FRICTION Classical Mechanics Newton's Second Law

Free-body diagram for a block on a ramp. Arrows are vectors indicating directions and magnitudes of forces. N is the normal force mg is the force of gravity and Ff is the force of friction.

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces fluid layers and!or material elements sliding against each other. "here are several types of friction# Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. $ry friction is subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces and kinetic friction between moving surfaces. Fluid friction describes the friction between layers within a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.%&'%(' Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces.%)'%*'%+' Skin friction is a component of drag the force resisting the motion of a solid body through a fluid. Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation.%(' ,hen surfaces in contact move relative to each other the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into heat. "his property can have dramatic conse-uences as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire. .inetic energy is converted to heat whenever motion with friction occurs for e/ample when a viscous fluid is stirred. Another important conse-uence of many types of friction can be wear which may lead to performance degradation and!or damage to components. Friction is a component of the science of tribology. Friction is not a fundamental force but occurs because of the electromagnetic forces between charged particles which constitute the surfaces in contact. 0ecause of the comple/ity of these interactions friction cannot be calculated from first principles but instead must be found empirically. History "he classic rules of sliding friction were discovered by Leonardo da 1inci 2&*+(-&+&34 but remained unpublished in his notebooks. %5'%6' "hey were rediscovered by 7uillaume Amontons 2&5334 and were further developed by 8harles-Augustin de 8oulomb 2&69+4. Leonhard :uler 2&6;6-&69)4 derived the angle of repose of a weight on an inclined plane and first distinguished between static and kinetic friction. %9' Arthur <orrin 2&9))4 developed the concept of static friction. =sborne >eynolds 2&9554 derived the e-uation of viscous flow. "his completed the classic empirical model of friction 2static kinetic and fluid4 commonly used today in engineering. %5' "he focus of research during the last century has been to understand the physical mechanisms behind friction. F. ?hillip 0owden and $avid "abor 2&3+;4 showed that at a microscopic level the actual area of contact between surfaces is a very small fraction of the apparent area.%6' "his actual area of contact caused by @asperities@ 2roughness4 increases with pressure e/plaining the proportionality between normal force and frictional force. "he development of the atomic force microscope 2&3954 has recently enabled scientists to study friction at the atomic scale. %5' Laws of Dry Friction

"he properties of sliding friction were discovered by e/periment in the &+th to &9th centuries and were e/pressed as three empirical laws# !ontons" First Law# "he force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load. !ontons" Second Law# "he force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact. Coulo!b"s Law of Friction# .inetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity. Amontons' (nd Law is an idealiAation assuming perfectly rigid and inelastic materials. For e/ample wider tires on cars provide more traction than narrow tires for a given vehicle mass because of surface deformation of the tire. %citation needed' Dry Friction $ry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. "he two regimes of dry friction are static friction between non-moving surfaces and kinetic friction 2sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction4 between moving surfaces. 8oulomb friction named after 8harles-Augustin de 8oulomb is an appro/imate model used to calculate the force of dry friction. Bt is governed by the e-uation# where is the force of friction e/erted by each surface on the other. Bt is parallel to the surface in a direction opposite to the net applied force. is the coefficient of friction which is an empirical property of the contacting materials is the normal force e/erted by each surface on the other directed perpendicular 2normal4 to the surface. "he 8oulomb friction may take any value from Aero up to and the direction of the frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would e/perience in the absence of friction. "hus in the static case the frictional force is e/actly what it must be in order to prevent motion between the surfacesC it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. Bn this case rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force the 8oulomb appro/imation provides a threshold value for this force above which motion would commence. "his ma/imum force is known as traction. "he force of friction is always e/erted in a direction that opposes movement 2for kinetic friction4 or potential movement 2for static friction4 between the two surfaces. For e/ample a curling stone sliding along the ice e/periences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an e/ample of potential movement the drive wheels of an accelerating car e/perience a frictional force pointing forwardC if they did not the wheels would spin and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose it is the direction of 2potential4 sliding between tire and road. Bn all cases Newton's first law of motion holds. The Nor!al Force

