DynamicsComposites Jean-Marie Berthelot

Jean-Marie Berthelot
Dynamics of Composite Materials

and Structures

ISMANS
Institute for Advanced Le Mans, France
Materials and Mechanics


and Structures

Jean-Marie Berthelot is an Emeritus Professor at the Institute for Advanced
Materials and Mechanics (ISMANS), Le Mans, France. His current research is on
the mechanical behaviour of composite materials and structures. He has published
extensively in the area of composite materials and is the author of a textbook
entitled Composite Materials, Mechanical Behavior and Structural Analysis
published by Springer, New York, in 1999.

and Structures

ISMANS
Institute for Advanced Le Mans, France
Materials and Mechanics

Preface
The objective of this textbook is to develop the fundamental concepts needed
for the dynamic analysis of composite materials and composite structures. The
book has been established for the undergraduate upper-levels and graduate level
in Mechanical Engineering.
The basic elements needed to investigate the dynamic behaviour of laminate
and sandwich materials and structures are developed in References 1 and 2 of this
textbook. Chapter 1 summarizes these basic elements. First the chapter gives ele-
ments on the constituents and the architecture of composite materials, and then
introduces the mechanical behaviour of composite materials. Next the chapter
considers the fundamental theories for modelling the mechanical behaviour of
laminate and sandwich materials.
Chapter 2 treats the dynamics of systems with one degree of freedom. The
topics considered are of general interest and practical usefulness for analyzing the
dynamic behaviour of structures using mode superposition.
Chapter 3 develops the one-dimensional flexural vibrations of laminate or
sandwich plates. This type of vibrations concerns the bending vibrations of beams
and the vibrations of plates under cylindrical bending. The chapter considers the
natural modes of beam vibrations and their properties. Beam vibrations with low
damping are then analysed, introducing the modal coordinates. The effects of
transverse shear are analysed in the case of cylindrical vibrations.
Chapter 4 analyses the flexural vibrations of rectangular laminate plates, with
damping neglected. Analytical solutions for the free vibrations of plates are deri-
ved in a few particular cases. Then, the chapter develops the Ritz method to obtain
approximate solutions for the natural modes of rectangular plates with various
conditions along the edges. The analysis of the dynamic behaviour of composite
structure needs to evaluate the bending stiffnesses of composite materials. Chapter
4 shows how the stiffnesses can be estimated from the experimental analysis of
rectangular plate vibrations. The problems and the difficulties of the evaluation
are extensively discussed.
In fact, it is necessary to consider the damping of materials in the investigation
of the dynamic behaviour of composite structures. Damping in composite mate-
rials is considered in Chapter 5, first, as a function of the constituents. Then,
bending vibrations of damped laminate beams are studied using viscous friction
model and complex stiffness. Damping properties of orthotropic beams and plates
are analyzed as a function of material orientation.
An extended experimental investigation of damping of composites is deve-
loped in the case of unidirectional glass and Kevlar fibre composites in Chapter 6.
A procedure for measuring laminate damping from the bending vibrations of
beams is presented. Next, discussion is developed on the experimental results
obtained. Temperature effect is also considered.
Inserting viscoelastic layers in composite laminates improves significantly the
damped dynamic properties of the laminates. Chapter 7 develops an extended
analysis in the case of rectangular plates which allows us to investigate the pro-
cesses induced by interleaving viscoelastic layers.
vi Preface

The dynamic analysis of complex structures needs to use the finite element
method. Chapter 8 provides the basic concepts of the finite element formulation
applied to the dynamic analysis of composite structures. The formulation has been
developed so as to make the chapter self-contained.
Finite element formulation derives the numerical equations of the dynamic
behaviour of composite structures. Chapter 9 analyzes the numerical procedures
used to solve these equations. Direct integration and mode superposition are
presented. Lastly, the evaluation of the damping of composite structures is
considered.
Chapter 10 develops an extensive analysis of the damping of sandwich mate-
rials. First, modelling of sandwich materials and structures is implemented.
Experimental investigation is next carried out in the case of sandwich materials
constituted of a foam core and laminate skins.
The purpose of Chapter 11 is to report a general formulation of the different
concepts introduced in the present textbook by applying these concepts to the
analysis of the damping of different laminates and sandwich materials and to the
analysis of the vibrations of a simple shape structure.

