Broadcasting

Dorf, R.C., Wan, Z., Lindsey III, J.F., Doelitzsch, D.F., Whitaker J., Roden, M.S.
, Salek,
S., Clegg, A.H. Broadcasting
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
69
BroadcasfIng
69.1 Modulation and Demodulation
Modulation Supeiheteiodyne Technique Pulse-Code
Modulation Fiequency-Shift Keying M-aiy Phase-Shift
Keying Quadiatuie Amplitude Modulation
69.2 Radio
Standaid Bioadcasting (Amplitude Modulation) Fiequency
Modulation
69.3 Television Systems
Scanning Lines and Fields Inteilaced Scanning
Fields Synchionizing Video Signals Television Industiy
Standaids Tiansmission Equipment Television Reception
69.4 High-Defnition Television
Pioposed Systems
69.5 Digital Audio Bioadcasting
The Need foi DAB DAB System Design Goals Histoiical
Backgiound Technical Oveiview of DAB Audio Compiession
and Souice Encoding System Example:Euieka-147/DAB
69.1 Mudu!atiun and Demudu!atiun
Fc|ord C. Dorf ond Z|en Won
Modulation is the piocess of impiessing the souice infoimation onto a bandpass signal with a caiiiei fiequency
[
t
. This bandpass signal is called the modulated signal s(), and the baseband souice signal is called the
modulating signal m(). The modulated signal could be iepiesented by
s() Re{g()e
, ut
(69.1)
oi, equivalently,
s() R() cos u
t
- ()] (69.2)
and
s() x() cos u
t
- y() sin u
t
(69.3)
wheie u
t
2r[
t
. The complex envelope is
g() R()e
,()
x() - ,y() (69.4)
and g() is a function of the modulating signal m(). That is,
g() gm()]
RIchard C. Iorl
Inverry of Co|forno, Dov
Zhen Wan
Inverry of Co|forno, Dov
}ellerson !. LIndsey III
Sour|ern I||no Inverry or
Corbondo|e
IennIs !. IoeIIfzsch
3D Communcoron
}erry WhIfaIer
Tec|nco| Pre
NarfIn S. Roden
Co|forno Srore Inverry
SfanIey SaIeI
Hommerr don
AImon H. CIegg
CC
Thus g] peifoims a mapping opeiation on m(). The paiticulai ielationship that is chosen foi g() in teims
of m() defnes the type of modulation used.
In Table 69.1, examples of the mapping function g(m) aie given foi the following types of modulation:
AM: amplitude modulation
DSB-SC: double-sideband suppiessed-caiiiei modulation
PM: phase modulation
FM: fiequency modulation
SSB-AM-SC: single-sideband AM suppiessed-caiiiei modulation
SSB-PM: single-sideband PM
SSB-FM: single-sideband FM
SSB-EV: single-sideband envelope-detectable modulation
SSB-SQ: single-sideband squaie-law-detectable modulation
QM: quadiatuie modulation
Mudu!atiun
In Table 69.1, a geneialized appioach may be taken to obtain univeisal tiansmittei models that may be ieduced
to those used foi a paiticulai modulation type. We also see that theie aie equivalent models which coiiespond
to diffeient ciicuit confguiations, yet they may be used to pioduce the same type of modulated signal at theii
outputs. It is up to communication engineeis to select an implementation method that will optimize peifoi-
mance, yet ietain low cost based on the state of the ait in ciicuit development.
Theie aie two canonical foims foi the geneialized tiansmittei. Figuie 69.1 is an AM-PM type ciicuit as desciibed
in Eq. (69.2). In this fguie, the baseband signal piocessing ciicuit geneiates R() and () fiom m(). The R and
aie functions of the modulating signal m() as given in Table 69.1 foi the paiticulai modulation type desiied.
Figuie 69.2 illustiates the second canonical foim foi the geneialized tiansmittei. This uses in-phase and
quadiatuie-phase (IQ) piocessing. Similaily, the foimulas ielating x() and y() aie shown in Table 69.1, and
the baseband signal piocessing may be implemented by using eithei analog haidwaie oi digital haidwaie with
softwaie. The iemaindei of the canonical foim utilizes iadio fiequency (RF) ciicuits as indicated.
Any type of signal modulation (AM, FM, SSB, QPSK, etc.) may be geneiated by using eithei of these two
canonical foims. Both of these foims conveniently sepaiate baseband piocessing fiom RF piocessing.
Superheterudyne Technique
Most ieceiveis employ the superheterodyne receiving technique (see Fig. 69.3). This technique consists of
eithei down-conveiting oi up-conveiting the input signal to some convenient fiequency band, called the
nermeJae [requenty (IF) band, and then extiacting the infoimation (oi modulation) by using the appiopiiate
detectoi. This basic ieceivei stiuctuie is used foi the ieception of all types of bandpass signals, such as television,
FM, AM, satellite, and iadai signals.
FIGURE 69.1 Geneialized tiansmittei using the AM-PM geneiation technique.

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If the complex envelope g() is desiied foi geneialized signal detection oi foi optimum ieception in digital
systems, the x() and y() quadiatuie components, wheie x() - ,y() g(), may be obtained by using quadiatuie
pioduct detectois, as illustiated in Fig. 69.4. x() and y() could be fed into a signal piocessoi to extiact the
modulation infoimation. Disiegaiding the effects of noise, the signal piocessoi could iecovei m() fiom x()
and y() (and, consequently, demodulate the IF signal) by using the inveise of the complex envelope geneiation
functions given in Table 69.1.
The geneialized modulation techniques aie shown in Table 69.1. In digital communication systems, disciete
modulation techniques aie usually used to modulate the souice infoimation signal. Disciete modulation includes:
PCM pulse-code modulation
DM diffeiential modulation
DPCM diffeiential pulse-code modulation
FSK fiequency-shift keying
PSK phase-shift keying
DPSK diffeiential phase-shift keying
MPSK M-aiy phase-shift keying
QAM quadiatuie amplitude modulation
FIGURE 69.2 Geneialized tiansmittei using the quadiatuie geneiation technique.
FIGURE 69.3 Supeiheteiodyne ieceivei.
Pu!se-Cude Mudu!atiun
PCM is essentially analog-to-digital conveision of a special type, wheie the infoimation contained in the
instantaneous samples of an analog signal is iepiesented by digital woids in a seiial bit stieam. The PCM signal
is geneiated by caiiying out thiee basic opeiations: sampling, quantizing, and encoding (see Fig. 69.5). The
sampling opeiation geneiates a at-top pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) signal. The quantizing conveits
the actual sampled value into the neaiest of the M amplitude levels. The PCM signal is obtained fiom the
quantized PAM signal by encoding each quantized sample value into a digital woid.
Frequency-Shilt Keying
The FSK signal can be chaiacteiized as one of two diffeient types. One type is called Jstonnuous-|ase FSK
since () is discontinuous at the switching times. The discontinuous-phase FSK signal is iepiesented by
(69.5)
FIGURE 69.4 IQ (in-phase and quadiatuie-phase) detectoi.
TABLE 69.2 Peifoimance of a PCM System with Unifoim Quantizing
and No Channel Noise
Recoveied Analog
Numbei of Bandwidth of Signal Powei-to-
Quantizei Length of the PCMSignal Quantizing Noise
Levels PCM Woid, (Fiist Null
Powei Ratios
Used, M n (bits) Bandwidth)
a
(S/N)
| out
(S/N)
out
2 1 2B 10.8 6.0
4 2 4B 16.8 12.0
8 3 6B 22.8 18.1
16 4 8B 28.9 24.1
32 5 10B 34.9 30.1
64 6 12B 40.9 36.1
128 7 14B 46.9 42.1
256 8 16B 52.9 48.2
512 9 18B 59.0 54.2
1024 10 20B 65.0 60.2
a
B is the absolute bandwidth of the input analog signal.
s

t
t
, ,

+
, ,
+
, ,
cos
cos
u
u
1 1
2 2
foi in time inteival when a binaiy 1 is sent
foi in time inteival when a binaiy 0 is sent
RAII IISTAC AI
IIRCTI IIICATR
Lus V. |are:
PaeneJ ugus J0, 1949
#2,480,208
n exceipt fiom Luis Alvaiez`s patent application:
T|s nenon re|aes o a
tommuntaons sysem anJ
more artu|ar|y o a sysem
[or resenng n anoramt
[orm |e |otaon anJ Jsos-
on o[ o|,ets as |ey mg|
|e seen [rom |e ar. In ar-
tu|ar, |e sysem |erena[er
Jestr|eJ s a raJar or raJo
et|o Jeeton sysem resen-
ng o|,ets anJ arges rnt-
a||y on |e grounJ |yng n |e
a| o[ [g| o[ an ar|ane.
Giound iadai systems weie
alieady known and used by
the militaiy. These involved
a highly diiectional antenna
alteinately coupled to a
tiansmittei and ieceivei with
the antenna swept in a iadial
fashion. The display con-
sisted of a cathode iay tube
with taigets iepiesented by
iadial sweeps fiom the centei
of the scieen. Di. Alvaiez took
on the special pioblem of
panoiamic piesentation of
giound taigets fiom aiiciaft.
He solved the computation
and display pioblems associ-
ated with the hypeibolic
shape of the iadai beams as
tiansmitted and ieceived fiom a moving aiiciaft. He also desciibed handling pitch, ioll, yaw, and othei
distuibances. (Copyiight C 1995, DewRay Pioducts, Inc. Used with peimission.)
A
wheie [
1
is called the maik (binaiy 1) fiequency and [
2
is called the space (binaiy 0) fiequency. The othei type
is continuous-phase FSK. The continuous-phase FSK signal is geneiated by feeding the data signal into a
fiequency modulatoi, as shown in Fig. 69.6(b). This FSK signal is iepiesented by
oi
s() Re{g()e
, ut
(69.6)
wheie
g()
t
e
, ()
(69.7)
(69.8)
Detection of FSK is illustiated in Fig. 69.7.
-ary Phase-Shilt Keying
If the tiansmittei is a PM tiansmittei with an M-level digital modulation signal, MPSK is geneiated at the
tiansmittei output. A plot of the peimitted values of the complex envelope, g()
t
e
,()
, would contain M
points, one value of g (a complex numbei in geneial) foi each of the M multilevel values, coiiesponding to the
M phases that is peimitted to have.
MPSK can also be geneiated using two quadiatuie caiiieis modulated by the x and y components of the
complex envelope (instead of using a phase modulatoi)
g()
t
e
,()
x() - ,y () (69.9)
FIGURE 69.5 A PCM tiansmission system.
s D m J
t t [
( ) cos ( ) +
1
]
1
~
[
u i i
i i ( ) ( ) D m J
[
~
[
foi FSK
wheie the peimitted values of x and y aie
x

t
cos
(69.10)
y

t
sin
(69.11)
foi the peimitted phase angles
, 1, 2, ..., M, of the MPSK signal. This is illustiated by Fig. 69.8, wheie the
signal piocessing ciicuit implements Eqs. (69.10) and (69.11).
MPSK, wheie M 4, is called quadiatuie-phase-shift-keyed (QPSK) signaling.
Quadrature Amp!itude Mudu!atiun
Quadiatuie caiiiei signaling is called quadiatuie amplitude modulation (QAM). In geneial, QAM signal
constellations aie not iestiicted to having peimitted signaling points only on a ciicle (of iadius
t
, as was the
case foi MPSK). The geneial QAM signal is
s() x() cos u
t
- y() sin u
t
(69.12)
FIGURE 69.6 Geneiation of FSK.
FIGURE 69.7 Detection of FSK.
wheie
g() x() - ,y () R()e
, ()
(69.13)
The geneiation of QAM signals is shown in Fig. 69.8. The spectial effciency foi QAM signaling is shown in
Table 69.3.
FIGURE 69.8 Geneiation of QAM signals.
TABLE 69.3 Spectial Effciency foi QAM Signaling with Raised Cosine-Roll-Off
Pulse Shaping
Numbei of
Levels,
Size of
DAC,
M (symbols) (bits) r 0.0 r 0.1 r 0.25 r 0.5 r 0.75 r 1.0
2 1 1.00 0.909 0.800 0.667 0.571 0.500
4 2 2.00 1.82 1.60 1.33 1.14 1.00
8 3 3.00 2.73 2.40 2.00 1.71 1.50
16 4 4.00 3.64 3.20 2.67 2.29 2.00
32 5 5.00 4.55 4.0 3.33 2.86 2.50
DAC digital-to-analog conveitei.
q R/B
T
/2 bits/s pei heitz.
r is the ioll-off factoi of the fltei chaiacteiistic.
q
R
B
T
bits/s
Hz
Dehning Terms
Modulation: The piocess of impiessing the souice infoimation onto a bandpass signal with a caiiiei fiequency
[
t
. It can be expiessed as
s() Re{g() e
,ut
wheie g() is a function of the modulating signal m(). That is,

g() gm()]
g] peifoims a mapping opeiation on m(). The paiticulai ielationship that is chosen foi g() in teims
of m() defnes the type of modulation used.
Superheterodyne receiver: Most ieceiveis employ the supeiheteiodyne ieceiving technique, which consists
of eithei down-conveiting oi up-conveiting the input signal to some convenient fiequency band, called
the inteimediate fiequency band, and then extiacting the infoimation (oi modulation) by using an
appiopiiate detectoi. This basic ieceivei stiuctuie is used foi the ieception of all types of bandpass signals,
such as television, FM, AM, satellite, and iadai signals.
Re!ated Tupics
69.2 Radio Bioadcasting 70.1 Coding
Relerences
L. W. Couch, Dga| anJ na|og Communtaon Sysems, New Yoik: Pientice-Hall, 1995.
F. Dejagei, Delta modulation of PCM tiansmission using a 1-unit code," Phillips Res. Rep., no. 7, pp. 442-466,
Dec. 1952.
J.H. Downing, MoJu|aon Sysems anJ Nose, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1964.
J. Dunlop and D.G. Smith, Te|etommuntaons Engneerng, London: Van Nostiand, 1989.
B.P. Lathi, MoJern Dga| anJ na|og Communtaon Sysems, New Yoik: CBS College, 1983.
J.H. Paik, Ji., On binaiy DPSK detection," IEEE Trans. Commun., COM-26, pp. 484-486, 1978.
M. Schwaitz, In[ormaon Transmsson, MoJu|aon anJ Nose, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1980.
Further Inlurmatiun
The monthly jouinal IEEE Transatons on Communtaons desciibes telecommunication techniques. The
peifoimance of M-aiy QAM schemes is evaluated in its Maich 1991 issue, pp. 405-408. The IEEE magazine
IEEE Communtaons is a valuable souice.
Anothei souice is IEEE Transatons on BroaJtasng, which is published quaiteily by The Institute of
Electiical and Electionics Engineeis, Inc.
The biweekly magazine E|etronts Leers investigates the eiioi piobability of coheient PSK and FSK systems
with multiple co-channel inteifeiences in its Apiil 11, 1991, issue, pp. 640-642. Anothei ielevant souice iegaid-
ing the coheient detection of MSK is desciibed on pp. 623-625 of the same issue. All subsciiptions inquiiies
and oideis should be sent to IEE Publication Sales, P.O. Box 96, Stevenage, Heits, SG1 2SD, United Kingdom.
69.2 Radiu Bruadcasting
jefferon . Indey III ond Denn . Doe|rzc|
Standard Bruadcasting [Amp!itude Mudu!atiun)
Standaid bioadcasting iefeis to the tiansmission of voice and music ieceived by the geneial public in the 535-
to 1705-kHz fiequency band. Amplitude modulation is used to piovide seivice ianging fiom that needed foi
small communities to highei-powei bioadcast stations needed foi laigei iegional aieas. The prImury servIce
area is defned as the aiea in which the gioundwave signal is not subject to objectionable inteifeience oi
objectionable fading. The secvndury servIce area iefeis to an aiea seiviced by skywaves and not subject to
objectionable inteifeience. Inermen serte area iefeis to an aiea ieceiving seivice fiom eithei a gioundwave
oi a skywave but beyond the piimaiy seivice aiea and subject to some inteifeience and fading.
