Geology 11

Handout 14: Historical Geology

2nd sem. AY 12-13

Historical geology Deals with the origin of the Earth and its development through time strives to establish an orderly chronological arrangement of the physical and biological changes and events that have occurred in the geologic past. Previous estimates of the age of the Earth: Cooling through conduction and radiation (Lord Kelvin, 1897): ~24 40 m.y. Rate of delivery of salt to the oceans (John Joly, 1899-1901): ~90 100 m.y. Thickness of total sedimentary record divided by average sedimentation rates (1910): ~1.6 b.y. Oldest rocks on Earth found so far: 1. Acasta Gneisses in northwestern Canada near Great Slave Lake (4.03 Ga) 2. Isua Supracrustal rocks in West Greenland (3.7 to 3.8 Ga) 3. rocks found in the Minnesota River Valley and northern Michigan (3.5-3.7 billion years), in Swaziland (3.4-3.5 billion years), and in Western Australia (3.4-3.6 billion years) Oldest materials to be found on Earth: Zircon grains found in sedimentary rocks in west-central Australia = 4.4 b.y. 70 well-dated meteorites using different dating methods (e.g. Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, Ar-Ar) =4.4-4.6 b.y. Iron meteorite (Canyon Diablo meteorite) = 4.54 b.y. Age of the Earth: Most accepted age for the Earth and the rest of the solar system: ~4.55 b.y. old (+~1%) Best age of the Universe: 14 17 b.y. Relative dating Putting rocks and events in their proper sequence of formation Dating of rocks and rock units with the use of fossils and correlation of different strata Does not require numerical ages of rocks or fossils or events Principles used in relative dating 1. Principle of Uniformitarianism - The present is the key to the past. 2. Stenos Laws a. Law of Superposition - When examining an undisturbed sequence of stratified rocks, the oldest strata will be at the bottom and the youngest strata will be on the top of the sequence. b. Law of Original Horizontality - Most layers are deposited horizontally or subhorizontally Sedimentary beds which are inclined at an angle must have undergone deformation after they had been deposited and lithified c. Law of Lateral Continuity - Sediments would spread out until they thin out at the edge of the depositional basin, stop at a depositional barrier or grade into another type of sediment (indicative of a change in the depositional environment) d. Cross-cutting relationships - When a fault or intrusion cuts through another rock, the fault or intrusion is younger that the rocks which it cuts.

3. Principle of Inclusions -The rock mass containing the inclusion is younger than the rock that provided the inclusion.

1 Mendoza, J.A.

Geology 11

Handout 14: Historical Geology

2nd sem. AY 12-13

4. Unconformity - Any significant break in time within a stratigraphic column. Gaps in the rock record representing a long period during which deposition ceased, erosion removed previously formed rocks and then deposition resumed a period of non-deposition. Types: a. Angular Unconformity - Tilted or folded sedimentary rocks that are overlain by younger, more flat-lying strata. b. Disconformity - Strata on either side of the unconformity are essentially parallel with a distinctly recognizable surface c. Paraconformity - Beds above and below are parallel and the unconformity is identified by some evidence such as lack of certain diagnostic zone fossils in some horizon d. Nonconformity - Older metamorphic or igneous rocks are overlain by younger sedimentary strata http://earthphysicsteaching.homestead.com/unconformities.jpg 5. Principle of Faunal Succession -Fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order. Thus, any time period can be recognized by its fossil content. 6. Correlation - To show correspondence in character and in stratigraphic position (International Stratigraphic Guide) - To demonstrate correspondence between geographically separated parts of a geologic unit (North American Stratigraphic Code) - Based on similarity of lithologic and paleontologic features Fossils and fossilization What are fossils? - Remains or traces of prehistoric life preserved in sedimentary rocks - Important time indicators and play a key role in the correlation of rocks; - Include both the remains of organisms (bones or shells) and traces of organisms (trails, burrows or imprints) Requirements for preservation 1. Rapid burial to prevent decomposition; 2. Presence of protective cover or preserving medium; 3. Possession of hard parts or durable tissues such as shells, bones, teeth and woody tissue Types of fossilization 1. Preservation of unaltered body parts: a. Hard parts usually shells, bone, teeth or pollen b. Soft tissue by mummification or freezing 2. Chemical alteration of hard parts: a. Carbonization soft tissues preserved as thin carbon film b. Recrystallization conversion of a mineral polymorph to another (e.g. aragonite calcite) c. Replacement dissolution of original material and precipitation of new mineral d. Permineralization porous material filled with secondary materials e. Petrification replacement of wood 3. Imprints of hard parts in sediment or trace fossils: a. Mold dissolution of shell b. Cast filling of mold c. Borings and burrows worms, clams and other invertebrates burrow into rocks and sediments d. Coprolites fossil excrement (fossil poop :D) e. Gastroliths smooth, polished stones found in the abdominal cavities of dinosaur skeletons

2 Mendoza, J.A.

Geology 11

Handout 14: Historical Geology

2nd sem. AY 12-13

Uses of fossils? tracing the evolutionary history of extinct as well as living organisms; reconstructing paleoclimates and paleoenvironments ; providing the source of energy resources (e.g. oil, gas, coal) Absolute dating - Numerical dating of rocks, minerals and fossils; Utilizing radioactive isotopes Radioactive isotopes - variants of the same atom but with different mass numbers Undergo spontaneous breaking apart (decay) of certain unstable atomic nuclei Unstable parent isotope decay into stable daughter isotope Half life the length of time required for one-half of the nuclei of a radioactive isotope to decay

Geologic Time Scale The history of the earth is broken up into a hierarchical set of divisions for describing geologic time. Units of time include eon, era, period, epoch, age (arranged from largest division ).

International Commission on Stratigraphy provided a standard Geologic Time Scale

3 Mendoza, J.A.