Le Mans, January 2010 Jean-Marie Berthelot

Contents
Preface v
Chapter 1 Basic Elements on Laminate and Sandwich Composite
Materials 1
1.1 Constituents and Architecture of Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Constituents of Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Laminate Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.3 Sandwich Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Elastic Behaviour of Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Unidirectional Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Orthotropic Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Stress-Strain Relations for Off-Axis Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Plane Stress State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4.1 Two-Dimensional Stress State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4.2 Elasticity Equations for Plane Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4.3 Elasticity Equations in Material Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.4.4 Off-Axis Reduced Stiffness Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Basics of Laminate Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.2 Displacement Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.3 Resultants and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3.1 In-Plane Resultants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.3.2 Transverse Shear Resultants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.3.3 Resultant Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.4 Fundamental Equations for Plates in the case of First-Order Theory . . 12
1.4 Classical Laminate Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.1 Assumptions of the Classical Theory of Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 Strain Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4.3 Stress Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.3.1 General Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.3.2 Stress Field in the Case of the Classical Laminate Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.4 Resultants and Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.5 Constitutive Equation of a Laminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.6 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.4.7 Boundary Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.7.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.7.2 Simply Supported Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.7.3 Clamped Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.4.7.4 Free Edge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.8 Energy Formulation of the Classical Laminate Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.8.1 Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4.8.2 Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.5 Laminate Theory Including the Transverse Shear Effects . . . . . . . . . 25
1.5.1 Constitutive Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.5.2 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.5.3 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5.4 Introduction of Transverse Shear Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
viii Contents

1.6. Theory of Sandwich Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.6.2 Assumptions for the Sandwich Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.6.3 Displacement Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.6.4 Strain Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.6.5 Stress Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.6.6 Constitutive Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.6.7 Fundamental Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Chapter 2 Dynamics of Systems with One Degree of Freedom 36
2.1 Equation of Motion of a System with One Degree of Freedom . . . . . 36
2.2 Undamped Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.1 Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.2 Free Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.2.3 Forced Vibrations. Steady State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.3.1 Case of a Harmonic Disturbing Force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2.3.2 Case of a Harmonic Displacement of the Spring End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3 Vibrations with Viscous Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.2 Equation of Motion with Viscous Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3.3 Free Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3.3.1 Characteristic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3.3.2 Case of Low Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3.3.3 Case of High Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.3.4 Critical Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.3.4 Vibrations in the case of Harmonic Disturbing Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.4.1 Time Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.4.2 Frequency Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.4.3 Effect of the Frequency of the Disturbing Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.4.4 Damping Modelling using Complex Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.3.5 Vibrations in the case of Periodic Disturbing Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.6 Vibrations in the case of Arbitrary Disturbing Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.4 Equivalent Viscous Damping Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.4.2 Energy Dissipated in the case of Viscous Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.4.3 Loss Factor and Specific Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4.4 Structural Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Chapter 3 Beam Bending and Cylindrical Bending Vibrations
of Undamped Laminate and Sandwich Materials 61
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2 Equation of Motion of Symmetric Laminate Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3 Natural Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.1 Mode Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.2 Properties of the Mode Shapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.4 Natural Modes of Beams with Different End Conditions . . . . . . . . . 66
3.4.1 Simply Supported Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.4.2 Clamped Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.4.3 Beam Clamped at One End and Simply Supported at the Other . . . . . 70
3.4.4 Beam Clamped at One End and Free at the Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Contents ix

