Biology Notes

1. Explain the terms; (a) Producer - Producer are plants which acts a the main part of a food chain, where it uses light energy(solar energy) to make food and and leads a food chain by providing food source for the Primary consumers. (b) Consumers - onsume other organisms for food (eg! lobster eaten by stingray) - "he consumers in a food chain in an ecosystem are classified into primary consumers, secondary consumers and tertiary consumers. - Primary consumers are herbivores and eat energy-rich plants and release energy during respiration. - #econdary consumers are carnivores that eat herbivores. $ike herbivores, carnivores cannot obtain energy directly from sunlight. arnivores obtain their energy from energy-rich organic molecules in the herbivores. - "ertiary consumers are carnivores that eat other carnivores and obtain their energy from energy-rich organic molecules in the carnivores.

2. Explain the reason for the reduction in energy in the proceeds between Gross primary production and Net primary production. %ross primary production(%PP) is the rate at which green plants and other producers such as algae, some bacteria and cynobacteria convert light energy into chemical energy and store it in the organic food materials. Net primary production(NPP) is the net gain in energy which remains as chemical energy in the organic materials (biomass). &eason ! %PP is used in respiration, providing energy for plant's life processes. "hus, NPP ( %PP - )nergy loss (through respiration)

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. Protein structure of an en!yme. - )n+ymes are globular proteins - oiled and folded into globular shape - %lobular structure maintained by hydrogen, ionic, disulphide bonds, hydrophobic interactions and ,an der waals interactions. - "ertiary structure determines its metabolic functions. &elatively unstable structure. - -rregular amino acid se.uence. - #e.uence is highly specific.

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". Competiti#e $nhibitor and Non%competiti#e $nhibitor ompetitive -nhibitor - /ave a shape similar to the natural substrate. - an fit temporarily into the active site of the en+yme, prevents substrate binding to it. - ompete for the same active site of the en+yme - )ntry (or #ubstrates) would depend on their relative concentration. - -nhibition reversed by increasing the substrate concentration.

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Non-competitive -nhibitor - /ave no structural similarities to the natural substrate - "hey do not attach to the active site but bind with the en+yme at another site (allotteric site) - -ts binding causes a change in the conformation of the en+yme molecule and its active site - -t does not compete with substrate for active site. "hus, substrate concentration does not affect the rate of reaction. - "he rate of reaction decreases as inhibitor concentration increases - )0ample ! yanide attach itself to copper prosthetic group of en+yme cytochrome o0idase and -nhibiting respiratory reactions.

&. 'raw and label structure of cell membrane ( )inger*s model % +luid%mosaic model,

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-. .oles of )tructures of the cell membrane in the transportation of substances into the cell. 1embranes - #electively permeable and regulate the movement of substances in and out of the cell - #mall molecules such as o0ygen, carbon dio0ide and hydrophobic molecules diffuse through the phospholipid bilayers down a concentration gradient - Protein channels and carriers move polar ions and molecules2 for e0ample glucose and amino acids across membranes by facilitated diffusion - Protein pumps actively transport substances against a concentration gradient /. Explain the following terms0 1iotic Potential ! "he ma0imum rate at which a population can increase under ideal conditions, that is when population is low and resources are plentiful. Natality ! "he birth rate or natality refers to the number of young produced per female per unit of times. Carrying Capacity ! "his is defined as the largest population that a particular habitat can support and sustain for an indefinite period, assuming there are no changes in the environment. 2ortality ! &efers to the death of individuals in a population. "he mortality rate is e.uivalent to the death rate in a human population. 3. )tate the problem faced by organisms that li#e together in the same habitat in the same habitat and compete for limited resources. 'escribe the species strategies that enables this organisms to sur#i#e. "here are two strategies known as r strategy and the K strategy where the symbols r and K represent two parameters for the sigmoid population growth curve. & is the increase rate( r) and K is the saturated population si+e or carrying capacity. #pecies that use r strategy are opportunists, that is they have the ability to reproduce .uickly under brief suitable conditions and can continue to live in intermittent periods of e0treme or unsuitable conditions. #uch species normally have the following characteristics ! (a) "hey live at the edge of the habitat so that they can disperse easily and colonise other habitats to survive. (b) "hey are seldom involved in interspecies competition and do not have a strong ability to compete (c) "hey e0perience a high death rate, and as such a large amount of energy is used to produce large numbers of progeny that can be widely dispersed. )0amples ! weeds and insects

