The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, organized on the basis of their atomic numbers, electron

configurations (electron shell mo del), and recurring chemical properties. Elements are presented in order of incr easing atomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus). The standard form o f the table consists of a grid of elements laid out in 18 columns and 7 rows, wi th a double row of elements below that. The table can also be deconstructed into four rectangular blocks: the s-block to the left, the p-block to the right, the d-block in the middle, and the f-block below that. The rows of the table are called periods; the columns are called groups, with so me of these having names such as halogens or noble gases. Since, by definition, a periodic table incorporates recurring trends, any such table can be used to de rive relationships between the properties of the elements and predict the proper ties of new, yet to be discovered or synthesized, elements. As a result, a perio dic table whether in the standard form or some other variant provides a useful frame work for analyzing chemical behavior, and such tables are widely used in chemist ry and other sciences. Although precursors exist, Dmitri Mendeleev is generally credited with the publi cation, in 1869, of the first widely recognized periodic table. He developed his table to illustrate periodic trends in the properties of the then-known element s. Mendeleev also predicted some properties of then-unknown elements that would be expected to fill gaps in this table. Most of his predictions were proved corr ect when the elements in question were subsequently discovered. Mendeleev's peri odic table has since been expanded and refined with the discovery or synthesis o f further new elements and the development of new theoretical models to explain chemical behavior. All elements from atomic numbers 1 (hydrogen) to 118 (ununoctium) have been disc overed or reportedly synthesized, with elements 113, 115, 117, and 118 having ye t to be confirmed. The first 98 elements exist naturally although some[n 1] are found only in trace amounts and were initially discovered by synthesis in labora tories. Elements with atomic numbers from 99 to 118 have only been synthesized, or claimed to be so, in laboratories. Production of elements having higher atomi c numbers is being pursued, with the question of how the periodic table may need to be modified to accommodate any such additions being a matter of ongoing deba te. Numerous synthetic radionuclides of naturally occurring elements have also b een produced in laboratories.

All versions of the periodic table include only chemical elements, not mixtures, compounds, or subatomic particles.[n 2] Each chemical element has a unique atom ic number representing the number of protons in its nucleus. Most elements have differing numbers of neutrons among different atoms, with these variants being r eferred to as isotopes. For example, carbon has three naturally occurring isotop es: all of its atoms have six protons and most have six neutrons as well, but ab out one per cent have seven neutrons, and a very small fraction have eight neutr ons. Isotopes are never separated in the periodic table; they are always grouped together under a single element. Elements with no stable isotopes have the atom ic masses of their most stable isotopes, where such masses are shown, listed in parentheses.[1] In the standard periodic table, the elements are listed in order of increasing a tomic number (the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom). A new row (perio d) is started when a new electron shell has its first electron. Columns (groups) are determined by the electron configuration of the atom; elements with the sam e number of electrons in a particular subshell fall into the same columns (e.g. oxygen and selenium are in the same column because they both have four electrons in the outermost p-subshell). Elements with similar chemical properties general

ly fall into the same group in the periodic table, although in the f-block, and to some respect in the d-block, the elements in the same period tend to have sim ilar properties, as well. Thus, it is relatively easy to predict the chemical pr operties of an element if one knows the properties of the elements around it.[2] As of 2013, the periodic table has 114 confirmed elements, comprising elements 1 (hydrogen) to 112 (copernicium), 114 (flerovium) and 116 (livermorium). Element s 113, 115, 117 and 118 have reportedly been synthesised in laboratories however none of these claims have been officially confirmed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). As such these elements are currently know n only by their systematic element names, based on their atomic numbers.[3] A total of 98 elements occur naturally; the remaining 16 elements, from einstein ium to copernicium, and flerovium and livermorium, occur only when synthesised i n laboratories. Of the 98 elements that occur naturally, 84 are primordial. The other 14 elements occur only in decay chains of primordial elements.[4] No eleme nt heavier than einsteinium (element 99) has ever been observed in macroscopic q uantities in its pure form.[5] Grouping methods Groups Main article: Group (periodic table) A group or family is a vertical column in the periodic table. Groups usually hav e more significant periodic trends than periods and blocks, explained below. Mod ern quantum mechanical theories of atomic structure explain group trends by prop osing that elements within the same group generally have the same electron confi gurations in their valence shell.[6] Consequently, elements in the same group te nd to have a shared chemistry and exhibit a clear trend in properties with incre asing atomic number.[7] However in some parts of the periodic table, such as the d-block and the f-block, horizontal similarities can be as important as, or mor e pronounced than, vertical similarities.[8][9][10] Under an international naming convention, the groups are numbered numerically fr om 1 to 18 from the leftmost column (the alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the noble gases).[11] Previously, they were known by roman numerals. In America , the roman numerals were followed by either an "A" if the group was in the s- o r p-block, or a "B" if the group was in the d-block. The roman numerals used cor respond to the last digit of today's naming convention (e.g. the group 4 element s were group IVB, and the group 14 elements was group IVA). In Europe, the lette ring was similar, except that "A" was used if the group was before group 10, and "B" was used for groups including and after group 10. In addition, groups 8, 9 and 10 used to be treated as one triple-sized group, known collectively in both notations as group VIII. In 1988, the new IUPAC naming system was put into use, and the old group names were deprecated.[12] Some of these groups have been given trivial (unsystematic) names, as seen in th e table below, although some are rarely used. Groups 3 10 have no trivial names an d are referred to simply by their group numbers or by the name of the first memb er of their group (such as 'the scandium group' for Group 3), since they display fewer similarities and/or vertical trends.[11] Elements in the same group tend to show patterns in atomic radius, ionization en ergy, and electronegativity. From top to bottom in a group, the atomic radii of the elements increase. Since there are more filled energy levels, valence electr ons are found farther from the nucleus. From the top, each successive element ha s a lower ionization energy because it is easier to remove an electron since the atoms are less tightly bound. Similarly, a group has a top to bottom decrease i n electronegativity due to an increasing distance between valence electrons and the nucleus.[13] There are exceptions to these trends, however, an example of wh