3.4.5 Beam with Two Free Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.5 Normal Mode Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5.1 Motion Equation in Normal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.5.2 Response to Initial Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.5.2.1 General Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.5.2.2 Beam with Simply Supported Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.5.2.3 Beam with Other End Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.5.3 Forced Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.5.3.1 General Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.5.3.2 Beam with Simply Supported Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.6 Cylindrical Bending Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.6.2 Classical Laminate Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.6.2.1 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.6.2.2 Plate Simply Supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.6.2.3 Plates with Other End Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.6.3 Effect of Transverse Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.6.4 Cylindrical Vibrations of Sandwich Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Chapter 4 Flexural Vibrations of Undamped Rectangular
Laminate Plates 88
4.1 Free Vibrations of Rectangular Orthotropic Plates Simply
Supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.2 Vibrations of Orthotropic Plates with Various Conditions along the
Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.2.1 General Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.2.2 Rayleighs Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.3 Two-Term Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.2.4 Orthotropic Plates with Simply Supported or Clamped Edges . . . . . . 96
4.3 Vibrations of Symmetric Laminate Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.3.1 General Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.3.2 Symmetric Plates with Clamped or Free Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.4 Vibrations of Non-symmetric Laminate Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4.1 Plate Constituted of an Antisymmetric Cross-Ply Laminate . . . . . . . . 104
4.4.2 Plate Constituted of an Angle-Ply Laminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.5 Evaluation of the Laminate Bending Stiffnesses by Analysis of Plate
Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.5.2 Experimental Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.5.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.5.2.2 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.5.2.3 Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.5.3 Introduction to the Experimental Modal Analysis of
Orthotropic Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.5.3.1 Evaluation of the Natural Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.5.3.2 Different Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.5.4 Experimental Results and Discussion in the case of Orthotropic
Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.5.4.1 Values of the Natural Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.5.4.2 Determination of the Stiffnesses by an Iterative Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.5.4.3 Evaluation of the Stiffnesses from Rayleighs Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.5.4.4 Discussion of the Results and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
x Contents
4.5.5 Case of Symmetric Laminates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.5.5.1 Materials and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.5.2.2 Evaluation of the Bending Stiffnesses from the Natural Frequencies and
Mode Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Chapter 5 Damping in Composite Materials 136
5.1 General Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.2 Damping in a Unidirectional Composite as a Function of the
Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.3. Bending Vibrations of Damped Laminate Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.3.1 Damping Modelling using Viscous Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.3.2 Motion Equation in Normal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.3.3 Forced Harmonic Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.3.4 Damping Modelling using Complex Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.3.5 Beam Response to a Concentrated Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.4 Evaluation of the Damping Properties of Orthotropic Beams as
Functions of Material Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.4.1 Energy Analysis of Beam Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.4.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.4.1.2 Adams-Bacon Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.4.1.3 Ni-Adams Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.4.1.4 General Formulation of Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.4.2 Complex Moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.5 Evaluation of the Plate Damping as a Function of Material
Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5.1 Orthotropic Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5.1.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5.1.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.5.2 Laminated Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.5.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Chapter 6 Experimental Investigation and Discussion
on the Damping Properties of Laminates 158
6.1 Experimental Investigation in Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.1.1 Experimental Processes for Evaluating Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.1.2 Experimental Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.2 Damping Analysis of Unidirectional Glass and Kevlar
Fibre Composites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.2.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.2.3 Experimental Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.2.4 Analysis of the Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2.4.1 Determination of the Constitutive Damping Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2.4.2 Plate Damping Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.2.5 Choice of the Frequency Range for the Experimental
Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.2.6 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.2.6.2 Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.2.6.3 Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Contents xi