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3rganisms that use the K strategy include terrestrial vertebrates and also species that have achieved saturation level and e.uilibrium in population si+e. "hese species normally have the following characteristics! (a) "hey e0hibit strong interspecies and intraspecies competition. (b) "hey also e0hibit high efficiency in the use of resources. (c) "hey possess adaptation characteristics to continue survival in a crowded habitat. (d) "hey have small numbers of progeny, but the progeny are large in si+e and nurtured well to ensure survival. 4. Explain using named example. 2utualism 4 two species mutually benefits 5n e0ample of mutualism is the relationship between termites and the flagellate proto+oans which live in their intestines. "he termite cannot reproduce the en+yme needed to digest the cellulose consumed by them. /owever, the flagellate proto+oans in their intestines can produce the en+yme needed to break down cellulose into simple sugars. )ven though a part of these sugars is consumed by the proto+oans for their metabolism the rest is sufficient for termite. 6or the proto+oan, its lifestyle is so specialised that it is unable to live in any other environment e0cept the intestines of termites. Parasitism 4 &efers to a unidirectional relationship between two species. 7- benefit 8-harmed Parasites lives inside or outside the body of another species, that is, the host, either temporarily or permanently. )0ample ! "he malaria parasite, Plasmodium and Phytophthora which attack and obtain food directly from the living cells of their respective hosts.

6lagellate Proto+oans - 1utualistic

Phythophthora - Parasitic

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15. Explain the action mechanisms of en!ymes in the terms of specificity and acti#ation energy. )n+ymes are organic catalysts "here are active sites at the en+yme molecules where they help to reduce the activation energy needed by the substrate molecules before the reaction occur. 5ctivation energy is the minimum energy re.uired to initiate a chemical reaction. 5ctivation energy is used to break the bonds of the reagents so that the reaction can take place. )n+ymes has its own specific site which only can catalyse certain reactions

11. )tate three different types of cofactors and their functions. $norganic ions Need as en+yme activators. )0amples2 5ctivity of salivary amylase is accelerated by presence of ( l-) ions, 1g89.

Prosthetic group -s a non-protein compound which is strongly bound to an en+yme and becomes a part of the en+yme structure that is not easily separated. ontains heavy metals like iron (6e), molybdenum (1o), copper ( u), or manganese (1n). )n+ymes that have prosthetic groups belong to class of proteins called con:ugate proteins.

Coen!yme -s a non-protein compound that is loosely bound to an en+yme. -t can detach itself from one en+yme to participate in other en+yme reactions. "his means same coen+yme can take part in two different en+ymic reactions -t can receive and release hydrogen atoms, it can also act as a hydrogen carrier from one reaction to another. )0amples! Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (N5;), Biotin, oen+yme 5 ( o5).

12. 'escribe the structures of a named biosensor and state the ad#antages of using a biosensor. 5 common biosensor is a probe that integrates a biological material for e0ample, an en+yme, an antibody or a cell and, often, also with an electronic component. -t is used to detect specific chemicals accurately and rapidly. "his type of biosensor has five components, (a) 5 biological sensing material (b) 5 transducer (c) 5n amplifier (d) 5 microelectronics and data processor

(e) 5 signal generator

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6d#antages (a) 5ccurate and .uick diagnosis (b) #afe to use and cost can be reduced in mass production (c) Biosensors are very sensitive and can detect very low concentrations of specific chemicals.

(d) /elps in early detection of medical cases, so that treatment can begin early. -mportant in preventive medicine, leading to faster and better treatment for diabetic patients.

1 . 'escribe the replication of 'N6 )n+yme helicase catalyses the unwinding of ;N5 double heli0 "he hydrogen bonds between the bases in ;N5 are broken "he two ;N5 strands open and act as template #ynthesis of new ;N5 strand occurs in the direction <= to >= "he free nucleotides in the nucleoplasm pair up with the e0posed complementary bases in the parental ;N5 strand. Base adenine (5) pairs with thymine ("), and cytosine ( ) with guanine (%). "he nucleotides are then linked together by ;N5 polymerase to form the ;N5 leading strand -n the synthesis of the lagging strand, short 3ka+aki fragments are first synthesised in the <= ---? >= direction. "he en+yme ;N5 ligase catalyses the formation of linkages between the 3ka+aki fragments to form a ;N5 lagging strand &eplication of ;N5 is semi-conservative. "wo ;N5 molecules are produced from a single parental ;N5 molecule. )ach ;N5 double heli0 contains one new ;N5 strand and one parental strand.

1". 'escribe how deforestation may affect the en#ironment.

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Forests, trees and plants are like carbon "sinks" that absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and turn it into oxygen. We need large expanses of forest to remove carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas contributing to global warming.