Frequency A!!ucatiuns
The caiiiei fiequencies foi standaid bioadcasting in the United States (iefeiied to inteinationally as medium-
wave bioadcasting) aie designated in the Fedeial Communications Commission (FCC) Rules and Regulations,
Vol. III, Pait 73. A total of 117 caiiiei fiequencies aie allocated fiom 540 to 1700 kHz in 10-kHz inteivals. Each
caiiiei fiequency is iequiied by the FCC iules to deviate no moie than 20 Hz fiom the allocated fiequency,
to minimize heteiodyning fiom two oi moie inteifeiing stations. Double-sideband full-caiiiei modulation,
commonly called am|uJe moJu|aon (AM), is used in standaid bioadcasting foi sound tiansmission. Typical
modulation fiequencies foi voice and music iange fiom 50 Hz to 10 kHz. Each channel is geneially thought
of as 10 kHz in width, and thus the fiequency band is designated fiom 535 to 1705 kHz; howevei, when the
modulation fiequency exceeds 5 kHz, the iadio fiequency bandwidth of the channel exceeds 10 kHz and
TH RVLITIARY
TCHLCY ! RAII
he beginning of the piesent centuiy saw the biith of seveial technologies that weie to be ievolu-
tionaiy in theii impact. The most exciting of these was iadio oi, as it was geneially called at the
time, wiieless". No othei technology would seem to obliteiate the baiiieis of distance in human
communication oi to biing individuals togethei with such immediacy and spontaneity. And seldom had
theie emeiged an activity that seemed so mysteiious and almost magical to most of the population.
Radio was mysteiious not only to the layman, but also to many engineeis and technically infoimed
individuals. The mysteiy lay laigely in iadio`s application of piinciples and phenomena only iecently
identifed by physicists and engineeis woiking at the fiontieis of theii specialties. The existence of
electiomagnetic waves that tiaveled like light had been piedicted by the biilliant physicist James Cleik
Maxwell in the 1860s and pioven by the young Geiman Heiniich Heitz in the 1880s. The possible use
of these waves foi communicating thiough space without wiies occuiied to many; howevei, the fist
piactical steps to making iadio useful aie geneially attiibuted to Olivei Lodge in England, Guglielmo
Maiconi in Italy, and Aleksandi Popov in Russia. Maiconi`s bioadcast of Moise code acioss the Atlantic
in 1901 fist showed the woild just what enoimous potential iadio had foi changing the whole concept
of long-distance communication. The next few yeais saw feveiish activity eveiywheie as men tiied to
tianslate the achievements of the pioneeis into the foundations of a piactical technology.
By 1912, iadio technology had attiacted a small numbei of dedicated individuals who identifed theii
own futuie with the piogiess of theii chosen feld. Some of these had oiganized themselves into small,
localized societies, but it was cleai to many that a bioadei vision was needed if iadio piactitioneis weie
to achieve the iecognition and iespect of technical piofessionals. It was with such a vision in mind that
iepiesentatives of two of these local societies met in New Yoik City in May 1912 to foim the Institute of
Radio Engineeis. The IRE was to be an inteinational society dedicated to the highest piofessional
standaids and to the advancement of the theoiy and piactice of iadio technology.
The impoitance of iadio lay not simply in its expansion of the means of human communication ovei
distances, but also in its exploitation and expansion of veiy novel scientifc and technical capabilities. As
the centuiy piogiessed, iadio would give iise to the 20th centuiy`s most ievolutionaiy technology of
all - electionics. (Couitesy of the IEEE Centei foi the Histoiy of Electiical Engineeiing.)
T
adjacent channel inteifeience may occui. To impiove the high-fiequency peifoimance of tiansmission and to
compensate foi the high-fiequency ioll-off of many consumei ieceiveis, FCC iules iequiie that stations boost
the high-fiequency amplitude of tiansmitted audio using pieemphasis techniques. In addition stations may
also use multiplexing to tiansmit steieophonic piogiamming. The FCC adopted Motoiola`s C-QUAM com-
patible quadiatuie amplitude modulation in 1994. Appioximately 700 AM stations tiansmit in steieo.
Channe! and Statiun C!assihcatiuns
In standaid bioadcast (AM), stations aie classifed accoiding to theii opeiating powei, piotection fiom intei-
feience, and houis of opeiation. A Class A station opeiates with 10 to 50 kW of powei seivicing a laige aiea
with piimaiy, secondaiy, and inteimittent coveiage and is piotected fiom inteifeience both day and night.
These stations aie called cleai channel" stations because the channel is cleaied of nighttime inteifeience ovei
a majoi poition of the countiy. Class B stations opeiate full time with tiansmittei poweis of 0.25 to 50 kW
and aie designed to iendei piimaiy seivice only ovei a piincipal centei of population and the iuial aiea
contiguous theieto. While neaily all Class A stations opeiate with 50 kW, most Class B stations must iestiict
theii powei to 5 kW oi less to avoid inteifeiing with othei stations. Class B stations opeiating in the 1605 to
1705 kHz band aie iestiicted to a powei level of 10 kW daytime and 1 kW nighttime. Class C stations opeiate
on six designated channels (1230, 1240, 1340, 1400, 1450, and 1490) with a maximum powei of 1 kW oi less
full time and iendei piimaiily local seivice to smallei communities. Class D stations opeiate on Class A oi B
fiequencies with Class B tiansmittei poweis duiing daytime, but nighttime opeiation, if peimitted at all, must
be at low powei (less than 0.25 kW) with no piotection fiom inteifeience.
Although Class A stations covei laige aieas at night, appioximately in a 1220-km (750-mi) iadius, the
nighttime coveiage of Class B, C, and D stations is limited by inteifeience fiom othei stations, electiical devices,
and atmospheiic conditions to a ielatively small aiea. Class C stations, foi example, have an inteifeience-fiee
nighttime coveiage iadius of appioximately 8 to 16 km. As a iesult, theie may be laige diffeiences in the aiea
that the station coveis daytime veisus nighttime. With ovei 5200 AM stations licensed foi opeiation by the
FCC, inteifeience, both day and night, is a factoi that signifcantly limits the seivice which stations may piovide.
In the absence of inteifeience, a daytime signal stiength of 2 mV/m is iequiied foi ieception in populated aieas
of moie than 2500, while a signal of 0.5 mV/m is geneially acceptable in less populated aieas. Secondaiy
nighttime seivice is piovided in aieas ieceiving a 0.5-mV/m signal 50% oi moie of the time without objec-
tionable inteifeience. Table 69.4 indicates the daytime contoui oveilap limits. Howevei, it should be noted that
these limits apply to new stations and modifcations to existing stations. Neaily eveiy station on the aii was
allocated piioi to the implementation of these iules when the inteifeience ciiteiia weie less iestiictive.
Fie!d Strength
The feld stiength pioduced by a standaid bioadcast station is a key factoi in deteimining the piimaiy and
secondaiy seivice aieas and inteifeience limitations of possible futuie iadio stations. The feld stiength limitations
aie specifed as feld intensities by the FCC with the units volts pei metei; howevei, measuiing devices may
iead volts oi decibels iefeienced to 1 mW (dBm), and a conveision may be needed to obtain the feld intensity.
The powei ieceived may be measuied in dBm and conveited to watts. Voltage ieadings may be conveited to
watts by squaiing the ioot mean squaie (ims) voltage and dividing by the feld stiength metei input iesistance,
which is typically on the oidei of 50 oi 75 O. Additional factois needed to deteimine electric neld intensity
aie the powei gain and losses of the feld stiength ieceiving antenna system. Once the powei gain and losses
aie known, the effective aiea with loss compensation of the feld stiength ieceivei antenna may be obtained as
(69.14)
wheie
eff
effective aiea including loss compensation, m
2
; C powei gain of feld stiength antenna, W/W;
i wavelength, m; and L mismatch loss and cable loss factoi, W/W.
Fiom this calculation, the powei density in watts pei squaie metei may be obtained by dividing the ieceived
powei by the effective aiea, and the electiic feld intensity may be calculated as
C L
eff

i
r
2
4
(69.15)
wheie E electiic feld intensity, V/m; powei density, W/m
2
; and Z
[s
120r O, impedance of fiee space.
The piotected seivice contouis and peimissible inteifeience contouis foi standaid bioadcast stations shown
in Table 69.4, along with a knowledge of the feld stiength of existing bioadcast stations, may be used in
deteimining the potential foi establishing new standaid bioadcast stations.
Prupagatiun
One of the majoi factois in the deteimination of feld stiength is the piopagation chaiacteiistic that is desciibed
by the change in electiic feld intensity with an inciease in distance fiom the bioadcast station antenna. This
vaiiation depends on a numbei of factois including fiequency, distance, suiface dielectiic constant, suiface loss
tangent, polaiization, local topogiaphy, and time of day. Geneially speaking, gioundwave piopagation occuis
at shoitei ianges both duiing day and night peiiods. Skywave piopagation peimits longei ianges and occuis
duiing night peiiods, and thus some stations must eithei ieduce powei oi cease to opeiate at night to avoid
causing inteifeience. Piopagation cuives in the bioadcast industiy aie fiequently iefeiied to a iefeience level
of 100 mV/m at 1 km; howevei, a moie geneial expiession of gioundwave piopagation may be obtained by
using the Biemmei seiies Biemmei, 1949]. A typical gioundwave piopagation cuive foi electiic feld stiength
as a function of distance is shown in Fig. 69.9 foi an opeiating fiequency of 770-810 kHz. The giound
conductivity vaiies fiom 0.1 to 5000 mS/m, and the giound ielative dielectiic constant is 15.
The effective radiated power (ERP) iefeis to the effective powei output fiom the antenna in a specifed
diiection and includes the tiansmittei powei output, tiansmission line losses, and antenna powei gain. The
ERP in most cases exceeds the tiansmittei output powei, since that antenna powei gain is noimally 2 oi moie.
Foi a hypothetical peifect isotiopic iadiatoi with a powei gain of 1, the ERP is found to be
(69.16)
TABLE 69.4 Piotected Seivice Signal Intensities foi Standaid Bioadcasting (AM)
Signal Stiength Contoui of Aiea Peimissible
Piotected fiom Objectionable Inteifeiing
Class of Powei Class of
Inteifeience (V/m) Signal
Station (kW) Channel Used Day
1
Night Day
1
Night
A 10-50 Cleai SC 100 SC 500 50% SW SC 5 SC 25

AC 500 AC 500 GW AC 250 AC 250
B 0.25-50 Cleai 500 2000
1
25 25
Regional AC 250 250
C 0.25-1 Local 500 Not piecise
SC 25 Not piecise
D 0.25-50 Cleai 500 Not piecise SC 25 Not piecise
Regional AC 250
When a station is alieady limited by inteifeience fiom othei stations to a contoui of highei value than that noimally piotected
foi its class, this highei-value contoui shall be the established piotection standaid foi such station. Changes pioposed by Class A
and B stations shall be iequiied to comply with the following iestiictions. Those inteifeieis that contiibute to anothei station`s RSS
using the 50% exclusion method aie iequiied to ieduce theii contiibution to that RSS by 10%. Those lessei inteifeieis that contiibute
to a station`s RSS using the 25% exclusion method but do not contiibute to that station`s RSS using the 50% exclusion method may
make changes not to exceed theii piesent contiibution. Inteifeieis not included in a station`s RSS using the 25% exclusion method
aie peimitted to inciease iadiation as long as the 25% exclusion thieshold is not equaled oi exceeded. In no case will a ieduction
be iequiied that would iesult in a contiibuting value that is below the peitinent value specifed in the table.
1
Gioundwave.
Skywave feld stiength foi 10% oi moie of the time. Foi Alaska, Class SC is limited to 5 V/m.
Duiing nighttime houis, Class C stations in the contiguous 48 states may tieat all Class B stations assigned to 1230, 1240, 1340,
1400, 1450, and 1490 kHz in Alaska, Hawaii, Pueito Rico and the U.S. Viigin Islands as if they weie Class C stations.
Noe. SC same channel; AC adjacent channel; SW skywave; GW gioundwave; RSS ioot of sum squaies.
Sourte. FCC Rules and Regulations, Revised 1991; vol. III, pt. 73.182(a).
E Z
[s

ERP
E r
2 2
30
FIGURE 69.9 Typical gioundwave piopagation foi standaid AM bioadcasting. (Sourte. 1986 National Association of
Bioadcasteis.)
wheie E is the electiic feld intensity, V/m, and r is the distance, m. Foi a distance of 1 km (1000 m), the ERP
iequiied to pioduce a feld intensity of 100 mV/m is found to be 333.3 W. Since the feld intensity is piopoitional
to the squaie ioot of the powei, feld intensities may be deteimined at othei poweis.
Skywave piopagation necessaiily involves some fading and less piedictable feld intensities and is most
appiopiiately desciibed in teims of statistics oi the peicentage of time a paiticulai feld stiength level is found.
Figuie 69.10 shows skywave piopagation foi a 100-mV/m feld stiength at a distance of 1 km foi midpoint path
latitudes of 35 to 50 degiees.
Transmitters
Standaids that covei AM bioadcast tiansmitteis aie given in the Electionic Industiy Association (EIA) Standaid
TR-101A, Electiical Peifoimance Standaid foi Standaid Bioadcast Tiansmitteis." Paiameteis and methods foi
measuiement include the following: caiiiei output iating, caiiiei powei output capability, caiiiei fiequency
iange, caiiiei fiequency stability, caiiiei shift, caiiiei noise level, magnitude of iadio fiequency (RF)haimonics,
noimal load, tiansmittei output ciicuit adjustment facilities, RF and audio inteiface defnitions, modulation
capability, audio input level foi 100% modulation, audio fiequency iesponse, audio fiequency haimonic
distoition, iated powei supply, powei supply vaiiation, opeiating tempeiatuie chaiacteiistics, and powei input.
Standaid AM bioadcast tiansmitteis iange in powei output fiom 5 W up to 50 kW units. While solid-state
devices aie used foi many models (especially the lowei-poweied units), seveial manufactuieis still ietain tubes
in the fnal amplifeis of theii high-poweied models. This is changing, howevei, with the intioduction in iecent
yeais of 50-kW fully tiansistoiized models. A block diagiam of a typical 1-kW solid-state tiansmittei is shown
in Fig. 69.11.
Antenna Systems
The antenna system foi a standaid AM bioadcast station typically consists of a quaitei-wave veitical towei, a
giound system of 120 oi moie quaitei-wave iadials buiied a few inches undeigiound, and an antenna tuning
FIGURE 69.10 Skywave piopagation foi standaid AM bioadcasting. (Sourte. FCC Rules and Regulations, 1982, vol. III,
pt. 73.190, fg. 2.)
unit to match" the complex impedance of the antenna system to the chaiacteiistic impedance of the tiansmittei
and tiansmission line so that maximum tiansfei of powei may occui. Typical heights foi AM bioadcast toweis
iange fiom 150 to 500 ft. When the iadiated signal must be modifed to pievent inteifeience to othei stations
oi to piovide bettei seivice in a paiticulai diiection, additional toweis may be combined in a phased aiiay to
pioduce the desiied feld intensity contouis. Foi example, if a station powei inciease would cause inteifeience
with existing stations, a diiectional aiiay could be designed that would tailoi the coveiage to piotect the existing
stations while allowing incieases in othei diiections. The piotection iequiiements can geneially be met with
aiiays consisting of 4 toweis oi less, but complex aiiays have been constiucted consisting of 12 oi moie toweis
to meet stiingent iequiiements at a paiticulai location. An example of a diiectional antenna pattein is shown
in Fig. 69.12. This pattein piovides majoi coveiage to the southwest and iestiicts iadiation (and thus inteifei-
ence) towaids the noitheast.