6.3 Comparison of Experimental Results and Models for
Unidirectional Beam Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.3.1 Models of Adams-Bacon and Ni-Addams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.3.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.3.1.2 Glass Fibre Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.3.1.3 Kevlar Fibre Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6.3.2 Complex Stiffness Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.3.3 Using the Ritz Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.3.3.1 Damping Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.3.3.2 Influence of the Width of the Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.3.3.3 Damping According to Modes of Beam Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.4 Damping of Laminated Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
6.5 Damping of Laminated Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.5.1 Damping Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.5.2 Plates with One Edge Clamped and the Other Edges Free . . . . . . . . . 184
6.5.3 Plates with Two Edges Clamped and the Other Edges Free . . . . . . . . 186
6.6 Longitudinal and Transverse Damping of Unidirectional Fibre
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.6.2 Longitudinal Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.6.3 Transverse Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.6.3.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.6.3.2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.7 Temperature Effect on the Damping Properties of Unidirectional
Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.7.2 Materials and Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
6.7.3 Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.7.3.1 Matrix properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.7.3.2 Composite Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.7.3.3 Damping Evaluation Based on the Ritz Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Chapter 7 Damping Analysis of Laminates with Interleaved
Viscoelastic Layers 203
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.2 Damping Modelling of Orthotropic Laminates with Interleaved
Viscoelastic Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.2.1 Laminate Configurations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.2.2 In-Plane Damping with Interleaved Viscoelastic Layers . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.2.2.1 Case of a Single Interlaminar Viscoelastic Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7.2.2.2 Case of Two Interlaminar Viscoelastic Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.2.3 Considering the Transverse Shear Effects in the Case of a Single
Interlaminar Viscoelastic Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.3.2 Transverse Shear Stresses in Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.2.3.3 Strain Energy Stored in xz-Transverse Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.2.3.4 Strain Energy Stored in yz-Transverse Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.2.3.5 Laminate Damping with a Single Interleaved Viscoelastic Layer Including the
Transverse Shear Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.2.4 Considering the Transverse Shear Effects in the case of Two Interleaved
Viscoelastic Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.2.4.1 Case of Symmetric Laminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.2.4.2 Transverse Shear Stresses in the (x, z) plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
xii Contents
7.2.4.3 Transverse Shear Energies in the (x, z) plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7.2.4.4 Transverse Shear Energies in the (y, z) plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.2.4.5 Laminate Damping with Two Interleaved Viscoelastic Layer Including
the Transverse Shear Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.2.5 Application to Angle-Ply Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7.2.6 Laminates with External Viscoelastic Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.2.7 Choice of the Basis Functions of the Ritz Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
7.3 Experimental Investigation of Damping of Unidirectional
Composites with Interleaved Viscoelastic Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.3.1 Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
7.3.2 Experimental Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
7.3.3 Analysis of the Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.3.3.1 Dynamic Properties of the Viscoelastic Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.3.3.2 Damping of the Glass Fibre Laminates with Interleaved Viscoelastic
Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.4 Analysis of the Experimental Results Obtained in the case of
Angle-Ply Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.5 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
7.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Chapter 8 Finite Element Method in the Dynamic Analysis
of Composite Structures 242
8.1 Principle of the Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
8.2 Formulation of Structural Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.2.1 Isoparametric Finite Element Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.2.2 Example of a Four-Node Finite Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.2.2.1 Interpolation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
8.2.2.2 Strain Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
8.3 Laminate Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
8.3.1 Displacement Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
8.3.2 In-Plane Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
8.3.3 Flexural Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.3.4 Transverse Shear Behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.3.5 Stress Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.3.6 Energy Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.3.6.1 Strain Energy and Element Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.3.6.2 Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.3.6.3 Work of the External Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
8.4 Finite Element Dynamic Equation of Laminate Structure . . . . . . . . 255
Chapter 9 Solution of Dynamic Equation in Finite Element
Analysis 257
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
9.2 Direct Integration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
9.2.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
9.2.2 The Central Difference Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
9.2.2.1 Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
9.2.2.2 Characteristics of the Central Difference Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
9.2.3 The Houbolt Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
9.2.4 The Wilson Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
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9.2.5 The Newmark Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
9.3 Mode Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
9.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
9.3.2 Dynamic Equation in Modal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
9.3.2.1 Modal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
9.3.2.2 Motion Equation in Modal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.3.3 Modal Analysis with Damping Neglected . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
9.3.4 Modal Analysis with Damping Included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9.4 Evaluation of Structure Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
9.4.1 Modal Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
9.4.2 Damping Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
9.5 Finite Element Nonlinear Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Chapter 10 Damping of Sandwich Materials and Structures 274
10.1 Modelling the Dampig of Sandwich Composite Materials and
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
10.1.1 Stress Field in Sandwich Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
10.1.2 In-Plane Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
10.1.3 Transverse Shear Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.1.2 Damping of a Sandwich Composite Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
10.2 Experimental Investigation of the Damping of
Sandwich Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.2.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
10.2.2 Determination of the Constitutive Damping Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . 285
10.3 Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
10.3.1 Determination of the Dynamic Characteristics of the Foams . . . . . . . 283
10.3.1.1 Test Specimens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
10.3.1.2 Energies Stored in the Test Specimens and Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
10.3.1.3 Dynamic Characteristics of the Foams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
10.3.2 Analysis of the Damping of Sandwich Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
10.3.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
10.3.2.2 Mode Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
10.3.2.3 Damping of the Sandwich Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
10.4 Characteristic Factors of the Damping of Sandwich Materials . . . . 294
10.4.1 Influence of the Shear Modulus of the Foam Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
10.4.2 Energies Dissipated in the Core and Skins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
10.4.3 Effect of the Core Thickness on the Damping of
Sandwich Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
10.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Chapter 11 General Formulation of Damping of
Composite Materials and Structures 301
11.1 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
11.2 Modelling Damping of Laminate Beams and
Rectangular Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
11.3 Damping Modelling using Finite Element Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
11.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
11.3.2 Stress Field in Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
xiv Contents