Deforestation means cutting down trees which directly affects the environment so that there will be less pure air or oxygen to breath as trees serve to clean air by taking in C ! and releasing !.

"he natural habitat for wild animals and birds will be destroyed which will lead to their extinction and the conse#uently disturbance to the food chain. Deforestation will also increase floods, drought and climate change and will also cause soil erosion because trees help in binding soil with their roots.

"he effect of deforestation on environment can cause floods, fertility of the soil can be gone , there will be soil erosion, water cycle can be disturbed which results in drought and there will be disturbance in nature and there cannot be any shelter for any organisms. Deforestation has much economic importance but the bad effect is that $.%t causes erosion. !.%t leads to loss or extinction of wild life. &.%t exposes the bush to burning. '.%t destroys the soil structure. (.%t contributes to global warming by removing the carbon sinks )trees* that absorb C ! from the atmosphere. Deforestation can lead to soil erosion, desertification, and in extreme cases the extinction of plants and animals. +very tree is home to at least $,, animals.

1&. 'escribe the features which are characteristics of a fish (Class Pisces, and fi#e features which are characteristics of all chordates. 1ony +ish /as a skeleton consisting of bone tissue -t has a vertebral column consisting of a series of similar vertebrae. 5bit of notochord still e0ists in the adult . "he body is protected and covered by by overlapping bony dermal scales. 1ost species have mid-fins and paired fins. "he rays in the fins consists of bone tissue and cartilaginous tissue. -n the anterior region, part of the body is modified to form operculum.

+eatures of Chordates

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(a) Notochord -t is a dorsal rod consisting of cartilaginous substance. -t is replaced by the vertebral column in vertebrates during development of the embryo (b) Pharyngeal gill slits Primitive chordates have gill slits for food filtration. -n vertebrates, the gill slits are modified for other functions. -n fishes, the gill slits are modified for respiration. -n reptiles, birds and mammals, the gill slits are only represented by the )ustachian "ube. (c) Closed blood circulatory system Blood flows in the blood vessels. "he main ventral blood vessel carries blood to the hart and the main dorsal blood vessel carries blood from the heart to all parts of the body. (d) Position of the tail "he tail is found :ust after the anus. -n a.uatic chordates, the tail is at the posterior end of the digestive canal. -t acts as an accessory structure to assist in locomotion. -n fishes, the structure is modifies to form caudal fin. (e) 2yotomes or segmental muscle bloc7s "he muscular tissue is arranged in blocks. "his pattern is generally observed in the chordates at the embryo stage. /owever, it is maintained even in the adults for the same chordates. )0amples are amphio0us and fish. 1-. 8ipid molecule 9 .efer to text boo7 page 1&. 1/. Cellulose ellulose is the structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls. ellulose is composed of long unbranched chains of up to 7@ @@@ B-glucose units linked B-7,A glycosidic bonds. )ach B-glucose unit is related to the ne0t by a rotation of 7B@C with hydro0yl groups pro:ecting outwards on either side of the chain. ellulose chains run parallel to one another. "his allows the linear chains to lie close together. 1any hydrogen bonds are formed between the hydro0yl groups on ad:acent chains. "he chains group together to form microfibrils which are arranged in larger bundles to form macrofibrils "he fibrils give plant cells their high tensile strength and rigidity "he layers of fibrils are permeable to water and solute.

13. 'N6 and .N6

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&N5 (ribonucleic acid) onsists of a single polynucleotide strand

;N5 (deo0yribonucleic acid) onsists of two polynucleotide strands which coil which coil around each other two form a double heli0. "he two polynucleotide strands are arranged in an anti-parallel direction ;N5 molecule is much longer ontains pentose sugar, deo0yribose

&N5 molecule is shorter ontains pentose sugar, ribose

"he nitrogenous bases are adenine, uracil, "he bases are adenine, thymine, cytosine cytosine and guanine, ("he base thymine and guanine is replaced by uracil) Present in the nucleus and the cytoplasm 1ainly present in the chromosomes in the nucleus. #mall amount is present in the mitochondria and chloroplasts 3nly one type of ;N5

"here are three main types of &N5 messenger &N5 4 m&N5 transfer &N5 4 t&N5 ribosomal &N5 4 r&N5

7D. 6ibrous and globular proteins - refer to page 8E in te0t book 8@. "echni.ue of cell fractionation 4 &efer page 77@F777 87. omparasion between electron microscopy and light microscopy 4 &efer page 77A in te0t book

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