Frequency Mudu!atiun
Fiequency-modulation (FM) bioadcasting iefeis to the tiansmission of voice and music ieceived by the geneial
public in the 88- to 108-MHz fiequency band. FM is used to piovide highei-fdelity ieception than is available
with standaid bioadcast AM. In 1961 steieophonic bioadcasting was intioduced with the addition of a double-
sideband suppiessed caiiiei foi tiansmission of a left-minus-iight diffeience signal. The left-plus-iight sum
channel is sent with use of noimal FM. Some FM bioadcast systems also include a subsidiary communications
authorization (SCA) subcaiiiei foi piivate commeicial uses. FM bioadcast is typically limited to line-of-sight
ianges. As a iesult, FM coveiage is localized to a iange of 75 mi (120 km) depending on the antenna height and ERP.
Frequency A!!ucatiuns
The 100 caiiiei fiequencies foi FM bioadcast iange fiom 88.1 to 107.9 MHz and aie equally spaced eveiy 200
kHz. The channels fiom 88.1 to 91.9 MHz aie ieseived foi educational and noncommeicial bioadcasting and
those fiom 92.1 to 107.9 MHz foi commeicial bioadcasting. Each channel has a 200-kHz bandwidth. The
maximum fiequency swing undei noimal conditions is 75 kHz. Stations opeiating with an SCA may undei
ceitain conditions exceed this level, but in no event may exceed a fiequency swing of 82.5 kHz. The caiiiei
fiequency is iequiied to be maintained within 2000 Hz. The fiequencies used foi FM bioadcasting geneially
limit the coveiage to the line-of-sight oi a slightly gieatei distance. The actual coveiage aiea is deteimined by
the ERP of the station and the height of the tiansmitting antenna above the aveiage teiiain in the aiea. Eithei
incieasing the powei oi iaising the antenna will inciease the coveiage aiea.
Statiun C!assihcatiuns
In FM bioadcast, stations aie classifed accoiding to theii maximum allowable ERP and the tiansmitting antenna
height above aveiage teiiain in theii seivice aiea. Class A stations piovide piimaiy seivice to a iadius of about
FIGURE 69.11 Block diagiam of typical 1-kW solid-state AM tiansmittei. (Sourte. Bioadcast Electionics Inc., Quincy, Ill.
Repiinted with peimission.)
FIGURE 69.12 Diiectional AM antenna pattein foi a six-element aiiay. (Sourte. WDDD-AM, Maiion, Ill., and Ralph
Evans Associates.)
28 km with 6000 W of ERP at a maximum height of 100 m. The most poweiful class, Class C, opeiates with
maximums of 100,000 W of ERP and heights up to 600 m with a piimaiy coveiage iadius of ovei 92 km. The
poweis and heights above aveiage teiiain (HAAT) foi all of the classes aie shown in Table 69.5. All classes may
opeiate at antenna heights above those specifed but must ieduce the ERP accoidingly. Stations may not exceed
the maximum powei specifed, even if antenna height is ieduced. The classifcation of the station deteimines
the allowable distance to othei co-channel and adjacent channel stations.
Fie!d Strength and Prupagatiun
The feld stiength pioduced by an FM bioadcast station depends on the ERP, antenna heights, local teiiain,
tiopospheiic scatteiing conditions, and othei factois. Fiom a statistical point of view, howevei, an estimate of
the feld intensity may be obtained fiom Fig. 69.13. A factoi in the deteimination of new licenses foi FM
bioadcast is the sepaiation between allocated co-channel and adjacent channel stations, the class of station,
and the antenna heights. The spacings aie given in Table 69.6. The piimaiy coveiage of all classes of stations
(except B and B1, which aie 0.5 mV/m and 0.7 mV/m, iespectively) is the 1.0 mV/m contoui. The distance to
the piimaiy contoui, as well as to the city giade" oi 3.16 mV/m contoui may be estimated using Fig. 69.13.
Although FM bioadcast piopagation is geneially thought of as line-of-sight, laigei ERPs along with the effects
of diffiaction, iefiaction, and tiopospheiic scattei allow coveiage slightly gieatei than line-of-sight.
Transmitters
FM bioadcast tiansmitteis typically iange in powei output fiom 10 W to 50 kW. A block diagiam of a dual
FM tiansmittei is shown in Fig. 69.14. This system consists of two 25-kW tiansmitteis that aie opeiated in
paiallel and that piovide incieased ieliability in the event of a failuie in eithei the excitei oi tiansmittei powei
amplifei. The highest-poweied solid-state tiansmitteis aie cuiiently 10 kW, but manufactuieis aie developing
new devices that will make highei-powei solid-state tiansmitteis both cost-effcient and ieliable.
Antenna Systems
FM bioadcast antenna systems aie iequiied to have a hoiizontally polaiized component. Most antenna systems,
howevei, aie ciiculaily polaiized, having both hoiizontal and veitical components. The antenna system, which
usually consists of seveial individual iadiating bays fed as a phased aiiay, has a iadiation chaiacteiistic that
concentiates the tiansmitted eneigy in the hoiizontal plane towaid the population to be seived, minimizing
the iadiation out into space and down towaid the giound. Thus, the ERP towaids the hoiizon is incieased with
gains up to 10 dB. This means that a 5-kW tiansmittei coupled to an antenna system with a 10-dB gain would have
an ERP of 50 kW. Diiectional antennas may be employed to avoid inteifeience with othei stations oi to meet spacing
iequiiements. Figuie 69.15 is a plot of the hoiizontal and veitical components of a typical nondiiectional ciiculaily
polaiized FM bioadcast antenna showing the effect upon the pattein caused by the suppoiting towei.
Preemphasis
Pieemphasis is employed in an FM bioadcast tiansmittei to impiove the ieceived signal-to-noise iatio. The
pieemphasis uppei-fiequency limit shown is based on a time constant of 75 s as iequiied by the FCC foi FM
TABLE 69.5 FM Station Classifcations, Poweis, and Towei Heights
Station Class Maximum ERP HAAT, m (ft) Distance, km
A 6 kW (7.8 dBk) 100 (328) 28
B1 25 kW (14.0 dBk) 100 (328) 39
B 50 kW (17.0 dBk) 150 (492) 52
C3 25 kW (14.0 dBk) 100 (328) 39
C2 50 kW (17.0 dBk) 150 (492) 52
C1 100 kW (20.0 dBk) 299 (981) 72
C 100 kW (20.0 dBk) 600 (1968) 92
Sourte. FCC Rules and Regulations, Revised 1991; vol. III, Pait
73.211(b)(1).
FIGURE 69.13 Piopagation foi FM bioadcasting. (Sourte. FCC Rules and Regulations, Revised 1990; vol. III, pt. 73.333.)
bioadcast tiansmitteis. Audio fiequencies fiom 50 to 2120 Hz aie tiansmitted with noimal FM, wheieas audio
fiequencies fiom 2120 Hz to 15 kHz aie emphasized with a laigei modulation index. Theie is signifcant signal-
to-noise impiovement when the ieceivei is equipped with a matching deemphasis ciicuit.
TABLE 69.6 Distance Sepaiation Requiiement foi FM Stations
Station Class
Minimum Distance Sepaiation Requiiements, km (mi)
Relation Co-Channel 200 kHz 400/600 kHz 10.6/10.8 MHz
A to A 115 (71) 72 (45) 31 (19) 10 (6)
A to B1 143 (89) 96 (60) 48 (30) 12 (7)
A to B 178 (111) 113 (70) 69 (43) 15 (9)
A to C3 142 (88) 89 (55) 42 (26) 12 (7)
A to C2 166 (103) 106 (66) 55 (34) 15 (9)
A to C1 200 (124) 133 (83) 75 (47) 22 (14)
A to C 226 (140) 165 (103) 95 (59) 29 (18)
B1 to B1 175 (109) 114 (71) 50 (31) 14 (9)
B1 to B 211 (131) 145 (90) 71 (44) 17 (11)
B1 to C3 175 (109) 114 (71) 50 (31) 14 (9)
B1 to C2 200 (124) 134 (83) 56 (35) 17 (11)
B1 to C1 233 (145) 161 (100) 77 (48) 24 (15)
B1 to C 259 (161) 193 (120) 105 (65) 31 (19)
B to B 241 (150) 169 (105) 74 (46) 20 (12)
B to C3 211 (131) 145 (90) 71 (44) 17 (11)
B to C2 211 (131) 145 (90) 71 (44) 17 (11)
B to C1 270 (168) 195 (121) 79 (49) 27 (17)
B to C 274 (170) 217 (135) 105 (65) 35 (22)
C3 to C3 153 (95) 99 (62) 43 (27) 14 (9)
C3 to C2 177 (110) 117 (73) 56 (35) 17 (11)
C3 to C1 211 (131) 144 (90) 76 (47) 24 (15)
C3 to C 237 (147) 176 (109) 96 (60) 31 (19)
C2 to C2 190 (118) 130 (81) 58 (36) 20 (12)
C2 to C1 224 (139) 158 (98) 79 (49) 27 (17)
C2 to C 237 (147) 176 (109) 96 (60) 31 (19)
C1 to C1 245 (152) 177 (110) 82 (51) 34 (21)
C1 to C 270 (168) 209 (130) 105 (65) 35 (22)
C to C 290 (180) 241 (150) 105 (65) 48 (30)
Sourte. FCC Rules and Regulations, Revised 1991; vol. III, pt. 73.207.
FIGURE 69.14 Block diagiam of typical FM tiansmittei. (Sourte. Haiiis Coipoiation, Quincy, Ill.)
FM Spectrum
The monophonic system was initially developed to allow sound tiansmissions foi audio fiequencies fiom 50
to 15,000 Hz to be contained within a 75-kHz RF bandwidth. With the development of FM steieo, the oiiginal
FM signal (consisting of a left-plus-iight channel) is tiansmitted in a smallei bandwidth to be compatible with
a monophonic FM ieceivei, and a left-minus-iight channel is fiequency-multiplexed on a subcaiiiei of 38-kHz
using double-sideband suppiessed caiiiei. An unmodulated 19-kHz subcaiiiei is deiived fiom the 38-kHz
subcaiiiei to piovide a synchionous demodulation iefeience foi the steieophonic ieceivei. The synchionous
detectoi at 38 kHz iecoveis the left-minus-iight channel infoimation, which is then combined with the left-
plus-iight channel infoimation in sum and diffeience combineis to pioduce the oiiginal left-channel and iight-
channel signals. In addition stations may utilize an SCA in a vaiiety of ways, such as paging, data tiansmission,
specialized foieign language piogiams, iadio ieading seivices, utility load management, and backgiound music.
An FM steieo station may utilize multiplex subcaiiieis within the iange of 53 to 99 kHz with up to 20%
modulation of the main caiiiei using any foim of modulation. The only iequiiement is that the station does
not exceed its occupied bandwidth limitations.
Dehning Terms
Effective radiated power: Refeis to the effective powei output fiom an antenna in a specifed diiection and
includes tiansmittei output powei, tiansmission line loss and antenna powei gain.
Electric neld intensity: Measuie of signal stiength in volts pei metei used to deteimine channel allocation
ciiteiia and inteifeience consideiations.
FIGURE 69.15 Typical nondiiectional 92.5-MHz FM antenna chaiacteiistics showing the effect of the towei stiuctuie.
(Sourte. Electionics Reseaich, Inc., Newbuigh, Ind.)
Primary service: Refeis to aieas in which the gioundwave signal is not subject to objectionable inteifeience
oi objectionable fading.
SCA: Subsidiaiy communications authoiization foi paging, data tiansmission, specialized foieign language
piogiams, iadio ieadings seivices, utility load management and backgiound music using multiplexed
subcaiiieis fiom 53-99 kHz in connection with bioadcast FM.
Secondary service: Refeis to aieas seiviced by skywaves and not subject to objectionable inteifeience.
Re!ated Tupics
69.1 Modulation and Demodulation 38.1 Wiie
Relerences
A. F. Baighausen, Medium fiequency sky wave piopagation in middle and low latitudes," IEEE Trans. BroaJtas,
vol. 12, pp. 1-14, June 1966.
G.W. Baitlett, Ed., Naona| ssotaon o[ BroaJtasers Engneerng HanJ|oo|, 6th ed., Washington: The National
Association of Bioadcasteis, 1975.
H. Biemmei, Terresra| RaJo Vaes. T|eory o[ Proagaon, Amsteidam: Elseviei, 1949.
Electionic Industiies Association, Standaid TR-101A, E|etrta| Per[ormante SanJarJs [or M BroaJtas Trans-
mers, 1948.
Fedeial Communications Commission, Rules and Regulations, vol. III, paits 73 and 74, Octobei 1982.
Further Inlurmatiun
Pike & Fischei, Inc., in Bethesda, Md., offeis an updated FCC iule seivice foi a fee.
Seveial tiade jouinals aie good souices foi up-to-date infoimation such as BroaJtas Engneerng, Oveiland
Paik, Kan., and RaJo Vor|J, Falls Chuich, Va.
Application-oiiented computei softwaie is available fiom R.F. Systems, Shawnee Mission, Kan.
The Society of Bioadcast Engineeis (SBE), Indianapolis, Ind., and the National Association of Bioadcasteis
(NAB), Washington, D.C., aie souices of fuithei infoimation.
69.3 Te!evisiun Systems
jerry W|ro|er
The technology of television is based on the conveision of light iays fiom still oi moving scenes and pictuies
into electionic signals foi tiansmission oi stoiage, and subsequent ieconveision into visual images on a scieen.
A similai function is piovided in the pioduction of motion pictuie flm; howevei, wheie flm iecoids the
biightness vaiiations of a complete scene on a single fiame in a shoit exposuie no longei than a fiaction of a
second, the elements of a television pictuie must be scanned one piece at a time. In the television system, a
scene is dissected into a frame composed of a mosaic of ture e|emens (pixels). A pixel is defned as the
smallest aiea of a television image that can be tiansmitted within the paiameteis of the system. This piocess
is accomplished by:
Analyzing the image with a photoelectiic device in a sequence of |or:ona| scuns fiom the top to the
bottom of the image to pioduce an electiic signal in which the biightness and coloi values of the
individual pictuie elements aie iepiesented as voltage levels of a video wavefoim
Tiansmitting the values of the pictuie elements in sequence as voltage levels of a video signal
Repioducing the image of the oiiginal scene in a video signal display of paiallel scanning lines on a
viewing scieen
TLVISI SYSTN
P||o T. Farnswor|
PaeneJ ugus 26, 19J0
#1,77J,980
n exceipt fiom Philo Fainswoith`s patent application:
In |e rotess anJ aaraus o[ |e resen nenon, |g| [rom a|| orons o[ |e o|,et w|ose mage s
o |e ransmeJ, s [otuseJ a one me uon a |g| sense |ae o[ a |oo-e|etrta| te|| o |ere|y Jee|o
an e|etront Jst|arge [rom saJ |ae, n w|t| eat| oron o[ |e tross-seton o[ sut| e|etront Jst|arge
w|| torresonJ n e|etrta| nensy w| |e nensy o[ |g| moseJ on |a oron o[ |e sense |ae
[rom w|t| |e e|etrta| Jst|arge orgnaeJ. Sut| a Jst|arge s |eren ermeJ an e|etrta| mage.
Up to this time, the television piocess attempted to tiansmit an image conveited to an electiical signal
by scanning with mechanically moving appaiatus duiing the biief time peiiod the human eye would
ietain a pictuie. Such equipment could not move at suffcient speed to piovide full-shaded images to the
viewei. At the age of 20, Fainswoith succeeded in pioducing the fist all-electionic television image. It
took moie that two decades to be adopted foi consumei use, but it is easy to see how impoitant this
invention has become in today`s society. (Copyiight C 1995, DewRay Pioducts, Inc. Used with peimission.)