0lock on a ramp 2top4 and corresponding free body dia#ra! of Dust the block 2bottom4. "he normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces togetherC and its direction is perpendicular to the surfaces. Bn the simple case of a mass resting on a horiAontal surface the only component of the normal force is the

force due to gravity where . Bn this case the magnitude of the friction force is the product of the mass of the obDect the acceleration due to gravity and the coefficient of friction. Eowever the coefficient of friction is not a function of mass or volumeC it depends only on the material. For instance a large aluminum block has the same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. Eowever the magnitude of the friction force itself depends on the normal force and hence the mass of the block. Bf an obDect is on a level surface and the force tending to cause it to slide is horiAontal the normal force between the obDect and the surface is Dust its weight which is e-ual to its mass multiplied by the acceleration due to earth's gravity g. Bf the obDect is on a tilted surface such as an inclined plane the normal force is less because less of the force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of the plane. "herefore the normal force and ultimately the frictional force is determined using vector analysis usually via a free body diagram. $epending on the situation the calculation of the normal force may include forces other than gravity. Coefficient of Friction "he 'coefficient of friction' 28=F4 also known as a 'frictional coefficient' or 'friction coefficient' and symboliAed by the 7reek letter F is a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together. "he coefficient of friction depends on the materials usedC for e/ample ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction. 8oefficients of friction range from near Aero to greater than one G under good conditions a tire on concrete may have a coefficient of friction of &.6. %citation
needed'

For surfaces at rest relative to each other where friction. "his is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart.

is the coefficient of static

For surfaces in relative motion where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. "he 8oulomb friction is e-ual to and the frictional force on each surface is e/erted in the direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface. "he coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement G it has to be measured e/perimentally and cannot be found through calculations. >ougher surfaces tend to have higher effective values. 0oth static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in contactC for a given pair of surfaces the coefficient of static friction is usually larger than that of kinetic frictionC in some sets the two coefficients are e-ual such as teflon-on-teflon. <ost dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between ;.) and ;.5. 1alues outside this range are rarer but teflon for e/ample can have a coefficient as low as ;.;*. A value of Aero would mean no friction at all an elusive property G even magnetic levitation vehicles have drag. >ubber in contact with other surfaces can yield friction coefficients from & to (. =ccasionally it is maintained that F is always H & but this is not true. ,hile in most relevant applications F H & a value above & merely implies that the force re-uired to slide an obDect along the surface is greater than the normal force of the surface on the obDect. For e/ample silicone rubber or acrylic

rubber-coated surfaces have a coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger than &. ,hile it is often stated that the 8=F is a @material property @ it is better categoriAed as a @system property.@ Inlike true material properties 2such as conductivity dielectric constant yield strength4 the 8=F for any two materials depends on system variables like temperature velocity atmosphere and also what are now popularly described as aging and deaging timesC as well as on geometric properties of the interface between the materials. For e/ample a copper pin sliding against a thick copper plate can have a 8=F that varies from ;.5 at low speeds 2metal sliding against metal4 to below ;.( at high speeds when the copper surface begins to melt due to frictional heating. "he latter speed of course does not determine the 8=F uni-uelyC if the pin diameter is increased so that the frictional heating is removed rapidly the temperature drops the pin remains solid and the 8=F rises to that of a 'low speed' test. %citation needed' $$ro%i!ate Coefficients of Friction Static Friction& Dry ' Clean Lubricated lu!inu! Steel ;.5& Co$$er Steel ;.+) (rass Steel ;.+& Cast iron Co$$er &.;+ Cast iron )inc ;.9+ Concrete *wet+ Rubber ;.); Concrete *dry+ Rubber &.; Concrete ,ood ;.5(%3' Co$$er -lass ;.59 -lass -lass ;.3* Metal ,ood ;.(G;.5%3' ;.( 2wet4%3' .olythene Steel ;.(%&;' ;.(%&;' Steel Steel ;.9;%&;' ;.&5%&;' Steel Teflon ;.;*%&;' ;.;*%&;' Teflon Teflon ;.;*%&;' ;.;*%&;' ,ood ,ood ;.(+G;.+%3' ;.( 2wet4%3' "he slipperiest solid known discovered in &333 dubbed 0A< 2for the elements boron aluminum and magnesium4 has an appro/imate coefficient of friction of ;.;( about half that of "eflon.%&&' Materials

Static Friction Static friction is friction between two solid obDects that are not moving relative to each other. For e/ample static friction can prevent an obDect from sliding down a sloped surface. "he coefficient of static friction typically denoted as s is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction. "he static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an obDect can move. "he ma/imum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of static friction and the normal force# . ,hen there is no sliding occurring the friction force can have any value from Aero up to . Any force smaller than attempting to slide one surface over the other is opposed by a frictional force of e-ual magnitude and opposite direction. Any force larger than overcomes the force of static friction and causes sliding to occur. "he instant sliding occurs static friction is no longer applicableJthe friction between the two surfaces is then called kinetic friction. An e/ample of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the ground. :ven though the wheel is in motion the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is stationary relative to the ground so it is static rather than kinetic friction. "he ma/imum value of static friction when motion is impending is sometimes referred to as li!itin# friction %&(' although this term is not used universally. %&' Bt is also known as traction. /inetic Friction .inetic 2or dynamic4 friction occurs when two obDects are moving relative to each other and rub together 2like a sled on the ground4. "he coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as k and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials.%&)'%&*' Eowever >ichard Feynman comments that @with dry metals it is very hard to show any difference.@%&+' New models are beginning to show how kinetic friction can be greater than static friction.%&5' .inetic friction is now understood in many cases to be primarily caused by chemical bonding between the surfaces rather than interlocking asperitiesC %&6'however in many other cases roughness effects are dominant for e/ample in rubber to road friction.%&5' Surface roughness and contact area however do affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale obDects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces. %&9' n#le of Friction For the ma/imum angle of static friction between granular materials see Angle of repose. For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the ma/imum angle before which one of the items will begin sliding. "his is called the angle of friction or friction angle. Bt is defined as#