11.3.3 In-Plane Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
11.3.4 Transverse Shear Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
11.3.5 Damping of a Composite Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
11.3.6 Procedure for Evaluating the Damping of Composite Structure . . . . . 311
11.4 Investigation of the Damping of Composite Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 312
11.4.1 Determination of the Constitutive Damping Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . 312
11.4.2 Damping of the Glass Fibre Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
11.4.3 Damping Comparison between Taffeta Laminates, Serge Laminates
and Cross-Ply Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
11.4.4 Damping of the Unidirectional Glass Fibre Laminates
with Interleaved Viscoelastic Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
11.4.5 Damping of the Sandwich Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
11.5 Dynamic Response of a Composite Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
11.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
References 329

CHAPTER 1
Basic Elements on Laminate and
Sandwich Composite Materials
1.1 CONSTITUENTS AND ARCHITECTURE
OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS
1.1.1 Constituents of Composite Materials
A composite materials is constituted of two or more materials of different
natures in such a way to obtain characteristics suited to a given applications. High
mechanical performance composites are made of continuous fibre incorporated in
a polymer matrix. The function of the matrix is to link the fibres together, to
protect the fibres from the external environment and to transfer the external
mechanical loading to the fibres.
Fibres confer upon composite materials their high mechanical characteristics as
stiffness and strength. Fibres are elaborated with a diameter of a few microns
(about 10 m) and are gathered into strands, rovings or yarns which can be used
to make surface tissues of various types. The principal fibres of composite mate-
rials are glass fibres, carbon fibres and Kevlar fibres.
Finally, fibre composite materials lead to materials which have high mecha-
nical properties associated to a low density.
The manufacturing processes used for moulding composite structures are based
on the lamination of successive layers in the form of plates and shells. So, this fact
justifies the analysis of composite materials in the form of plates of one or several
layers. Next, shells can be modelled as a set of plates and their analysis deduced
from the plate analysis. Furthermore, the theories of laminate and sandwich plates
are the basic concepts which are used to elaborate finite elements for investigating
the mechanical behaviour of laminate and sandwich structures.
1.1.2 Laminate Composite Materials
Laminates are made of successive layers (Figure 1.1) of fibre reinforcements in
the forms of strands, rovings, cloths, etc., impregnated with matrix.
2 Chapter 1. Basic Elements on Laminate and Sandwich Composite Materials