A
Scanning Lines and Fie!ds
The image pattein of electiical chaiges on a cameia tube taiget oi CCD, coiiesponding to the biightness levels
of a scene, aie conveited to a video signal in a sequential oidei of pictuie elements in the scanning piocess. At
the end of each hoiizontal line sweep, the video signal is ||an|eJ while the beam ietuins iapidly to the left side
of the scene to stait scanning the next line. This piocess continues until the image has been scanned fiom top
to bottom to complete one fe|d stan.
Aftei completion of this fist feld scan, at the midpoint of the last line, the beam again is blanked as it
ietuins to the top centei of the taiget wheie the piocess is iepeated to piovide a second feld scan. The spot
size of the beam as it impinges upon the taiget must be fne enough to leave unscanned aieas between lines
foi the second scan. The pattein of scanning lines coveiing the aiea of the taiget, oi the scieen of a pictuie
display, is called a raster.
Inter!aced Scanning Fie!ds
Because of the half-line offset foi the stait of the beam ietuin to the top of the iastei and foi the stait of the
second feld, the lines of the second feld lie in-between the lines of the fist feld. Thus, the lines of the two
aie interlaced. The two inteilaced felds constitute a single television [rame. Figuie 69.16 shows a fiame scan
with inteilacing of the lines of two felds.
Repioduction of the cameia image on a cathode iay tube (CRT) oi solid-state display is accomplished by
an identical opeiation, with the scanning beam modulated in density by the video signal applied to an element
of the election gun oi contiol element, in the case of a solid-state display device. This contiol voltage to the
display vaiies the biightness of each pictuie element on the scieen.
Blanking of the scanning beam duiing the ietuin tiace is piovided foi in the video signal by a blackei-
than-black" pulse wavefoim. In addition, in most ieceiveis and monitois anothei blanking pulse is geneiated
fiom the hoiizontal and veitical scanning ciicuits and applied to the display system to ensuie a black scieen
duiing scanning ietiace. The ietiace lines aie shown as diagonal dashed lines in Fig. 69.16.
The inteilaced scanning foimat, standaidized foi monochiome and compatible coloi, was chosen piimaiily
foi two paitially ielated and equally impoitant ieasons:
To eliminate viewei peiception of the inteimittent piesentation of images, known as [t|er
To ieduce video bandwidth iequiiements foi an acceptable ickei thieshold level
Peiception of ickei is dependent piimaiily upon two conditions:
The biightness level of an image
The ielative aiea of an image in a pictuie
The 30-Hz tiansmission iate foi a full 525-line television fiame is compaiable to the highly successful 24-
fiame-pei-second iate of motion-pictuie flm. Howevei, at the highei biightness levels pioduced on television
scieens, if all 483 lines (525 less blanking) of a television image weie to be piesented sequentially as single
FIGURE 69.16 The inteilaced scanning pattein (iastei) of the television image. (Sourte. Electionic Industiies Association.)
fiames, vieweis would obseive a distuibing ickei in pictuie aieas of high biightness. Foi a compaiison, motion-
pictuie theateis on aveiage pioduce a scieen biightness of 10 to 25 ftL (footlambeit), wheieas a diiect-view
CRT may have a highlight biightness of 50 to 80 ftL. It should be noted also that motion-pictuie piojectois
ash twice pei fiame to ieduce the ickei effect.
Thiough the use of inteilaced scanning, single feld images with one-half the veitical iesolution capability
of the 525-line system aie piovided at the high ickei-peiception thieshold iate of 60 Hz. Highei iesolution
of the full 483 lines of veitical detail is piovided at the lowei ickei-peiception thieshold iate of 30 Hz. The iesult
is a ielatively ickeiless pictuie display at a scieen biightness of well ovei 50 to 75 ftL, moie than double that of
motion-pictuie flm piojection. Both 60-Hz felds and 30-Hz fiames have the same hoiizontal iesolution capability.
The second advantage of inteilaced scanning, compaied to piogiessive scanning, wheie the fiame is con-
stiucted in one pass ovei the display face (iathei than in two thiough inteilace), is a ieduction in video
bandwidth foi an equivalent ickei thieshold level. Piogiessive scanning of 525 lines would have to be completed
in 1/60 s to achieve an equivalent level of ickei peiception. This would iequiie a line scan to be completed in
half the time of an inteilaced scan. The bandwidth then would double foi an equivalent numbei of pixels pei line.
The standaids adopted by the Fedeial Communications Commission (FCC) foi monochiome television in
the United States specifed a system of 525 lines pei fiame, tiansmitted at a fiame iate of 30 Hz, with each
fiame composed of two inteilaced felds of hoiizontal lines. Initially in the development of television tians-
mission standaids, the 60-Hz powei line wavefoim was chosen as a convenient iefeience foi veitical scan.
Fuitheimoie, in the event of coupling of powei line hum into the video signal oi scanning/deection ciicuits,
the visible effects would be stationaiy and less objectionable than moving hum bars oi distoition of hoiizontal-
scanning geometiy. In the United Kingdom and much of Euiope, a 50-Hz inteilaced system was chosen foi
many of the same ieasons. With impiovements in television ieceiveis, the powei line iefeience was ieplaced
with a stable ciystal oscillatoi, iendeiing the initial ieason foi the fiame iate a moot point.
The existing 525-line monochiome standaids weie ietained foi coloi in the iecommendations of the National
Television System Committee (NTSC) foi compatible coloi television in the eaily 1950s. The NTSC system,
adopted in 1953 by the FCC, specifes a scanning system of 525 hoiizontal lines pei fiame, with each fiame
consisting of two inteilaced felds of 262.5 lines at a feld iate of 59.94 Hz. Foity-two of the 525 lines in each
fiame aie blanked as black pictuie signals and ieseived foi tiansmission of the veitical scanning synchionizing
signal. This iesults in 483 visible lines of pictuie infoimation. Because the veitical blanking inteival iepiesents
a signifcant amount of the total tiansmitted wavefoim, the television industiy has sought ways to caiiy
additional data duiing the blanking inteival. Such applications include closed captioning and system test signals.
Synchrunizing Yideu Signa!s
In monochiome television tiansmission, two basic synchionizing signals aie piovided to contiol the timing of
pictuie-scanning deection:
Hoiizontal sync pulses at the line iate.
Veitical sync pulses at the feld iate in the foim of an inteival of wide hoiizontal sync pulses at the feld
iate. Included in the inteival aie equalizing pulses at twice the line iate to pieseive inteilace in each
fiame between the even and odd felds (offset by a half line).
In coloi tiansmissions, a thiid synchionizing signal is added duiing hoiizontal scan blanking to piovide a
fiequency and phase iefeience foi coloi signal encoding ciicuits in cameias and decoding ciicuits in ieceiveis.
These synchionizing and iefeience signals aie combined with the pictuie video signal to foim a composite
video wavefoim.
The scanning and coloi-decoding ciicuits in ieceiveis must follow the fiequency and phase of the synchio-
nizing signals to pioduce a stable and geometiically accuiate image of the piopei coloi hue and saturation.
Any change in timing of successive veitical scans can impaii the inteilace of the even and odd felds in a fiame.
Small eiiois in hoiizontal scan timing of lines in a feld can iesult in a loss of iesolution in veitical line stiuctuies.
Peiiodic eiiois ovei seveial lines that may be out of the iange of the hoiizontal scan automatic fiequency
contiol ciicuit in the ieceivei will be evident as jagged veitical lines.
Te!evisiun Industry Standards
Theie aie thiee piimaiy coloi tiansmission standaids in use today:
NTSC (National Television Systems Committee): Used in the United States, Canada, Cential Ameiica,
most of South Ameiica, and Japan. In addition, NTSC is used in vaiious countiies oi possessions heavily
inuenced by the United States.
PL (Phase Alteination each Line): Used in England, most countiies and possessions inuenced by the
Biitish Commonwealth, many westein Euiopean countiies and China. Vaiiation exists in PAL systems.
SECM (Sequential Coloi with Avec] Memoiy): Used in Fiance, countiies and possessions inuenced
by Fiance, the USSR (geneially the foimei Soviet Bloc nations), and othei aieas inuenced by Russia.
The thiee standaids aie incompatible foi a vaiiety of ieasons (see Benson and Whitakei, 1991).
Television tiansmitteis in the United States opeiate in thiee fiequency bands:
Low-band VHF (veiy high fiequency), channels 2 thiough 6
High-band VHF, channels 7 thiough 13
UHF (ultia-high fiequency), channels 14 thiough 83 (UHF channels 70 thiough 83 cuiiently aie assigned
to mobile iadio seivices)
Table 69.7 shows the fiequency allocations foi channels 2 thiough 83. Because of the wide vaiiety of opeiating
paiameteis foi television stations outside the United States, this section will focus piimaiily on TV tiansmission
as it ielates to the Unites States.
TABLE 69.7 Fiequency Allocations foi TV Channels 2 thiough 83 in the U.S.
Channel Fiequency Channel Fiequency Channel Fiequency
Designation Band, MHz Designation Band, MHz Designation Band, MHz
2 54-60 30 566-572 58 734-740
3 60-66 31 572-578 59 740-746
4 66-72 32 578-584 60 746-752
5 76-82 33 584-590 61 752-758
6 82-88 34 590-596 62 758-764
7 174-180 35 596-602 63 764-770
8 180-186 36 602-608 64 770-776
9 186-192 37 608-614 65 776-782
10 192-198 38 614-620 66 782-788
11 198-204 39 620-626 67 788-794
12 204-210 40 626-632 68 794-800
13 210-216 41 632-638 69 800-806
14 470-476 42 638-644 70 806-812
15 476-482 43 644-650 71 812-818
16 482-488 44 650-656 72 818-824
17 488-494 45 656-662 73 824-830
18 494-500 46 662-668 74 830-836
19 500-506 47 668-674 75 836-842
20 506-512 48 674-680 76 842-848
21 512-518 49 680-686 77 848-854
22 518-524 50 686-692 78 854-860
23 524-530 51 692-698 79 860-866
24 530-536 52 698-704 80 866-872
25 536-542 53 704-710 81 872-878
26 542-548 54 710-716 82 878-884
27 548-554 55 716-722 83 884-890
28 554-560 56 722-728
29 560-566 57 728-734
Maximum powei output limits aie specifed by the FCC foi each type of seivice. The maximum effective
radiated power (ERP) foi low-band VHF is 100 kW; foi high-band VHF it is 316 kW; and foi UHF it is 5 MW.
The ERP of a station is a function of tiansmittei powei output (TPO) and antenna gain. ERP is deteimined
by multiplying these two quantities togethei and subtiacting tiansmission line loss.
The second majoi factoi that affects the coveiage aiea of a TV station is antenna height, known in the
bioadcast industiy as |eg| a|oe aerage erran (HAAT). HAAT takes into consideiation the effects of the
geogiaphy in the vicinity of the tiansmitting towei. The maximum HAAT peimitted by the FCC foi a low- oi
high-band VHF station is 1000 ft (305 m) east of the Mississippi Rivei and 2000 ft (610 m) west of the Missis-
sippi. UHF stations aie peimitted to opeiate with a maximum HAAT of 2000 ft (610 m) anywheie in the United
States (including Alaska and Hawaii).
The iatio of visual output powei to aural output powei can vaiy fiom one installation to anothei; howevei,
the auial is typically opeiated at between 10 and 20% of the visual powei. This diffeience is the iesult of the
ieception chaiacteiistics of the two signals. Much gieatei signal stiength is iequiied at the consumei`s ieceivei
to iecovei the visual poition of the tiansmission than the auial poition. The auial powei output is intended
to be suffcient foi good ieception at the fiinge of the station`s coveiage aiea but not beyond. It is of no use
foi a consumei to be able to ieceive a TV station`s audio signal but not the video.
In addition to high powei stations, two classifcations of low-powei TV stations have been established by
the FCC to meet ceitain community needs: They aie:
Truns|utvr: A low-powei system that iebioadcasts the signal of anothei station on a diffeient channel.
Tianslatois aie designed to piovide fll-in" coveiage foi a station that cannot ieach a paiticulai com-
munity because of the local teiiain. Tianslatois opeiating in the VHF band aie limited to 100 W powei
output (ERP), and UHF tianslatois aie limited to 1 kW.
Lvw-Pvwer Te|evIsIvn (LPTV): A seivice established by the FCC designed to meet the special needs
of paiticulai communities. LPTV stations opeiating on VHF fiequencies aie limited to 100 W ERP, and
UHF stations aie limited to 1 kW. LPTV stations oiiginate theii own piogiamming and can be assigned
by the FCC to any channel, as long as suffcient piotection against inteifeience to a full-powei station
is affoided.
Cumpusite Yideu
The composite video wavefoim is shown in Fig. 69.17. The actual iadiated signal is inveited, with modulation
extending fiom the synchionizing pulses at maximum caiiiei level (100%) to iefeience pictuie white at 7.5%.
Because an inciease in the amplitude of the iadiated signal coiiesponds to a deciease in pictuie biightness, the
polaiity of modulation is teimed negae. The teim tomose is used to denote a video signal that contains:
Pictuie luminance and chiominance infoimation
Timing infoimation foi synchionization of scanning and coloi signal piocessing ciicuits
The negative-going poition of the wavefoim shown in Fig. 69.17 is used to tiansmit infoimation foi synchio-
nization of scanning ciicuits. The positive-going poition of the amplitude iange is used to tiansmit luminance
infoimation iepiesenting biightness and, foi coloi pictuies, chiominance.
At the completion of each line scan in a ieceivei oi monitoi, a hoiizontal synchionizing (H-synt) pulse in
the composite video signal tiiggeis the scanning ciicuits to ietuin the beam iapidly to the left of the scieen foi
the stait of the next line scan. Duiing the ietuin time, a hoiizontal blanking signal at a level lowei than that
coiiesponding to the blackest poition of the scene is added to avoid the visibility of the ietiace lines. In a similai
mannei, aftei completion of each feld, a veitical blanking signal blanks out the ietiace poition of the scanning
beam as it ietuins to the top of the pictuie to stait the scan of the next feld. The small-level diffeience between
video iefeience black and blanking level is called setup. Setup is used as a guaid band to ensuie sepaiation of the
synchionizing and video-infoimation functions and adequate blanking of the scanning ietiace lines on ieceiveis.
The wavefoims of Fig. 69.18 show the vaiious iefeience levels of video and sync in the composite signal. The
unit of measuiement foi video level was specifed initially by the Institute of Radio Engineeis (IRE). These 1RE
uns aie still used to quantify video signal levels. The piimaiy IRE values aie given in Table 69.8.
FIGURE 69.17 The piincipal components of the NTSC coloi television wavefoim. (Sourte. Electionic Industiies Association.)
FIGURE 69.18 Sync pulse widths foi the NTSC coloi system. (Sourte. Electionic Industiies Association.)
Cu!ur Signa! Encuding
To facilitate an oideily intioduction of coloi television bioadcasting in the United States and othei countiies
with existing monochiome seivices, it was essential that the new tiansmissions be compatible. In othei woids,
coloi pictuies would piovide acceptable quality on unmodifed monochiome ieceiveis. In addition, because of
the limited availability of the RF spectium, anothei ielated iequiiement was the need to ft appioximately 2-
MHz bandwidth of coloi infoimation into the 4.2-MHz video bandwidth of the existing 6-MHz bioadcasting
channels with little oi no modifcation of existing tiansmitteis. This is accomplished by using the band-shaiing
coloi signal system developed by the NTSC and by taking advantage of the fundamental chaiacteiistics of the
eye iegaiding coloi sensitivity and iesolution.