where K is the angle from vertical and F is the static coefficient of friction between the obDects.%&3' "his formula can also be used to calculate F from empirical measurements of the friction angle. Friction at the to!ic Le0el $etermining the forces re-uired to move atoms past each other is a challenge in designing nanomachines. Bn (;;9 scientists for the first time were able to move a single atom across a surface and measure the forces re-uired. Ising ultrahigh vacuum and nearly-Aero temperature 2+ .4 a modified atomic force microscope was used to drag a cobalt atom and a carbon mono/ide molecule across surfaces of copper and platinum.%(;' Li!itations of the Coulo!b Model "he 8oulomb appro/imation mathematically follows from the assumptions that surfaces are in atomically close contact only over a small fraction of their overall area that this contact area is proportional to the normal force 2until saturation which takes place when all area is in atomic contact4 and that frictional force is proportional to the applied normal force independently of the contact area 2you can see the e/periments on friction from Leonardo $a 1inci4. Such reasoning aside however the appro/imation is fundamentally an empirical construction. Bt is a rule of thumb describing the appro/imate outcome of an e/tremely complicated physical interaction. "he strength of the appro/imation is its simplicity and versatility G though in general the relationship between normal force and frictional force is not e/actly linear 2and so the frictional force is not entirely independent of the contact area of the surfaces4 the 8oulomb appro/imation is an ade-uate representation of friction for the analysis of many physical systems. ,hen the surfaces are conDoined 8oulomb friction becomes a very poor appro/imation 2for e/ample adhesive tape resists sliding even when there is no normal force or a negative normal force4. Bn this case the frictional force may depend strongly on the area of contact. Some drag racing tires are adhesive in this way. Eowever despite the comple/ity of the fundamental physics behind friction the relationships are accurate enough to be useful in many applications. Nu!erical Si!ulation of the Coulo!b Model $espite being a simplified model of friction the 8oulomb model is useful in many numerical simulation applications such as multibody systems and granular material. :ven its most simple e/pression encapsulates the fundamental effects of sticking and sliding which are re-uired in many applied cases although specific algorithms have to be designed in order to efficiently numerically integrate mechanical systems with 8oulomb friction and bilateral and!or unilateral contact. %(&'%((' %()' %(*' %(+' Some -uite nonlinear effects such as the so-called ?ainlevL parado/es may be encountered with 8oulomb friction.%(5'

Fluid Friction Fluid friction occurs between layers within a fluid that are moving relative to each other. "his internal resistance to flow is described by viscosity. Bn everyday terms viscosity is @thickness@. "hus water is @thin@ having a lower viscosity while honey is @thick@ having a higher viscosity. ?ut simply the less viscous the fluid is the greater its ease of movement. All real fluids 2e/cept superfluids4 have some resistance to stress and therefore are viscous but a fluid which has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. Lubricated Friction <ain article# Lubrication Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid surfaces. Lubrication is a techni-ue employed to reduce wear of one or both surfaces in close pro/imity moving relative to each another by interposing a substance called a lubricant between the surfaces. Bn most cases the applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid due to the frictional viscous resistance to motion of the lubricating fluid between the surfaces. Ade-uate lubrication allows smooth continuous operation of e-uipment with only mild wear and without e/cessive stresses or seiAures at bearings. ,hen lubrication breaks down metal or other components can rub destructively over each other causing destructive damage heat and failure. Skin Friction <ain article# ?arasitic drag Skin friction arises from the friction of the fluid against the @skin@ of the obDect that is moving through it. Skin friction arises from the interaction between the fluid and the skin of the body and is directly related to the area of the surface of the body that is in contact with the fluid. Skin friction follows the drag e-uation and rises with the s-uare of the velocity. Skin friction is caused by viscous drag in the boundary layer around the obDect. "here are two ways to decrease skin friction# the first is to shape the moving body so that smooth flow is possible like an airfoil. "he second method is to decrease the length and cross-section of the moving obDect as much as is practicable. Internal Friction <ain article# ?lastic deformation of solids See also# $eformation 2engineering4 Bnternal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes plastic deformation. ?lastic deformation in solids is an irreversible change in the internal molecular structure of an obDect. "his change may be due to either 2or both4 an applied force or a change in temperature. "he change of an obDect's shape is called strain. "he force causing it is called stress. Stress does not necessarily cause permanent change. As deformation