S

FIGURE 1.1. Constitution of a laminate.
Laminates with unidirectional strands or cloths constitute a basic laminate to
which, in theory, every other type of laminate can be reduced. Several unidi-
rectional layers can be stacked in a specified sequence of different orientations to
obtain a laminate that will fit the mechanical properties required. The identi-
fication of a laminate is obtained by reporting the successive layers with fibre
orientation, from the lower face to the upper face. For example: [30/90
2
/45/0/45].
1.1.3 Sandwich Composites
The principle of sandwich construction consists (Figure 1.2) in coating to a
core, made of light material or structure having good properties under com-
pression, on both sides with two skins having good flexural properties. The
objective is to obtain high flexural properties associated to lightness of the
material. Generally, solid cores or hollow cores as honeycombs are used with
laminated skins.

FIGURE 1.2. Sandwich material.
core
laminates
layers
laminate
1.2. Elastic Behaviour of Composite Materials 3

1.2 ELASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF COMPOSITE
MATERIALS
1.2.1 Unidirectional Composite Materials
A unidirectional composite is constituted of parallel fibres arranged in a matrix
(Figure 1.3a). An elementary cell can be considered, to a first approximation, as
constituted of a fibre embedded in a matrix cylinder (Figure 1.3b). This cell has a
revolution axis parallel to the fibres. This direction is called the longitudinal
direction and denoted as axis 1 or L-axis. Every direction normal to the fibres is
called a transverse direction and the composite is considered as transversely
isotropic. The transverse plane will be described by the direction 2 and 3, also
denoted by T and , T respectively. These directions are equivalent.
The elastic behaviour of a unidirectional composite is described by one of the
two matrix forms:

( )
11 12 12
1 1
12 22 23
2 2
12 23 22
3 3
1
22 23
4 4
2
5 5
66
6 6
66
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
C C C
C C C
C C C
C C
C
C

=

, (1.1)
or

FIGURE 1.3. Unidirectional composite.
1, L
3, T
2, T
1, L
(a)
(b)

( )
1 11 12 12 1
2 12 22 23 2
3 12 23 22 3
4 22 23 4
5 66 5
6 66 6
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
S S S
S S S
S S S
S S
S
S

=

. (1.2)
These laws introduce the stiffness constants C
ij
and S
ij
. Relations (1.1) and (1.2)
are written using the engineering notation for the stresses (Chapter 5 of Ref. 1)
and for the strains (Chapter 6 of Ref. 1).
The stiffness and compliance matrices are inverses of each other and are cha-
racterized by five independent constants: C
11
, C
12
, C
22
, C
23
, C
66
or S
11
, S
12
, S
22
,
S
23
, S
66
. These constants can be expressed (Chapter 9 of Ref. 1) as functions of
five engineering constants, for example: E
L
and
LT
, the Youngs modulus and
the Poisson ratio measured in a longitudinal test; E
T
, the Youngs modulus
measured in a transverse test; G
LT
and ,
TT
G

the shear moduli measured
respectively in longitudinal and transverse shear tests.
1.2.2 Orthotropic Composite Materials
Laminates are constituted of layers of unidirectional fibre composites or of
woven fabric composites. Usually the woven fabrics are made of unidirectional
strands or rovings interlaced at 90, one in the warp direction and the other in the
weft (or fill) direction (Figure 1.4). These layers have three mutually orthogonal
symmetry planes and so have the elastic behaviour of an orthotropic material. The

FIGURE 1.4. Layer of an orthotropic composite material.
3, T

2, T
1, L
fill direction
warp direction

material directions (1, 2) will be respectively taken in the warp and fill directions
and denoted as L and T directions (Figure 1.4). The direction 3 orthogonal to the
plane (L, T) will be denoted . T
Hookes law of the elastic behaviour of an orthotropic layer is written in one of
the matrix forms:

1 11 12 13 1
2 12 22 23 2
3 13 23 33 3
4 44 4
5 55 5
6 66 6
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
C C C
C C C
C C C
C
C
C