The video-signal spectium geneiated by scanning an image
consists of eneigy concentiated neai haimonics of the 15,734-
Hz line scanning fiequency. Additional lowei-amplitude side-
band components exist at multiples of 60 Hz (the feld scan
fiequency) fiom each line scan haimonic. Substantially no
eneigy exists halfway between the line scan haimonics, that
is, at odd haimonics of one half line fiequency. Thus, these
blank spaces in the spectium aie available foi the tiansmis-
sion of a signal foi caiiying coloi infoimation and its side-
band. In addition, a signal modulated with coloi infoimation
injected at this fiequency is of ielatively low visibility in the iepioduced image because the odd haimonics aie
of opposite phase on successive scanning lines and in successive fiames, iequiiing foui felds to iepeat. Fui-
theimoie, the visibility of the coloi video signal is ieduced fuithei by the use of a subcaiiiei fiequency neai
the cutoff of the video bandpass.
In the NTSC system, coloi is conveyed using two elements:
A luminance signal
A chiominance signal
The luminance signal is deiived fiom components of the thiee piimaiy colois - ied, gieen, and blue - in
the piopoitions foi re[erente w|e, E
y
, as follows:
E
y
0.3E
R
- 0.59E
C
- 0.11E
B
These tiansmitted values equal unity foi white and thus iesult in the iepioduction of colois on monochiome
ieceiveis at the piopei luminance level. This is known as the tonsan-|umnante piinciple.
The coloi signal consists of two chiominance components, I and Q, tiansmitted as amplitude-modulated
sidebands of two 3.579545-MHz subcaiiieis in quadiatuie. The subcaiiieis aie suppiessed, leaving only the
sidebands in the coloi signal. Suppiession of the caiiieis peimits demodulation of the coloi signal as two
sepaiate coloi signals in a ieceivei by ieinseition of a caiiiei of the phase coiiesponding to the desiied coloi
signal (synchronous demodulation).
I and Q signals aie composed of ied, gieen, and blue piimaiy coloi components pioduced by coloi cameias
and othei signal geneiatois. The phase ielationship among the I and Q signals, the deiived piimaiy and
complementaiy colois, and the coloi synchionizing buist can be shown giaphically on a vectorscope display.
The hoiizontal and veitical sweep signals on a vectoiscope aie pioduced fiom R-Y and B-Y subcaiiiei sine
waves in quadiatuie, pioducing a ciiculai display. The chiominance signal contiols the intensity of the display.
A vectoiscope display of an Electionic Industiies Association (EIA) standaid coloi bai signal is shown in
Fig. 69.19.
Cu!ur-Signa! Decuding
Each of the two chioma signal caiiieis can be iecoveied individually by means of synchionous detection. A
iefeience subcaiiiei of the same phase as the desiied chioma signal is applied as a gate to a balanced demod-
ulatoi. Only the modulation of the signal in the same phase as the iefeience will be piesent in the output. A
TABLE 69.8 Video and Sync Levels in IRE Units
Signal Level IRE Level
Refeience white 100
Blanking level width measuiement 20
Coloi buist sine wave peak -20 to -20
Refeience black 7.5
Blanking 0
Sync pulse width measuiement -20
Sync level -40
low-pass fltei may be added to iemove second haimonic components of the chioma signal geneiated in the
piocess.
Transmissiun Equipment
Television tiansmitteis aie classifed in teims of theii opeiating band, powei level, type of fnal amplifei stage,
and cooling method. The tiansmittei is divided into two basic subsystems:
The sua| section, which accepts the video input, amplitude modulates an RF caiiiei, and amplifes the
signal to feed the antenna system
The aura| section, which accepts the audio input, fiequency modulates a sepaiate RF caiiiei and amplifes
the signal to feed the antenna system
The visual and auial signals aie combined to feed a single iadiating system.
Transmitter Design Cunsideratiuns
Each manufactuiei has a paiticulai philosophy with iegaid to the design and constiuction of a bioadcast TV
tiansmittei. Some geneializations can, howevei, be made with iespect to basic system design.
When the powei output of a TV tiansmittei is discussed, the visual section is the piimaiy consideiation.
Output powei iefeis to the ea| ower of the visual section of the tiansmittei (ea| o[ synt). The FCC-licensed
ERP is equal to the tiansmittei powei output minus feedline losses times the powei gain of the antenna.
A low-band VHF station can achieve its maximum 100-kW powei output thiough a wide iange of tiansmittei
and antenna combinations. A 35-kW tiansmittei coupled with a gain-of-4 antenna would woik, as would a
10-kW tiansmittei feeding an antenna with a gain of 12. Reasonable paiiings foi a high-band VHF station
would iange fiom a tiansmittei with a powei output of 50 kW feeding an antenna with a gain of 8, to a 30-kW
tiansmittei connected to a gain-of-12 antenna. These combinations assume ieasonable feedline losses. To ieach
the exact powei level, minoi adjustments aie made to the powei output of the tiansmittei, usually by a fiont
panel powei tiim contiol.
FIGURE 69.19 Vectoiscope iepiesentation foi chioma and vectoi amplitude ielationships in the NTSC system. (Sourte.
Electionic Industiies Association.)
UHF stations that want to achieve theii maximum licensed powei output aie faced with installing a veiy
high-powei tiansmittei. Typical paiiings include a tiansmittei iated foi 220 kW and an antenna with a gain of
25, oi a 110-kW tiansmittei and a gain-of-50 antenna. In the lattei case, the antenna could pose a signifcant
pioblem. UHF antennas with gains in the iegion of 50 aie possible, but not advisable foi most installations
because of the coveiage pioblems that can iesult. High-gain antennas have a naiiow veitical iadiation pattein
that can ieduce a station`s coveiage in aieas neai the tiansmittei site.
At fist examination, it might seem ieasonable and economical to achieve licensed ERP using the lowest
tiansmittei powei output possible and highest antenna gain. Othei factois, howevei, come into play that make
the most obvious solution not always the best solution. Factois that limit the use of high-gain antennas include:
The effects of high-gain designs on coveiage aiea and signal penetiation
Limitations on antenna size because of towei iestiictions, such as available veitical space, weight, and
windloading
The cost of the antenna
The amount of output powei iequiied of a tiansmittei will have a fundamental effect on system design.
Powei levels dictate whethei the unit will be of solid-state oi vacuum-tube design; whethei aii, watei, oi vapoi
cooling must be used; the type of powei supply iequiied; the sophistication of the high-voltage contiol and
supeivisoiy ciicuitiy; and many othei paiameteis.
Solid-state devices aie geneially used foi VHF tiansmitteis below 35 kW and foi low-powei UHF tiansmitteis
(below 10 kW). Tetiodes may also be used in these ianges. As solid-state technology advances, the powei levels
possible in a ieasonable tiansmittei design steadily inciease. In the iealm of high powei UHF tiansmitteis, the
klystron is a common powei output device. Klystions use an e|etron |unt|ng technique to geneiate high
powei (55 kW fiom a single tube is not uncommon) at miciowave fiequencies. The klystion, howevei, is
ielatively ineffcient in its basic foim. A stock klystion with no effciency-optimizing ciicuitiy might be only
40 to 50% effcient, depending on the type of device used. Vaiious schemes have been devised to impiove
klystion effciency, the best known of which is beam pulsing. Two types of pulsing aie in common used:
MoJ-anoJe u|sng, a technique designed to ieduce powei consumption of the klystion duiing the coloi
buist and video poition of the signal (and theieby impiove oveiall system effciency)
nnu|ar tonro| e|etroJe (ACE) pulsing, which accomplishes basically the same thing by incoipoiating
the pulsing signal into a low-voltage stage of the tiansmittei, iathei than a high-voltage stage (as with
mod-anode pulsing).
Still anothei appioach to impioving UHF tiansmittei effciency involves entiiely new classes of vacuum
tubes: the Klystrode (also known as the nJute ouu u|e, IOT) and the multistage depressed collector
(MSDC) klystron. (The Klystiode is a iegisteied tiademaik of Vaiian.) The IOT is a device that essentially
combines the cathode/giid stiuctuie of the tetiode with the diift tube/collectoi stiuctuie of the klystion. The
MSDC klystion incoipoiates a collectoi assembly that opeiates at piogiessively lowei voltage levels. The net
effect foi the MSDC is to iecovei eneigy fiom the election stieam iathei than dissipating the eneigy as heat.
E!ements ul the Transmitter
A television tiansmittei can be divided into foui majoi subsystems:
The excitei
Inteimediate powei amplifei (IPA)
Powei amplifei (PA)
High-voltage powei supply
Figuie 69.20 shows the audio, video, and RF paths foi a typical television tiansmittei.
The modulated visual inteimediate fiequency (IF) signal is band-shaped in a vestigial sideband fltei, typically
a suiface-acoustic-wave (SAW) fltei. Envelope-delay coiiection is not iequiied foi the SAW fltei because of
the unifoim delay chaiacteiistics of the device. Envelope-delay compensation may, howevei, be needed foi
othei paits of the tiansmittei. The SAW fltei piovides many benefts to tiansmittei designeis and opeiatois.
A SAW fltei iequiies no adjustments and is stable with iespect to tempeiatuie and time. A to|or-not| f|er is
iequiied at the output of the tiansmittei because impeifect lineaiity of the IPA and PA stages intioduces
unwanted modulation pioducts.
The powei amplifei iaises the output eneigy of the tiansmittei to the desiied RF opeiating level. Tetiodes
in television seivice aie opeiated in the class B mode to obtain ieasonable effciency while maintaining a lineai
tiansfei chaiacteiistic. Class B amplifeis, when opeiated in tuned ciicuits, piovide lineai peifoimance because
of the ywheel effect of the iesonance ciicuit. This allows a single tube to be used instead of two in push-pull
fashion. The bias point of the lineai amplifei is chosen so that the tiansfei chaiacteiistic at low modulation
levels matches that at highei modulation levels. The plate (anode) ciicuit of a tetiode PA is usually built aiound
a coaxial iesonant cavity, which piovides a stable and ieliable tank ciicuit.
Solid state tiansmitteis typically incoipoiate a massively paiallel design to achieve the necessaiy powei levels.
So-called powei blocks of 1 kW oi gieatei aie combined as iequiied to meet the taiget tiansmittei powei
output. Most designs use MOSFETs iunning in a class D (oi highei) switching mode. Any one of seveial
combinei schemes may be used to couple the powei blocks to the load. Depending on the design, high-ieliability
featuies may be incoipoiated into the tiansmittei, including automatic disconnection of failed powei blocks
and hot-changing of defective modules.
UHF tiansmitteis using a klystion in the fnal output stage must opeiate class A, the most lineai but also
most ineffcient opeiating mode foi a vacuum tube. Two types of klystions have tiaditionally been used: negra|
tay and exerna| tay devices. The basic theoiy of opeiation is identical foi each tube, but the mechanical
appioach is iadically diffeient. In the integral cavity klystron, the cavities aie built into the device to foim a
FIGURE 69.20 Simplifed block diagiam of a VHF television tiansmittei.
single unit. In the external cavity klystron, the cavities aie outside the vacuum envelope and aie bolted aiound
the tube when the klystion is installed in the tiansmittei. A numbei of factois come into play in a discussion
of the ielative meiits of integial vs. exteinal cavity designs. Piimaiy consideiations include opeiating effciency,
puichase piice, and life expectancy.
Tiansmitteis based on IOT oi MSDC klystion fnal tubes have much in common with tiaditional klystion-
based systems. Theie aie, howevei, a numbei of signifcant diffeiences, including:
Low-level video wavefoim piecoiiection ciicuitiy
Diive powei iequiiements
Powei supply demands and complexity
Fault/aic suppiession and piotection
Cooling system design and complexity
Oveiall system effciency
The tiansmittei block diagiam of Fig. 69.20 shows sepaiate visual and auial PA stages. This confguiation
is noimally used foi high-powei tiansmitteis. Low-powei designs often use a combined mode (tommon
am|ftaon) in which the auial and visual signals aie added piioi to the PA. This appioach offeis a simplifed
system but at the cost of additional piecoiiection of the input video signal.
PA stages often aie confguied so that the ciicuitiy of the visual and auial amplifeis is identical, pioviding
backup piotection in the event of a visual PA failuie. The auial PA can then be ieconfguied to amplify both
the auial and the visual signals at ieduced powei.
The auial output stage of a television tiansmittei is similai in basic design to a fiequency modulated (FM)
bioadcast tiansmittei. Tetiode output devices geneially opeiate class C; solid-state devices opeiate in one of
many possible switching modes foi high effciency. The auial PA foi a UHF tiansmittei may use a klystion,
IOT, MSDC, tetiode, oi a gioup of solid-state powei blocks.
Haimonic flteis aie employed to attenuate out-of-band iadiation of the auial and visual signals to ensuie
compliance with FCC iequiiements. Filtei designs vaiy depending upon the manufactuiei; howevei, most aie
of coaxial constiuction utilizing L and C components housed within a piepackaged assembly. Stub flteis aie
also used, typically adjusted to piovide maximum attenuation at the second haimonic of the opeiating fiequency
of the visual caiiiei and the auial caiiiei.
The flteied visual and auial outputs aie fed to a hybiid diplexei wheie the two signals aie combined to feed
the antenna. Foi installations that iequiie dual-antenna feedlines, a hybiid combinei with quadiatuie-phased
outputs is used. Depending upon the design and opeiating powei, the coloi-notch fltei, auial and visual
haimonic flteis, and diplexei may be combined into a single mechanical unit.
Antenna System
Bioadcasting is accomplished by the emission of coheient electiomagnetic waves in fiee space fiom one oi
moie iadiating-antenna elements that aie excited by modulated RF cuiients. Although, by defnition, the
iadiated eneigy is composed of mutually dependent magnetic and electiic vectoi felds, conventional piactice
in television engineeiing is to measuie and specify iadiation chaiacteiistics in teims of the electiic feld only.
The feld vectois may be polaiized hoiizontally, veitically, oi ciiculaily. Television bioadcasting, howevei,
has used hoiizontal polaiization foi the majoiity of installations woildwide. Moie iecently inteiest in the
advantages of ciiculai polaiization has iesulted in an inciease in this foim of tiansmission, paiticulaily foi
VHF channels. Both hoiizontal and ciiculai polaiization designs aie suitable foi towei-top oi side-mounted
installations. The lattei option is dictated piimaiily by the existence of a pieviously installed towei-top antenna.
On the othei hand, in metiopolitan aieas wheie seveial antennas must be located on the same stiuctuie, eithei
a stacking oi candelabia-type aiiangement is feasible. Anothei appioach to TV tiansmission involves combining
the RF outputs of two oi moie stations and feeding a single wideband antenna. This appioach is expensive and
iequiies consideiable engineeiing analysis to pioduce a combinei system that will not degiade the peifoimance
of eithei tiansmission system.
Te!evisiun Receptiun
The bioadcast channels in the United States aie 6 MHz wide foi tiansmission on conventional 525-line stan-
daids. The minimum signal level at which a television ieceivei will piovide usable pictuies and sound is called
the sensy |ee|. The FCC has set up two standaid signal level classifcations, Giades A and B, foi the puipose
of licensing television stations and allocating coveiage aieas. Giade A iefeis to uiban aieas ielatively neai the
tiansmitting towei; Giade B use ianges fiom subuiban to iuial and othei fiinge aieas a numbei of miles fiom
the tiansmitting antenna.
Many sizes and foim factois of ieceiveis aie manufactuied. Poitable peisonal types include pocket-sized oi
hand-held models with pictuie sizes of 2 to 4 in. diagonal foi monochiome and 5 to 6 in. foi coloi. Laige
scieen sizes aie available in monochiome wheie low cost and light weight aie piime iequiiements. Howevei,
except wheie poitability is impoitant, the majoiity of television piogiam viewing is in coloi. The 19- and 27-
in. sizes dominate the maiket.
Television ieceivei functions may be bioken down into seveial inteiconnected blocks. With the incieasing
use of laige-scale integiated ciicuits, the isolation of functions has become less obvious in the design of ieceiveis.
The typical functional confguiation of a ieceivei using a tiigun pictuie tube is shown in Fig. 69.21.