occurs internal forces oppose the applied force. Bf the applied stress is not too large these opposing forces may completely resist the applied force allowing the obDect to assume a new e-uilibrium state and to return to its original shape when the force is removed. "his is what is known in the literature as elastic deformation 2or elasticity4. Larger forces in e/cess of the elastic limit may cause a permanent 2irreversible4 deformation of the obDect. "his is what is known as plastic deformation. Other Ty$es of Friction Rollin# Resistance <ain article# >olling resistance >olling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular obDect along a surface caused by deformations in the obDect and!or surface. 7enerally the force of rolling resistance is less than that associated with kinetic friction. %(6' "ypical values for the coefficient of rolling resistance are ;.;;&. %(9' =ne of the most common e/amples of rolling resistance is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a road a process which generates heat and sound as by-products.%(3' Triboelectric 1ffect <ain article# "riboelectric effect >ubbing dissimilar materials against one another can cause a build-up of electrostatic charge which can be haAardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. ,hen the static build-up discharges e/plosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mi/ture. (elt Friction <ain article# 0elt friction 0elt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around a pulley when one end is being pulled. "he resulting tension which acts on both ends of the belt can be modeled by the belt friction e-uation. Bn practice the theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction e-uation can be compared to the ma/imum tension the belt can support. "his helps a designer of such a rig to know how many times the belt or rope must be wrapped around the pulley to prevent it from slipping. <ountain climbers and sailing crews demonstrate a standard knowledge of belt friction when accomplishing basic tasks. Reducin# Friction De0ices $evices such as wheels ball bearings roller bearings and air cushion or other types of fluid bearings can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction. <any thermoplastic materials such as nylon E$?: and ?"F: are commonly used in low friction bearings. "hey are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with increasing imposed load.%citation needed' For improved wear resistance very high molecular weight grades are usually specified for heavy duty or critical bearings.

Lubricants A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant such as oil water or grease which is placed between the two surfaces often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. "he science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mi/ed with the application of science especially to industrial or commercial obDectives. Superlubricity a recently-discovered effect has been observed in graphite# it is the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding obDects approaching Aero levels. A very small amount of frictional energy would still be dissipated. Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as graphite and talcC acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant. Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one of the parts. "his can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasoundassisted cutting or vibration noise known as dither. 1ner#y of Friction According to the law of conservation of energy no energy is destroyed due to friction though it may be lost to the system of concern. :nergy is transformed from other forms into heat. A sliding hockey puck comes to rest because friction converts its kinetic energy into heat. Since heat -uickly dissipates many early philosophers including Aristotle wrongly concluded that moving obDects lose energy without a driving force. ,hen an obDect is pushed along a surface the energy converted to heat is given by# where is the normal force is the coefficient of kinetic friction is the coordinate along which the obDect transverses. :nergy lost to a system as a result of friction is a classic e/ample of thermodynamic irreversibility. ,ork of Friction Bn the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces static friction does no work because there is never displacement between the surfaces. Bn the same reference frame kinetic friction is always in the direction opposite the motion and does negative work.%);' Eowever friction can do positive work in certain frames of reference. =ne can see this by placing a heavy bo/ on a rug then pulling on the rug -uickly. Bn this case the bo/ slides backwards relative to the rug but moves forward relative to the frame of reference in which the floor is stationary. "hus the kinetic friction between the bo/ and rug accelerates the bo/ in the same direction that the bo/ moves doing positive work.%)&'

"he work done by friction can translate into deformation wear and heat that can affect the contact surface properties 2even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces4. "his can be beneficial as in polishing. "he work of friction is used to mi/ and Doin materials such as in the process of friction welding. :/cessive erosion or wear of mating surfaces occur when work due frictional forces rise to unacceptable levels. Earder corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces 2fretting4 e/acerbates wear of frictional forces. 0earing seiAure or failure may result from e/cessive wear due to work of friction. As surfaces are worn by work due to friction fit and surface finish of an obDect may degrade until it no longer functions properly. %)(' $$lications Friction is an important factor in many engineering disciplines. Trans$ortation >ail adhesion refers to the grip wheels of a train have on the rails. >oad slipperiness is an important design and safety factor for automobiles o Split friction is a particularly dangerous condition arising due to varying friction on either side of a car. o >oad te/ture affects the interaction of tires and the driving surface. Measure!ent A tribometer is an instrument that measures friction on a surface. A profilograph is a device used to measure pavement surface roughness.