ich occurs in group 11 where electronegativity increases farther down the group. [14] Periods Main article: Period (periodic table) A period is a horizontal row in the periodic table. Although groups generally ha ve more significant periodic trends, there are regions where horizontal trends a re more significant than vertical group trends, such as the f-block, where the l anthanides and actinides form two substantial horizontal series of elements.[15] Elements in the same period show trends in atomic radius, ionization energy, ele ctron affinity, and electronegativity. Moving left to right across a period, ato mic radius usually decreases. This occurs because each successive element has an added proton and electron which causes the electron to be drawn closer to the n ucleus.[16] This decrease in atomic radius also causes the ionization energy to increase when moving from left to right across a period. The more tightly bound an element is, the more energy is required to remove an electron. Electronegativ ity increases in the same manner as ionization energy because of the pull exerte d on the electrons by the nucleus.[13] Electron affinity also shows a slight tre nd across a period. Metals (left side of a period) generally have a lower electr on affinity than nonmetals (right side of a period), with the exception of the n oble gases.[17] Blocks Main article: Block (periodic table) A diagram of the periodic table, highlighting the different blocks The different regions of the periodic table are sometimes referred to as blocks in recognition of the sequence in which the electron shells of the elements are filled. Each block is named according to the subshell in which the "last" electr on notionally resides.[18][n 3] The s-block comprises the first two groups (alka li metals and alkaline earth metals) as well as hydrogen and helium. The p-block comprises the last six groups which are groups 13 to 18 in IUPAC (3A to 8A in A merican) and contains, among other elements, all of the metalloids. The d-block comprises groups 3 to 12 in IUPAC (or 3B to 2B in American group numbering) and contains all of the transition metals. The f-block, usually offset below the res t of the periodic table, comprises the lanthanides and actinides.[19] Categories The elements can be conveniently classified according to their shared physical a nd chemical properties into the major categories of metals, metalloids and nonme tals. Metals are generally located to the left and bottom of the periodic table. They are ordinarily shiny, highly conducting solids which form alloys with one another and salt-like ionic compounds with nonmetals. Nonmetals are located to t he right and top. They are mostly coloured or colourless insulating gases that f orm covalent compounds with one another. In between metals and nonmetals are met alloids, which have intermediate or mixed properties.[20] Metal and nonmetals can be further classified into similar subcategories that sh ow a left to right gradation in metallic to non-metallic properties. The metals are divided into the highly reactive alkali metals, through the less reactive al kaline earth metals, lanthanides and actinides, via the archetypal transition me tals, and ending in the physically and chemically weak other metals. The nonmeta ls are simply subdivided into the polyatomic nonmetals which, being nearest the metalloids, show some incipient metallic character; the diatomic nonmetals, whic h are essentially nonmetallic; and the monatomic noble gases, which are almost c ompletely inert and nonmetallic. Specialized groupings such as the refractory me tals and the noble metals, which are subsets (in this example) of the transition

metals, are also known[21] and occasionally denoted.[22] Placing the elements into categories and subcategories based on shared propertie s is imperfect. There is a spectrum of properties within each category and it is not hard to find overlaps at the boundaries, as is the case with most classific ation schemes.[23] Beryllium, for example, is classified as an alkaline earth me tal although its amphoteric chemistry and tendency to mostly form covalent compo unds are both attributes of a chemically weak or other metal. Radon is classifie d as a nonmetal and a noble gas yet has some cationic chemistry that is more cha racteristic of a metal. Other classification schemes are possible such as the di vision of the elements into mineralogical occurrence categories, or crystalline structures. Categorising the elements in this fashion dates back to at least 186 9 when Hinrichs[24] wrote that simple boundary lines could be drawn on the perio dic table to show elements having like properties, such as the metals and the no nmetals, or the gaseous elements.