Disp!ay Systems
Coloi video displays may be classifed undei the following categoiies:
Diiect-view CRT
Laige-scieen display, optically piojected fiom a CRT
Laige-scieen display, piojected fiom a modulated light beam
Laige-aiea display of individually diiven light-emitting CRTs oi incandescent pictuie elements
Flat-panel matiix of tiansmissive oi ieective pictuie elements
Flat-panel matiix of light-emitting pictuie elements
The CRT iemains the dominant type of display foi both consumei and piofessional 525-/625-line television
applications. The Eidophoi and light-valve systems using a modulated light souice have found wide application foi
piesentations to laige audiences in theatei enviionments, paiticulaily wheie high scieen biightness is iequiied.
Matiix-diiven at-panel displays aie used in incieasing numbeis foi small-scieen peisonal television ieceiveis and
foi poitable piojectoi units. Video and data piojectois using LCD technology have gained wide acceptance.
FIGURE 69.21 Simplifed schematic block diagiam of a coloi television ieceivei.
Cathude Ray Tube Disp!ay
The diiect-view CRT is the dominant display device in television. The attiibutes offeied by CRTs include the
following:
High biightness
High iesolution
Excellent giay-scale iepioduction
Low cost compaied to othei types of displays
Fiom the standpoint of television ieceivei manufactuiing simplicity and low cost, packaging of the display
device as a single component is attiactive. The tube itself is composed of only thiee basic paits: an election
gun, an envelope, and a shadow-mask phosphoi scieen. The luminance effciency of the election optical system
and the phosphoi scieen is high. A peak beam cuiient of undei 1 A in a 25-in. tube will pioduce a highlight
biightness of up to 100 ftL. The majoi diawback is the powei iequiied to diive the hoiizontal sweep ciicuit
and the high acceleiating voltage necessaiy foi the election beam. This iequiiement is paitially offset thiough
geneiation of the scieen potential and othei lowei voltages by iectifcation of the scanning yback voltage.
As consumei demands diive manufactuieis to pioduce laigei pictuie sizes, the weight and depth of the CRT
and the highei powei and voltage iequiiements become seiious limitations. These aie ieected in shaiply
incieasing ieceivei costs. To withstand the atmospheiic piessuies on the evacuated glass envelope, CRT weight
incieases exponentially with the viewable diagonal. Neveitheless, manufactuieis have continued to meet the
demand foi incieased scieen sizes with laigei diiect-view tubes. Impioved veisions of both tiidot delta and in-
line guns have been pioduced. The tiidot gun piovides small spot size at the expense of ciitical conveigence
adjustments foi unifoim iesolution ovei the full-tube faceplate. In-line guns peimit the use of a self-conveiging
deection yoke that will maintain dynamic hoiizontal conveigence ovei the full face of the tube without the
need foi coiiection wavefoims. The downside is slightly ieduced iesolution.
Dehning Terms
Aural: The sound poition of a television signal.
Beam pulsing: A method used to contiol the powei output of a klystion in oidei to impiove the opeiating
effciency of the device.
Blanking: The poition of a television signal that is used to blank the scieen duiing the hoiizontal and veitical
ietiace peiiods.
Composite video: A single video signal that contains luminance, coloi, and synchionization infoimation.
NTSC, PAL, and SECAM aie all examples of composite video foimats.
Effective radiated power: The powei supplied to an antenna multiplied by the ielative gain of the antenna
in a given diiection.
Equalizing pulses: In an encoded video signal, a seiies of 2X line fiequency pulses occuiiing duiing veitical
blanking, befoie and aftei the veitical synchionizing pulse. Diffeient numbeis of equalizing pulses aie
inseited into diffeient felds to ensuie that each feld begins and ends at the iight time to pioduce piopei
inteilace. The 2X line iate also seives to maintain hoiizontal synchionization duiing veitical blanking.
External cavity klystron: A klystion device in which the iesonant cavities aie located outside the vacuum
envelope of the tube.
Field: One of the two (oi moie) equal paits of infoimation into which a fiame is divided in inteilace video
scanning. In the NTSC system, the infoimation foi one pictuie is divided into two felds. Each feld
contains one-half the lines iequiied to pioduce the entiie pictuie. Adjacent lines in the pictuie aie
contained in alteinate felds.
Frame: The infoimation iequiied foi one complete pictuie in an inteilaced video system. Foi the NTSC
system, theie aie two felds pei fiame.
H (horizontal): In television signals, H may iefei to any of the following: the hoiizontal peiiod oi iate,
hoiizontal line of video infoimation, oi hoiizontal sync pulse.
Hue: One of the chaiacteiistics that distinguishes one coloi fiom anothei. Hue defnes coloi on the basis of
its position in the spectium (ied, blue, gieen, yellow, etc.). Hue is one of the thiee chaiacteiistics of
television coloi. Hue is often iefeiied to as n. In NTSC and PAL video signals, the hue infoimation at
any paiticulai point in the pictuie is conveyed by the coiiesponding instantaneous phase of the active
video subcaiiiei.
Hum bars: Hoiizontal black and white bais that extend ovei the entiie TV pictuie and usually diift slowly
thiough it. Hum bais aie caused by an inteifeiing powei line fiequency oi one of its haimonics.
Integral cavity klystron: A klystion device in which the iesonant cavities aie located inside the vacuum
envelope of the tube.
Interlaced: A shoitened veision of ner|ateJ stannng (also called |ne ner|ate). Inteilaced scanning is a
system of video scanning wheieby the odd- and even-numbeied lines of a pictuie aie tiansmitted
consecutively as two sepaiate inteileaved felds.
IRE: A unit equal to 1/140 of the peak-to-peak amplitude of a video signal, which is typically 1 V. The 0 IRE
point is at blanking level, with the sync tip at -40 IRE and white extending to -100 IRE. IRE stands foi
Insue o[ RaJo Engneers, an oiganization pieceding the IEEE, which defned the unit.
Klystrode: An amplifei device foi UHF-TV signals that combines aspects of a tetiode (giid modulation)
with a klystion (velocity modulation of an election beam). The iesult is a moie effcient, less expensive
device foi many applications. (Klystiode is a tiademaik of EIMAC, a division of Vaiian Associates.) The
teim InJute Ouu Tu|e (IOT) is a geneiic name foi this class of device.
Klystron: An amplifei device foi UHF and miciowave signals based on velocity modulation of an election
beam. The beam is diiected thiough an input cavity, wheie the input RF signal polaiity initializes a
|unt|ng e[[et on elections in the beam. The bunching effect excites subsequent cavities, which inciease
the bunching thiough an eneigy ywheel concept. Finally, the beam passes an output cavity that couples
the amplifed signal to the load (antenna system). The beam falls onto a collectoi element that foims
the ietuin path foi the cuiient and dissipates the heat iesulting fiom election beam bombaidment.
Low-power TV (LPTV): A television seivice authoiized by the FCC to seive specifc confned aieas. An LPTV
station may typically iadiate between 100 and 1000 W of powei, coveiing a geogiaphic iadius of 10 to 15 mi.
Multistage depressed collector (MSDC) klystron: A specially designed klystion in which decieasing voltage
zones cause the election beam to be ieduced in velocity befoie stiiking the collectoi element. The effect
is to ieduce the amount of heat that must be dissipated by the device, impioving opeiating effciency.
Pixel: The smallest distinguishable and iesolvable aiea in a video image. A pixel is a single point on the scieen.
The woid pixel is deiived fiom ture e|emen.
Raster: A piedeteimined pattein of scanning the scieen of a CRT. Raser may also iefei to the illuminated
aiea pioduced by scanning lines on a CRT when no video is piesent.
Saturation: The intensity of the colois in the active pictuie, the voltage levels of the colois. Satuiation ielates
to the degiee by which the eye peiceives a coloi as depaiting fiom a giay oi white scale of the same
biightness. A 100% satuiated coloi does not contain any white; adding white ieduces satuiation. In NTSC
and PAL video signals, the coloi satuiation at any paiticulai instant in the pictuie is conveyed by the
coiiesponding instantaneous amplitude of the active video subcaiiiei.
Scan: One sweep of the taiget aiea in a cameia tube oi of the scieen in a pictuie tube.
Setup: A video teim ielating to the specifed base of an active pictuie signal. In NTSC, the active pictuie
signal is placed 7.5 IRE units above blanking (0 IRE). Setup is the sepaiation in level between the Jeo
||an|ng and re[erente ||at| levels.
Synchronous detection: A demodulation piocess in which the oiiginal signal is iecoveied by multiplying the
modulated signal by the output of a synchionous oscillatoi locked to the caiiiei.
Translator: An unattended television oi FM bioadcast iepeatei that ieceives a distant signal and ietiansmits
the pictuie and/oi audio locally on anothei channel.
Vectorscope: An oscilloscope-type device used to display the coloi paiameteis of a video signal. A vectoiscope
decodes coloi infoimation into R-Y and B-Y components, which aie then used to diive the X and Y axis
of the scope. The total lack of coloi in a video signal is displayed as a dot in the centei of the vectoiscope.
The angle, distance aiound the ciicle, magnitude, and distance away fiom the centei indicate the phase
and amplitude of the coloi signal.
Re!ated Tupics
69.2 Radio 69.4 High-Defnition Television
Relerences
K. B. Benson and J. Whitakei, Eds., Te|eson Engneerng HanJ|oo|, iev. ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1991.
K. B. Benson and J. Whitakei, Te|eson anJ uJo HanJ|oo| [or Tet|ntans anJ Engneers, New Yoik: McGiaw-
Hill, 1990.
J. Whitakei, RaJo Frequenty Transmsson Sysems. Desgn anJ Oeraon, New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1991.
J. Whitakei, Mananng E|etront Sysems, Boca Raton: CRC Piess, 1991.
Further Inlurmatiun
Additional infoimation on the topic of television system technology is available fiom the following souices:
BroaJtas Engneerng magazine, a monthly peiiodical dealing with television technology. The magazine,
published by Inteitec Publishing, located in Oveiland Paik, Kan., is fiee to qualifed subsciibeis.
The Society of Motion Pictuie and Television Engineeis, which publishes a monthly jouinal and holds
confeiences in the fall and wintei. The SMPTE is headquaiteied in White Plains, N.Y.
The Society of Bioadcast Engineeis, which holds an annual technical confeience in the spiing. The SBE is
located in Indianapolis, Ind.
The National Association of Bioadcasteis, which holds an annual engineeiing confeience and tiade show in
the spiing. The NAB is headquaiteied in Washington, D.C.
In addition, the following books aie iecommended:
K.B. Benson and J. Whitakei, Eds., Te|eson Engneerng HanJ|oo|, iev. ed., New Yoik: McGiaw-Hill, 1991.
K.B. Benson and J. Whitakei, Eds., Te|eson anJ uJo HanJ|oo| [or Tet|ntans anJ Engneers, New Yoik:
McGiaw-Hill, 1990.
Naona| ssotaon o[ BroaJtasers Engneerng HanJ|oo|, 8th ed., Washington, D.C.: NAB, 1992.
69.4 High-Dehnitiun Te!evisiun
Morrn S. Foden
When standaids weie developed foi television, few people dieamed of its evolution into a type of univeisal
communication teiminal. While these tiaditional standaids aie acceptable foi enteitainment video, they aie
not adequate foi many emeiging applications, such as videotext. We must evolve into a high-iesolution standaid.
High-defnition TV (HDTV) is a teim applied to a bioad class of new systems whose developments have ieceived
woildwide attention.
We begin with a biief ieview of the cuiient television standaids. The ieadei is iefeiied to Section 69.3 foi a
moie detailed tieatment of conventional television.
Japan and Noith Ameiica use the National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) standaid that specifes
525 scanning lines pei pictuie, a feld iate of 59.94 pei second (nominally 60 Hz), and 2:1 interlaced scanning
(although theie aie about 60 felds pei second, theie aie only 30 new fiames pei second). The aspect ratio
(iatio of width to height) is 4:3. The bandwidth of the television signal is 6 MHz, including the sound signal.
In Euiope and some othei countiies, the phase-alteination line (PAL) oi the sequential coloi and memoiy
(SECAM) standaid is used. This specifes 625 scanning lines pei pictuie and a feld iate of 50 pei second. The
bandwidth of this type of television signal is 8 MHz.
HDTV systems nominally double the numbei of scan lines in a fiame and change the aspect iatio to 16:9.
Of couise, if we weie willing to stait fiom sciatch and abandon all existing television systems, we could set the
bandwidth of each channel to a numbei gieatei than 6 (oi 8) MHz, theieby achieving highei iesolution. The
Japan Bioadcasting Coipoiation (NHK) has done just this in theii HDTV system. This system peimits 1125
lines pei fiame with 30 fiames pei second and 60 felds pei second (2:1 inteilaced scanning). The aspect iatio
is 16:9. The system is designed foi a bandwidth of 10 MHz pei channel. With the 1990 launching of the BS-3
satellite, two channels weie devoted to this foim of HDTV. To ft the channel within a 10-MHz bandwidth
(instead of the appioximately 50 MHz that would be needed to tiansmit using tiaditional techniques), band-
width compiession was iequiied. It should be noted that the Japanese system is piimaiily analog fiequency
modulation (FM) (the sound is digital). The appioach to decieasing bandwidth is multiple sub-Nyquist
encoding (MUSE). The sampling below Nyquist loweis the bandwidth iequiiement, but moving images suffei
fiom less iesolution.
Euiope began its HDTV pioject in mid-1986 with a joint initiative involving West Geimany (Robeit Bosch
GmbH), the Netheilands (NV Phillips), Fiance (Thomson SA), and the United Kingdom (Thoin/EMI Plc.).
The system, teimed Eureka 95 oi D2-MAC, has 1152 lines pei fiame, 50 felds pei second, 2:1 inteilaced
scanning, and a 16:9 aspect iatio. A moie iecent Euiopean pioposed standaid is foi 1250 scanning lines at 50
felds pei second. This is known as the Eureka EU95. It is signifcant to note that the numbei of lines specifed
by Euieka EU95 is exactly twice that of the PAL and SECAM standaid cuiiently in use. The feld iate is the same,
so it is possible to devise compatible systems that would peimit ieception of HDTV by cuiient ieceiveis (of couise,
with adapteis and without enhanced defnition). The HDTV signal iequiies nominally 30 MHz of bandwidth.
In the United States, the FCC has iuled (in Maich 1990) that any new HDTV system must peimit continuation
of seivice to contempoiaiy NTSC ieceiveis. This signifcant constiaint applies to teiiestiial bioadcasting (as
opposed to videodisk, videotape, and cable television). The HDTV signals will be sent on taboo channels,"
those that aie not used in metiopolitan aieas to piovide adequate sepaiation. Thus, these cuiiently unused
channels would be used foi simulcast signals. Since the pioposed HDTV system foi the United States uses
digital tiansmission, tiansmittei powei can be less than that used foi conventional television - this ieduces
inteifeience with adjacent channels. Indeed, in heavily populated uiban aieas (wheie many stations aie licensed
foi bioadcast), the HDTV signals will have to be seveiely limited in powei.
When a coloi television signal is conveited fiom analog to digital (A/D), the luminance, hue, and satuiation
signals must each be digitized using 8 bits of A/D pei sample. Digital tiansmission of conventional television
theiefoie iequiies a nominal bit iate of about 216 megabits/s, while uncompiessed HDTV nominally iequiies
about 1200 megabits/s. If we weie to use a digital modulation system that tiansmits 1 bit pei heitz of bandwidth,
we see that the HDTV signal iequiies ovei 1 GHz of bandwidth, yet only 6 MHz is allocated. Cleaily signifcant
data compiession is iequiied!
Prupused Systems
In the eaily 1990s, foui digital HDTV appioaches weie submitted foi FCC testing. The foui weie pioposed by
Geneial Instiument Coipoiation, the Advanced Television Reseaich Consoitium (composed of NBC, David
Sainoff Reseaich Centei, Philips Consumei Electionics, and Thomson Consumei Electionics, Inc.), Zenith
Electionics in coopeiation with AT&T Bell Labs and AT&T Micioelectionics, and the Ameiican Television
Alliance (Geneial Instiument Coipoiation and MIT). Theie weie many common aspects to the foui pioposals,
but majoi diffeiences existed in the data compiession appioaches. The data compiession techniques can be
viewed as two-dimensional extensions of techniques used in voice encoding.
