margin of error that we can allow for these observations.

Let us look at our example about the productive time and the idle time of the machines in a factory. There are two methods of determining the sample size that would be appropriate for this example:
the statistical method and the nomogram method.

Statistical method. The formula used in this method is:

Let us assume that some 100 observations were carried out as a preliminary study and at random, and that these showed the machine to be idle in 25 per cent of the cases (p = 25) and to be working 75 per cent of the time (q = 75). We thus have approximate values for p and q; in order now to determine the value of n. Let us choose a confidence level of 95 per cent with a 10 per cent margin of error (that is, we are confident that in 95 per cent of the cases our estimates will be 10 per cent of the real value). E = z p
Since E= 10 And Z

= 1.96

Nomogram method
An easier way to determine sample size is to read off the number of observations needed directly from a nomogram such as the one reproduced in figure 91.

Making random observations

To ensure that our observations are in fact made at random, we can use a random table such as the one in table 12. Various types of random table exist, and these can be used in different ways. In our case let us assume that we shall carry out our observations during a day shift of eight hours, from 7 a.m. to 3 p.m. An eight-hour day has 480 minutes. These may be divided into 48 ten-minute periods. We can start by choosing any number at random from our table, for example by closing our eyes and placing a pencil point somewhere on the table. Let us assume that in this case we pick, by simple chance, the number 11 which is in the second block, fourth column, fourth row (table 12). We now choose any number between 1 and 10. Assume that we choose the number 2; we now go down the column picking out every second reading and noting it down, as shown below (if we had chosen the number 3, we should pick out every third figure, and so on). 11 38 45 87 68 20 11 26 49 05

Looking at these numbers, we find that we have to discard 87, 68 and 49 because they are too high (since we have only 48 ten-minute periods, any number above 48 has to be discarded). Similarly, the second 11 will also have to be discarded since it is a number that has already been picked out. We therefore have to continue with our readings to replace the four numbers we have discarded. Using the same method, that is choosing every second number after the last one (05), we now have 14 15 47 22 These four numbers are within the desired range and have not appeared before. Our final selection may now be arranged numerically and the times of observation throughout the eight-hour day worked out. Thus our smallest number (05) represents the fifth ten-minute period after the work began at 7 a.m. Thus our first observation will be at 7.50 a.m., and so on (table 13).

Example: Conducting the study

Determining the scope of the study. Before making our actual observations, it is important that we decide on the objective of our work sampling. The simplest objective is that of determining whether a given machine is idle or working. In such a case, our observations aim at detecting one of two possibilities only:

We can, however, extend this simple model to try to find out the cause of the stoppage of the machine:

Making the observations

So far we have taken the first five logical steps in conducting a work sampling study.
selecting the job to be studied and determining the objectives of the study; making a preliminary observation to determine the approximate values of p (idle) and q (working);

in terms of a chosen confidence level and accuracy range, determining n (the number of observations needed) determining the frequency of observations, using random tables; designing record sheets to meet the objectives of the study.
There is one more step to take: that of making and recording the observations and analyzing the results.

Work Sampling Observation Form

Advantages of Work Sampling

Can be used to measure activities that are impractical to measure by direct observation Multiple subjects can be included Requires less time and lower cost than continuous direct observation Training requirements less than DTS or PMTS Less tiresome and monotonous on observer than continuous observation Being a subject in work sampling is less demanding than being watched continuously for a long time

Disadvantages and Limitations

Not as accurate for setting time standards as other work measurement techniques Usually not practical to study a single subject Work sampling provides less detailed information about work elements than DTS or PMTS Since work sampling deals with multiple subjects, individual differences will be missed Workers may be suspicious because they do not understand the statistical basis of work sampling

Work Sampling
Advantages
Can measure activities which are too impractical or costly to measure by time study Only needs one observer Sampling can be interrupted

Disadvantages
Quicker and easier to use Work Study on jobs of short duration Does not provide elemental detail

Work content
The work content of a job or operation is defined as: basic time+ relaxation allowance+ any allowance for additional work (e.g. the part of relaxation allowance that is work related). Standard time is the total time in which a job should be completed at standard performance i.e. work content, contingency allowance for delay, unoccupied time and interference allowance. Allowance for unoccupied time and interference may not be frequently included in the standard time calculations; however, the relaxation allowance is.

Standard time constituents

A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time which may be included in a standard time to meet legitimate and expected items of work or delays, precise measurement of which is uneconomical because of their infrequent or irregular occurrence. Contingency allowance for work should include fatigue allowance; whereas the allowance for delay should be dependent on the workers. Typically contingency allowances are very small and are generally expressed as percentage of the total repetitive minutes of the job. Contingency allowance should not be more than 5%, and should only be given where the contingencies cannot be eliminated and are justified.

Standard time constituents

Relaxation allowance is an addition to the basic time intended to provide the worker with the opportunity to recover from the physiological and psychological effects of carrying out specified work under specified conditions and to allow attention to personal needs. The amount of the allowance will depend on the nature of the job. One of the major additions to the basic time. Industrial fatigue allowance, in turn, forms a major portion of the relaxation allowance. Relaxation allowances are also given as percentages of the basic times.

Standard time constituents

Typical values of relaxation allowance are 12-20%. In addition to including relaxation allowances, short rest pauses could be added over the period of work for an operator. Other allowances
Start-up / shut-down allowance Cleaning allowance Tooling allowance Set-up / change-over allowance Reject / excess production allowance Learning / training allowance Policy allowance is an increment, other than the bonus increment, applied to standard time to provide a satisfactory level of earning for certain level of performances under exceptional conditions.

end
IM KMM 2013 EEE - Chem

Types of elements
A repetitive element is an element which occurs in every work cycle of the job. An occasional element does not occur in each work cycle of the job, but which may occur at regular or irregular intervals. e.g. machine setting. For a constant element, the basic time remains constant whenever it is performed. e.g. switch the machine on. A variable element is an element for which the basic time varies in relation to some characteristics of the product, equipment or process, e.g. dimensions, weight, quality etc. e.g. push trolley of parts to next shop.

Types of elements (contd.)

A manual element is an element performed by a worker. A machine element is automatically performed by a powerdriven machine (or process). A governing element occupies a longer time than any of the other elements which are being performed concurrently. e.g. boil kettle of water, while setting out teapot and cups. A foreign element is observed during a study which, after analysis, is not found to be necessary part of the job. e.g. degreasing a part that has still to be machined further.