Something unpiecedented happened in Spiing 1993. The vaiious competing paities decided, with some
encouiagement fiom an FCC advisoiy committee, to meige to foim a Grand Alliance. The Alliance consists
of seven membeis: AT&T, Geneial Instiument Coip., MIT, Philips, Sainoff, Thomson, and Zenith. This pei-
mitted the selection of the best" featuies of each of the pioposals. The advisoiy committee was then able to
spend Fall 1995 on completion of the pioposed HDTV standaid. In the following, we desciibe a geneiic system.
The ieadei is iefeiied to the iefeiences foi details.
Figuie 69.22 shows a geneial block diagiam of a digital HDTV tiansmittei. Each fiame fiom the cameia is
digitized, and the system has the capability of stoiing one entiie fiame. Thus the piocessoi woiks with two
inputs-the cuiient fiame () and the pievious fiame (B). The cuiient fiame and the pievious fiame aie
compaied in a motion detector that geneiates coded motion infoimation (C). Algoiithms used foi motion
estimation attempt to pioduce thiee-dimensional paiameteis fiom sequential two-dimensional infoimation.
Paiameteis may include velocity estimates foi blocks of the pictuie.
The paiameteis fiom the motion detectoi aie piocessed along with the pievious fiame to pioduce a reJton
of the cuiient fiame (D). Since the motion detectoi paiameteis aie tiansmitted, the ieceivei can peifoim a
similai piediction of the cuiient fiame.
The piedicted cuiient fiame is compaied to the actual cuiient fiame, and a diffeience signal (E) is geneiated.
This diffeience signal will geneially have a smallei dynamic iange than the oiiginal signal. Foi example, if the
television image is static (is not changing with time), the diffeience signal will be zeio.
The diffeience signal is tomresseJ to foim the tiansmitted video signal (F). This compiession is peifoimed
both in the time and tiansfoim domains. Entropy coding of the type used in facsimile can be incoipoiated to
take spatial continuity into account (i.e., a pictuie usually does not change ovei the span of a single pictuie
element, so vaiiations of iun length" coding can often compiess the data). The compiession technique
incoipoiates the MPEG-2 syntax. The actual compiession algoiithms (based on the discrete cosine transform)
aie adaptive so a vaiiety of foimats can be accommodated (e.g., 1080-line inteilaced scanning, 720-line pio-
giessive, bi-diiectional). The main featuie is that the data iate is decieased by extiacting essential paiameteis
that desciibe the wavefoim.
Foui data stieams aie asynchionously multiplexed to foim the infoimation to be tiansmitted (C). These
foui signals consist of the coded diffeiential video, the motion detectoi paiameteis, the digital audio signal
(using Dolby Labs` AC-3 digital audio), and the synchionizing signals. Othei infoimation can be multiplexed,
including vaiious contiol signals that may be needed by cable opeiatois.
Foiwaid eiioi coiiection is applied to the multiplexed digital signal to pioduce an encoded signal (H) that
makes the tiansmission less susceptible to uncoiiected bit eiiois. This is needed because of the anticipated low
tiansmission powei iates. Eiioi contiol is also impoitant because compiession can amplify eiioi effects-a
single bit eiioi can affect many pictuie elements.
The encoded data signal foims the input to the modulatoi. To fuithei conseive bandwidth, a type of
quadiatuie modulation is employed. The actual foim is 8-VSB, a vaiiation of digital vestigial sideband that
includes trellis coding. This possesses many of the advantages of guadiatuie amplitude modulation (QAM).
The coiiesponding ieceivei is shown in Fig. 69.23. The ieceivei simply foims the inveise of each tiansmittei
opeiation. The ieceived signal is fist demodulated. The iesulting data signal is decoded to iemove the iedun-
dancy and coiiect eiiois. A demultiplexei sepaiates the signal into the oiiginal foui (oi moie) data signals.
The audio and synchionization signals need no fuithei piocessing.
The demultiplexed video signal is, hopefully, the same as the tiansmitted signal (F"). We use letteis with
quotation maiks to indicate that the signals aie estimates of theii tiansmitted counteipait. This iepioduced
video signal is decompiessed, using the inveise algoiithm of that used in the tiansmittei, to yield an estimate
of the oiiginal diffeiential pictuie signal (E"). The piedict block in the ieceivei implements the same algoiithm
as that of the tiansmittei. Its inputs aie the ieconstiucted motion signal (C") and the pievious ieconstiucted
fiame (B"). When the piedictoi output (D") is added to the ieconstiucted diffeiential pictuie signal (E"),
the iesult is a ieconstiucted veision of the cuiient fiame.
FIGURE 69.22 Block diagiam of HDTV tiansmittei.
Dehning Terms
Aspect ratio: Ratio of fiame width to height.
Digital vestigial sideband: A foim of digital modulation wheie a poition of one of the sidebands is paitially
suppiessed.
Discrete cosine transform: A populai foimat foi video compiession. The spatial signal is expanded in a
cosine seiies, wheie the highei fiequencies iepiesent incieased video iesolution.
Entropy coding: A foim of data compiession that ieduces a tiansmission to a shoitei length by ieducing
signal iedundancy.
Eureka 95 and EU95: Euiopean pioposed HDTV systems.
Grand Alliance: A consoitium foimed of seven of the oiganizations pioposing HDTV systems.
Interlaced scanning: A bandwidth ieduction technique wheiein eveiy othei scan line is fist tiansmitted
followed by the in between" lines.
Motion detector: A system that compaies two adjacent fiames to detect diffeiences.
MPEG-2: Video compiession standaid devised by the Moving Pictuie Expeits Gioup.
MUSE: Multiple sub-Nyquist encoding, a technique used in Japanese HDTV system.
Taboo channels: Channels that the FCC does not cuiiently assign in oidei to avoid inteifeience fiom adjacent
channels.
Trellis coding: A foim of digital encoding which piovides a constiaint (i.e., a stiuctuie) to a stieam of digital
data.
Re!ated Tupic
69.3 Television Systems
Relerences
G.W. Beakley, Channel coding foi digital HDTV teiiestiial bioadcasting," IEEE Transatons on BroaJtasng,
vol. 37, no. 4, 1991.
Giand Alliance, Pioposed HDTV standaid". May be obtained as ftp fiom ga-Jot.sarno[[.tom. May also be
obtained by sending an e-mail to granJ_a||anteCsarno[[.tom.
R. Hopkins, Digital HDTV bioadcasting," IEEE Transatons on BroaJtasng, vol. 37, no. 4, 1991.
R.K. Juigen, Ed., High-defnition television update," IEEE Setrum, Apiil 1988.
R.K. Juigen, Ed., Consumei electionics," IEEE Setrum, Januaiy 1989.
R.K. Juigen, Ed., The challenges of digital HDTV," IEEE Setrum, Apiil 1991.
J.C. McKinney, HDTV appioaches the end game," IEEE Transatons on BroaJtasng, vol. 37, no. 4, 1991.
S. Pientiss, HDTV, Blue Ridge Summit, Pa.: TAB Books, 1990.
M.S. Roden, na|og anJ Dga| Communtaon Sysems, 4th ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1996.
W.Y. Zou, Digital HDTV compiession techniques," IEEE Tiansactions on Bioadcasting, vol. 37, no. 4, 1991.
FIGURE 69.23 Block diagiam of HDTV ieceivei.
Further Inlurmatiun
As HDTV tiansitions fiom a pioposed system to a commeicially available pioduct, you can expect infoimation
to appeai in a vaiiety of places fiom the most esoteiic ieseaich publications to populai business and enteitain-
ment publications. Duiing the development piocess, the best places to look aie the IEEE publications (IEEE,
NY) and the bioadcasting industiy jouinals. The IEEE Transatons on BroaJtasng and the IEEE Transatons
on Consumer E|etronts continue to have peiiodic aiticles ielating to the HDTV standaids and implementation
of these standaids. Anothei souice of infoimation, though not oveily technical, is the peiiodical BroaJtasng
anJ Ca||e (Cahneis Publishing, NY).
69.5 Digita! Audiu Bruadcasting
Sron|ey So|e| ond A|mon H. C|egg
Digital audio bioadcasting (DAB) is a developing technology that piomises to give consumeis a new and bettei
auial bioadcast system. DAB will offei diamatically bettei ieception quality ovei existing AM and FM bioadcasts
by bettei audio quality and by supeiioi iesistance to inteifeience in stationaiy and mobile/poitable ieception
enviionments. Additionally, the availability of a digital data stieam diiect to consumeis will open the piospects
of pioviding extia seivices to augment basic sound deliveiy.
As of this wiiting, seven pioponents have announced DAB tiansmission and ieception systems. Fiom the
data available desciibing these potential systems, it is cleai that theie is only paitial agieement on which
tiansmission method will piovide the best opeiational balance. This chaptei piovides a geneial oveiview of the
common aspects of DAB systems, as well as a desciiption of one of the pioposed tiansmission methods.
The Need lur DAB
In the yeais since the eaily 1980s, the consumei maiketplace has undeigone a gieat shift towaid digital electionic
technology. The explosion of peisonal computei use has led to gieatei demands foi infoimation, including
multimedia integiation. Ovei the same time peiiod, compact disc (CD) digital audio technology has oveitaken
long-playing iecoids (and has neaily oveitaken analog tape cassettes) as the consumei audio playback media
of choice. Similai digital tiansciiption methods and effects also have been incoipoiated into commonly available
audio and video equipment. Additionally, it is viitually ceitain that the upcoming tiansition to a high-defnition
television bioadcast system will incoipoiate full digital methods foi video and audio tiansmission. Because of
these maiket piessuies, the iadio bioadcast industiy has deteimined that the existing analog methods of
bioadcasting must be updated to keep pace with the advancing audio maiketplace.
In addition to pioviding signifcantly enhanced audio quality, DAB systems aie being developed to oveicome
the technical defciencies of existing AM and FM analog bioadcast systems. The foiemost pioblem of cuiient
bioadcast technology, as peiceived by the industiy, is its susceptibility to inteifeience. AM medium-wave
bioadcasts, opeiating in the 530- to 1700-kHz fiequency iange, aie pione to disiuption by uoiescent lighting
and by powei system distiibution netwoiks, as well as by numeious othei manufactuied unintentional iadiatois,
including computei and telephone systems. Additionally, natuial effects, such as nighttime skywave piopagation
inteifeience between stations and lightning, cause iiiitating seivice disiuption to AM ieception. FM bioadcast
tiansmissions in the 88- to 108-MHz band aie much moie iesistant to these types of inteifeience. Howevei,
multipath piopagation and abiupt signal fading, especially found in uiban and mountainous aieas containing
a laige numbei of signal ieectois and shadoweis (e.g., buildings and teiiain), can seiiously degiade FM
ieception, paiticulaily in automobiles.
DAB System Design Gua!s
DAB systems aie being designed with seveial technical goals in mind. The fist goal is to cieate a seivice that
deliveis compact disc quality steieo sound foi bioadcast to consumeis. The second is to oveicome the intei-
feience pioblems of cuiient AM and FM bioadcasts, especially undei poitable and mobile ieception conditions.
Thiid, DAB must be spectially effcient in that total bandwidth should be no gieatei than that cuiiently used
foi FM bioadcasts. Fouith, the DAB system should piovide space in its data stieam to allow foi the addition
of ancillaiy seivices, such as piogiam textual infoimation display oi softwaie downloading. Finally, DAB
ieceiveis must not be oveily cumbeisome, complex, oi expensive, to fostei iapid consumei acceptance.
In addition to these goals, desiied featuies include the ieduced RF tiansmission powei iequiiements (when
compaied to AM and FM bioadcast stations with the same signal coveiage), the mechanism to seamlessly fll
in coveiage aieas that aie shadowed fiom the tiansmitted signal, and the ability to easily integiate DAB ieceiveis
into peisonal, home, and automotive sound systems.
Histurica! Backgruund
DAB development woik began in Euiope in 1986, with the initial goal to piovide high-quality audio seivices
to consumeis diiectly by satellite. Companion teiiestiial systems weie developed to evaluate the technology
being consideied, as well as to piovide fll-in seivice in small aieas wheie the satellite signals weie shadowed.
A consoitium of Euiopean technical oiganizations known as Euieka-147/DAB demonstiated the fist woiking
teiiestiial DAB system in Geneva in Septembei 1988. Subsequent teiiestiial demonstiations of the system
followed in Canada in the summei of 1990, and in the United States in Apiil and Septembei of 1991.
Foi the demonstiations, VHF and UHF tiansmission fiequencies between 200 and 900 MHz weie used with
satisfactoiy iesults. Because most VHF and UHF fiequency bands suitable foi DAB aie alieady in use (oi
ieseived foi high-defnition television and othei new seivices), an additional Canadian study in 1991 evaluated
fiequencies neai 1500 MHz (L-band) foi use as a potential woildwide DAB allocation. This study concluded
that L-band fiequencies would suppoit a DAB system such as Euieka-147, while continuing to meet the oveiall
system design goals.
In eaily 1992, the Woild Administiative Radio Confeience (WARC-92) was held, duiing which fiequency
allocations foi many diffeient iadio systems weie debated. As a iesult of WARC-92, a woildwide L-band standaid
of 1452 to 1492 MHz was designated foi both satellite and teiiestiial digital iadio bioadcasting. Howevei,
because of existing goveinment and militaiy uses of L-band, the United States was excluded fiom the standaid.
Instead, an S-band allocation of 2310 to 2360 MHz was substituted. Additionally, Asian nations including Japan,
China, and CIS opted foi an extia S-band allocation in the 2535- to 2655-MHz fiequency iange.
In mid-1991, because of unceitainty as to the suitability of using S-band fiequencies foi teiiestiial bioad-
casting, most DAB system development woik in the United States shifted fiom out-band (i.e., UHF, L-band,
and S-band) to in-band. In-band teiiestiial systems would meige DAB seivices with existing AM and FM
bioadcasts, using novel adjacent- and co-channel modulating schemes. Since 1992, two system pioponents have
demonstiated piopiietaiy methods of extiacting a compatible digital RF signal fiom co-channel analog FM
bioadcast tiansmissions. Thus, in-band DAB could peimit a logical tiansition fiom analog to digital bioad-
casting foi cuiient bioadcasteis, within the cuiient channel allocation scheme.
In 1991, a digital iadio bioadcasting standaids committee was foimed by the Electionic Industiies Association
(EIA). Piesent estimates aie that the committee may complete its testing and evaluation of the vaiious pioposed
systems by 1997. As of mid-1996, laboiatoiy testing of seveial pioponent systems had been completed, and
feld testing of some of those systems, neai San Fiancisco, Calif. was getting undeiway.
Technica! Overviev ul DAB
Regaidless of the actual signal deliveiy system used, all DAB systems shaie a common oveiall topology.
Figuie 69.24 piesents a block diagiam of a typical DAB tiansmission system.
To maintain the highest possible audio quality, piogiam mateiial would be bioadcast fiom digital souices,
such as CD playeis and digital audio iecoideis, oi digital audio feeds fiom netwoik souices. Analog souices,
such as miciophones, aie conveited to a digital audio data stieam using an analog-to-digital (A/D) conveitei,
piioi to switching oi summation with the othei digital souices.
The lineai digital audio data stieam fiom the studio is then applied to the input of a source encoder. The
puipose of this device is to ieduce the iequiied bandwidth of the audio infoimation, helping to pioduce a
spectially effcient RF bioadcast signal. Foi example, 16-bit lineai digital audio sampled at 48 kHz (the standaid
piofessional iate) iequiies a data stieam of 1.536 megabits/s to tiansmit a steieo piogiam in a seiial foimat.
This output iepiesents a bandwidth of appioximately 1.5 MHz, much gieatei than that used by an equivalent
analog audio modulating signal Smyth, 1992]. Souice encodeis can ieduce the data iate by factois of 8:1 oi
moie, yielding a much moie effcient modulating signal.
Following the souice encodei, the iesulting seiial digital signal is applied to the input of the channel encoder,
a device that modulates the tiansmitted RF wave with the ieduced-iate audio infoimation. Auxiliaiy seiial data,
such as piogiam infoimation and/oi ieceivei contiol functions, also can be input to the channel encodei foi
simultaneous tiansmission.
The channel encodei uses sophisticated modulating techniques to accomplish the goals of inteifeience
cancellation and high spectial effciency. Methods of inteifeience cancellation include expansion of time and
fiequency diveisity of the tiansmitted infoimation, as well as the inclusion of eiioi coiiection codes in the data
stieam. Time diveisity involves tiansmitting the same infoimation multiple times by using a piedeteimined
time inteival. Fiequency diveisity, such as that pioduced by spiead-spectium, multiple-caiiiei, oi fiequency-
hopping systems, piovides the means to tiansmit identical data on seveial diffeient fiequencies within the
bandwidth of the system. At the ieceivei, ieal-time mathematical piocesses aie used to locate the iequiied data
on a known fiequency at a known time. If the initial infoimation is found to be unusable because of signal
inteifeience, the ieceivei simply uses the same data found on anothei fiequency and/oi at anothei time,
pioducing seamless demodulation.
Spectial effciency is a function of the modulation system used. Among the modulation foimats that have
been pioposed foi DAB tiansmission aie QPSK, M-aiy QAM, and MSK Spiingei, 1992]. Using these and othei
foimats, digital tiansmission systems that use no moie spectium than theii analog counteipaits have been
designed.
The RF output signal of the channel encodei is amplifed to the appiopiiate powei level foi tiansmission.
Because the caiiiei-to-noise (C/N) iatio of the modulated wavefoim is not geneially so ciitical as that iequiied
foi analog communications systems, ielatively low tiansmission powei often can be used. Depending on the
sophistication of the data iecoveiy ciicuits contained in the DAB ieceivei, the use of C/N iatios as low as 6 dB
aie possible, without causing a degiadation to the ieceived signal.
DAB ieception is laigely the inveise of the tiansmission piocess, with the inclusion of sophisticated eiioi
coiiection ciicuits. Fig. 69.25 shows a typical DAB ieceivei.
DAB ieception begins in a similai mannei as is used in viitually all ieceiveis. A ieceiving antenna feeds an
appiopiiate stage of RF selectivity and amplifcation fiom which a sample of the coded DAB signal is deiived.
This signal then diives a channel decodei, which ieconstiucts the audio and auxiliaiy data stieams. To accom-
plish this task, the channel decodei must demodulate and de-inteileave the data contained on the RF caiiiei
and then apply appiopiiate computational and statistical eiioi coiiection functions.
The souice decodei conveits the ieduced bit-iate audio stieam back to pseudolineai at the oiiginal sampling
iate. The decodei computationally expands the mathematically ieduced data and flls the gaps left fiom the
extiaction of iiielevant audio infoimation with aveiaged code oi othei masking data. The output of the souice
FIGURE 69.24 An example DAB tiansmission system. (Sourte. Hammett & Edison, Inc., Consulting Engineeis.)
decodei feeds audio digital-to-analog (D/A) conveiteis, and the iesulting analog steieo audio signal is amplifed
foi the listenei.
In addition to audio extiaction, DAB ieceiveis likely will be capable of decoding auxiliaiy data. This data
can be used in conjunction with the usei inteiface to contiol ieceivei functions, oi foi a completely sepaiate
puipose. A typical usei inteiface could contain a data display scieen in addition to the usual ieceivei tuning
and audio contiols. This data scieen could be used to obtain infoimation about the piogiamming, news iepoits,
spoits scoies, adveitising, oi any othei useful data sent by the station oi an oiiginating netwoik. Also, exteinal
inteifaces could be used to piovide a softwaie link to peisonal computei systems.
Audiu Cumpressiun and Suurce Encuding
The development of digital audio encoding staited with ieseaich into pulse-code modulation (PCM) in the
late 1930s and evolved, shoitly theieaftei, to include woik on the piinciples of digital PCM coding. Lineai
piedictive coding (LPC) and adaptive delta pulse-code modulation (ADPCM) algoiithms had evolved in the
eaily 1970s and latei weie adopted into standaids such as C.721 (published by the CCITT) and CD-I (Compact
Disc-Inteiactive). At the same time, algoiithms weie being invented foi use with phoneme-based speech coding.
Phonetic coding, a fist-geneiation model-based" speech-coding algoiithm, was mainly implemented foi low
bit-iate speech and text-to-speech applications. These classes of algoiithms foi speech fuithei evolved to include
both CELP (Code Excited Lineai Piedictive) and VSELP (Vectoi Selectable Excited Lineai Piedictive) algoiithms
by the mid-1980s. In the late 1980s, these classes of algoiithms weie also shown to be useful foi high-quality
audio music coding. These audio algoiithms weie put to commeicial use fiom the late 1970s to the lattei pait
of the 1980s.
Subband codeis evolved fiom the eaily woik on quadiatuie miiioi flteis in the mid-1970s and continued
with polyphase fltei-based schemes in the mid-1980s. Hybiid algoiithms employing both subband and ADPCM
coding weie developed in the lattei pait of the 1970s and standaidized (e.g., CCITT G.722) in the mid- to late
1980s. Adaptive tiansfoim codeis foi audio evolved in the mid-1980s fiom speech coding woik done in the
late 1970s.
By employing psychoacoustic noise-masking piopeities of the human eai, peiceptual encoding evolved fiom
eaily woik of the 1970s and wheie high-quality speech codeis weie employed. Music quality bit-iate ieduction
schemes such as MPEG (Motion Pictuie Expeit Gioup), PASC (Piecision Adaptive Subband Coding), and
ATRAC (Adaptive TRansfoim Acoustic Coding) have been developed. Fuithei iefnements to the technology
will focus attention on novel appioaches such as wavelet-based coding and the use of entiopy coding schemes.
Howevei, iecent piogiess has been signifcant, and the vaiious audio coding schemes that have been demon-
stiated publicly ovei the time peiiod fiom 1990 to 1995 have shown steady incieases in compiession iatios at
given audio quality levels.
Audio coding foi digital bioadcasting will likely use one of the many peiceptual encoding schemes pieviously
mentioned oi some vaiiation theieof. Fundamentally, they all depend on two basic psychoacoustic phenomena:
FIGURE 69.25 An example DAB ieceivei. (Sourte. Hammett & Edison, Inc., Consulting Engineeis.)
(1) the thieshold of human heaiing, and (2) masking of neaiby fiequency components. In the eaily days of
heaiing ieseaich, Haivey Fletchei, a ieseaichei at Bell Laboiatoiies, measuied the heaiing of many human
beings and published the well-known Fletchei-Munson thieshold-of-heaiing chait. Basically it states that,
depending on the fiequency, audio sounds below ceitain levels cannot be heaid by the human eai. Fuithei, the
masking effect, simply stated, is when two fiequencies aie veiy close to each othei and one is a highei level
than the othei, the weakei of the two is masked and will not be heaid. These two piinciples allow foi as much
as 80% of the data iepiesenting a musical signal to be discaided.
Figuie 69.26 shows how intioduction of fiequency components affects the eai`s thieshold of heaiing veisus
fiequency. Figuie 69.27 shows how the ievised envelope of audibility iesults in the elimination of components
that would not be heaid.
The electionic implementation of these algoiithms employs a digital fltei that bieaks the audio spectium
into many subbands, and vaiious coeffcient elements aie built into the piogiam to decide when it is peimissible
to iemove one oi moie of the signal components. The details of how the bands aie divided and how the
coeffcients aie deteimined aie usually piopiietaiy to the individual system developeis. Standaidization gioups
have spent many woikei-houis of evaluation attempting to deteimine the most accuiate coding system.
System Examp!e: Eureka-147]DAB
As of this wiiting, Euieka-147/DAB is the only fully developed DAB system that has demonstiated a capability
to meet viitually all the desciibed system goals. Developed by a Euiopean consoitium, it is an out-band system
FIGURE 69.26 An example of the masking effect. Based on the heaiing thieshold of the human eai (dashed line), a 500-
Hz sinusoidal acoustic wavefoim, shown at on the left giaph, is easily audible at ielatively low levels. Howevei, it can be
masked by adding neaiby highei-amplitude components, as shown on the iight. (Sourte. CCi.)
FIGURE 69.27 Souice encodeis use an empiiically deiived masking thieshold to deteimine which audio components can
be discaided (left). As shown on the iight, only the audio components with amplitudes above the masking thieshold aie
ietained. (Sourte. CCi.)
in that its design is based on the use of a fiequency spectium outside the AM and FM iadio bioadcast bands.
Out-band opeiation is iequiied because the system packs up to 16 steieophonic bioadcast channels (plus
auxiliaiy data) into one contiguous band of fiequencies, which can occupy a total bandwidth of up to 4 MHz.
Thus, oveiall effciency is maintained, with 16 digital piogiam channels occupying about the same total
bandwidth as 16 equivalent analog FM bioadcast channels. System developeis have piomoted Euieka-147/DAB
foi satellite tiansmission, as well as foi teiiestiial applications in locations that have a suitable block of unused
spectium in the L-band fiequency iange oi below.
In iecent tests and demonstiations, the ISO/MPEG-2 souice encoding/decoding system has been used.
Oiiginally developed by IRT (Institut fui Rundfunktecknik) in Geimany as MUSICAM (Masking pattein-
adapted Univeisal Subband Integiated Coding And Multiplexing), the system woiks by dividing the oiiginal
digital audio souice into 32 subbands. As with the souice encodeis desciibed eailiei, each of the bands is digitally
piocessed to iemove iedundant infoimation and sounds that aie not peiceptible to the human eai. Using this
technique, the oiiginal audio, sampled at a iate of 768 kilobits/s pei channel, is ieduced to as little as 96 kilobits/s
pei channel, iepiesenting a compiession iatio of 8:1.
The Euieka-147/DAB channel encodei opeiates by combining the tiansmitted piogiam channels into a laige
numbei of adjacent naiiowband RF caiiieis, which aie each modulated using QPSK and giouped in a way
that maximizes spectium effciency known as oithogonal fiequency-division multiplex (OFDM). The infoi-
mation to be tiansmitted is distiibuted among the RF caiiieis and is also time-inteileaved to ieduce the effects
of selective fading. A guaid inteival is inseited between blocks of tiansmitted data to impiove system iesistance
to inteisymbol inteifeience caused by multipath piopagation. Convolutional coding is used in conjunction
with a Viteibi maximum-likelihood decoding algoiithm at the ieceivei to make constiuctive use of echoed
signals and to coiiect iandom eiiois Alaid and Lassalle, 1988].
RF powei levels of just a few tens of watts pei piogiam channel have been used in system demonstiations,
pioviding a ielatively wide coveiage aiea, depending on the height of the tiansmitting antenna above suiiound-
ing teiiain. This low powei level is possible because the system can opeiate at a C/N iatio of less than 10 dB,
as opposed to the moie than 30 dB that is iequiied foi high-fdelity demodulation of analog FM bioadcasts.
Anothei demonstiated capability of the system is its ability to use gap nller" tiansmitteis to augment signal
coveiage in shadowed aieas. A gap fllei is simply a system that diiectly ieceives the DAB signal at an unob-
stiucted location, piovides RF amplifcation, and ietiansmits the signal, on the same channel, into the shadowed
aiea. Because the system can make constiuctive use of signal ieections (within a time window defned by the
guaid inteival and othei factois), the demodulated signal is uninteiiupted on a mobile ieceivei when it tiavels
between an aiea seived by the main signal into the seivice aiea of the gap fllei.
Dehning Terms
Channel encoder: A device that conveits souice-encoded digital infoimation into an analog RF signal foi
tiansmission. The type of modulation used depends on the paiticulai digital audio bioadcasting (DAB)
system, although most modulation techniques employ methods by which the tiansmitted signal can be
made moie iesistant to fiequency-selective signal fading and multipath distoition effects.
Gap nller: A low-powei tiansmittei that boosts the stiength of tiansmitted DAB RF signals in aieas which
noimally would be shadowed due to teiiain obstiuction. Gap flleis can opeiate on the same fiequency
as DAB tiansmissions oi on alteinate channels that can be located by DAB ieceiveis using automatic
switching.
Source encoder: A device that substantially ieduces the data iate of lineaily digitized audio signals by taking
advantage of the psychoacoustic piopeities of human heaiing, eliminating iedundant and subjectively
iiielevant infoimation fiom the output signal. Tiansfoim souice encodeis woik entiiely within the
fiequency domain, while time-domain souice encodeis woik piimaiily in the time domain. Souice
decodeis ieveise the piocess, using vaiious masking techniques to simulate the piopeities of the oiiginal
lineai data.
Re!ated Tupics
69.2 Radio 73.6 Data Compiession
Relerences
M. Alaid and R. Lassalle, Piinciples of modulation and channel coding foi digital bioadcasting foi mobile
ieceiveis," in JanteJ Dga| Tet|nques [or UHF Sae||e SounJ BroaJtasng (collected papeis), Euio-
pean Bioadcasting Union, pp. 47-69, 1988.
R. Biuno, Digital audio and video compiession, piesent and futuie," piesented to the Delphi Club, Tokyo,
Japan, July 1992.
G. Chouinaid and F. Conway, Bioadcasting systems concepts foi digital sound," in ProteeJngs o[ |e 45|
nnua| BroaJtas Engneerng Con[erente, National Association of Bioadcasteis, 1991, pp. 257-266.
F. Conway, R. Voyei, S. Edwaids, and D. Tyiie, Initial expeiimentation with DAB in Canada," in ProteeJngs
o[ |e 45| nnua| BroaJtas Engneerng Con[erente, National Association of Bioadcasteis, 1991, pp.
281-290.
S. Kuh and J. Wang, Communications systems engineeiing foi digital audio bioadcast," in ProteeJngs o[ |e
45| nnua| BroaJtas Engneerng Con[erente, National Association of Bioadcasteis, 1991, pp. 267-272.
P. H. Moose and J.M. Wozenciaft, Modulation and coding foi DAB using multi-fiequency modulation," in
ProteeJngs o[ |e 45| nnua| BroaJtas Engneerng Con[erente, National Association of Bioadcasteis,
1991, pp. 405-410.
M. Rau, L. Claudy, and S. Salek, Terresra| Coerage ConsJeraons [or Dga| uJo BroaJtasng Sysems,
National Association of Bioadcasteis, 1990.
S. Smyth, Digital audio data compiession," BroaJtas Engneerng Maga:ne, pp. 52-60, Feb. 1992.
K.D. Spiingei, Iner[erente Beween FM anJ Dga| M-PSK Sgna|s n |e FM BanJ, National Association of
Bioadcasteis, 1992.
Further Inlurmatiun
The National Association of Bioadcasteis publishes peiiodic iepoits on the technical, iegulatoiy, and political
status of DAB in the United States. Additionally, theii Bioadcast Engineeiing Confeience pioceedings published
since 1990 contain a substantial amount of infoimation on emeiging DAB technologies.
IEEE Transatons on BroaJtasng, published quaiteily by the Institute of Electiical and Electionics Engineeis,
Inc., peiiodically includes papeis on digital bioadcasting.
Additionally, the biweekly newspapei publication RaJo Vor|J piovides continuous coveiage of DAB tech-
nology, including pioponent announcements, system desciiptions, feld test iepoits, and bioadcast industiy
ieactions.

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Dorf, R.C., Wan, Z., Lindsey III, J.F., Doelitzsch, D.F., Whitaker J., Roden, M.S.

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