=

, (1.3)
or

1 11 12 13 1
2 12 22 23 2
3 13 23 33 3
4 44 4
5 55 5
6 66 6
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
S S S
S S S
S S S
S
S
S

=

, (1.4)
introducing the stiffness constants C
ij
and the compliance constants S
ij
. The elastic
behaviour is characterized by nine independent coefficients. These constants can
be expressed (Chapter 10 of Ref. 1) as functions of nine engineering constants:
E
L
,
LT
and ,
LT

the Youngs modulus and Poisson ratios measured in a longi-
tudinal test; E
T
and ,
TT

the Youngs modulus and Poisson ratio measured in a
transverse test in T direction; ,
T
E

the Youngs modulus measured in T direction;
G
LT
,
LT
G

and
TT
G

, the shear moduli measured respectively in planes (L, T), (L,
) T and (T, ). T For example the compliance matrix is:

1
0 0 0
1
0 0 0
1
0 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 0
LT LT
L L L
LT TT
L T T
LT TT
L T T
TT
LT
LT
E E E
E E E
E E E
S
G
G
G

=

. (1.5)
The stiffness matrix is inverse of the compliance matrix.

1.2.3 Stress-Strain Relations for Off-Axis Layers
Laminates are constituted of different layers with different fibre or warp orient-
tations. So, a unidirectional layer or a cloth reinforced layer will be characterized
by its material directions (1, 2, 3) or (L, T, ), T the plane (1, 2) or (L, T) being the
plane of the layer and the direction 1 or T identified with the fibre direction or
warp direction (Figure 1.5). The reference directions of laminate are ( ) 1, 2, 3 or
(x, y, z), the fibre direction or the warp direction making an angle with the
direction 1 or x.
The stress-strain relations referred to the laminate directions (x, y, z) may be
written in one of the two forms:

11 12 13 16
12 22 23 26
13 23 33 36
44 45
45 55
16 26 36 66
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
xx xx
yy yy
zz zz
yz yz
xz xz
xy xy
C C C C
C C C C
C C C C
C C
C C
C C C C

=

, (1.6)
or

11 12 13 16
12 22 23 26
13 23 33 36
44 45
45 55
16 26 36 66
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
xx xx
yy yy
zz zz
yz yz
xz xz
xy xy
S S S S
S S S S
S S S S
S S
S S
S S S S

=

. (1.7)
The expressions of
ij
C and
ij
S are given in Chapter 11 of Ref. 1. These
expressions show that the equations for a unidirectional layer or an orthotropic
layer are identical for the terms
ij
C or
ij
S with ij
=
11, 12, 16, 22, 26, 66.

FIGURE 1.5. Material directions (1, 2, 3) of a layer and reference directions ( ) 1, 2, 3 or
(x, y, z) of the laminate.
3, z
1
2
1, x
2, x


1.2.4 Plane Stress State
1.2.4.1 Two-dimensional Stress State
The elastic behaviour considered in the previous sections can be applied to
solve any elasticity problem for a composite structure. In the case of a laminated
structure the elasticity problem can be restricted to a two-dimensional stress state
characterized by a stress tensor of the form:

0
( ) 0
0 0 0
xx xy
xy yy
M

=

, (1.8)
at each point M of the material. The z direction is the principal direction with a
zero eigen value.
1.2.4.2 Elasticity Equations for Plane Stress
It is shown (Chapter 11 of Ref. 1) that in the case of a plane stress:

0 if 1, 2, 6
0 if 3, 4, 5,
i
i
i
i
= =
and
0 if 1, 2, 3, 6
0 if 4, 5.
i
i
i
i
= =
(1.9)
The elasticity equations can be written in one of the forms:

1 11 12 16 1
2 12 22 26 2
6 16 26 66 6
S S S
S S S
S S S

=

, (1.10)
with

3 13 1 23 2 36 6
S S S = + + , (1.11)
or

1 11 12 16 1
2 12 22 26 2
6 16 26 66 6
Q Q Q
Q Q Q
Q Q Q

=

, (1.12)
with
( )
3 13 1 23 2 36 6
33
1
C C C
C
= + +
. (1.13)
The constants
ij
Q are the reduced stiffness constants which are expressed as func-
tions of the stiffness constants by:

3 3
33
, , 1, 2, 6,
.
i j
ij ij
ji ij
C C
Q C i j
C
Q Q

= =
=
(1.14)

The matrices
ij
S

and
ij
Q

are inverses of each other.
1.2.4.3 Elasticity Equations in Material Directions
When referred to the material directions, a plane stress state is characterized
by:

0 if 1, 2, 6
0 if 3, 4, 5,
i
i
i
i
= =
and
0 if 1, 2, 3, 6
0 if 4, 5.
i
i
i
i
= =
(1.15)
The elasticity equations can be written as:

1 11 12 1
2 12 22 2
6 66 6
0
0
0 0
S S
S S
S

=

, (1.16)
with

3 13 1 23 2
S S = + , (1.17)
or

1 11 12 1
2 12 22 2
6 66 6
0
0
0 0
Q Q
Q Q
Q

=

(1.18)
with

( )
3 13 1 23 2
33
1
C C
C
= + . (1.19)
The matrices
ij
S

et
ij
Q

are inverses of each other.
The reduced stiffness constants Q
ij
can be expressed as functions of the
engineering moduli as:

11
2
22 11
2
12 22
66 .
,
1
1
,
1
1
,
1
L L
T
LT TL
LT
L
T T T
T
LT TL L
LT
L
LT T
LT
LT TL
LT
E E
Q
E
E
E E E
Q Q
E
E
E
E
Q Q
Q G

= =

= = =

= =
=
(1.20)
1.3. Basics of Laminate Theory 9

TABLE 1.1. Reduced stiffness constants of a unidirectional or orthotropic layer, off its
material directions.
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
4 4 2 2
11 11 22 12 66
2 2 4 4
12 11 22 66 12
3 3
16 11 12 66 12 22 66
4 4 2 2
22 11 22 12 66
3
26 11 12 66
cos sin 2 2 sin cos ,
4 sin cos sin cos ,
2 sin cos 2 sin cos ,
sin cos 2 2 sin cos ,
2 sin
Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q

= + + +
= + + +
= + +
= + + +
= ( )
( )
( )
3
12 22 66
2 2 4 4
66 11 22 12 66 66
cos 2 sin cos ,
2 sin cos sin cos .
Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q Q

+ +
= + + + +

1.2.4.4 Off-Axis Reduced Stiffness Constants
The relations between the off-axis reduced stiffness constants
ij
Q and those
ij
Q expressed in the material directions are identical for a unidirectional layer as
well as for an orthotropic composite. They are transposed from the general
relations in the three-dimensional case (Section 1.2.3). The expressions obtained
are reported in Table 1.1.
1.3 BASICS OF LAMINATE THEORY
1.3.1 Introduction
A laminate consists (Figure 1.6) of n layers, numbered from the lower to the
upper face. The middle plane is chosen as the reference plane (Oxy) and the axis
Oz
is directed in the direction of increasing layer number. Each layer k is referred

to by the z coordinates of its lower face,
1 k
h

, and upper face, .
k
h The total
laminate thickness will be denoted h.
The purpose of the laminate theory is to reduce the initial problem in three
dimensions (x, y, z) of the mechanical behaviour of laminate structure to a less
difficult analysis in two dimensions (x, y). Schematically, this problem is solved
by integrating through the thickness of the laminate.
1.3.2 Displacement Field
The basic assumption of the general theory of plates lies in expressing the
displacement at every point M, with coordinates (x, y, z), of a plate in the form of
polynomials in z, usually limited to degree three and with coefficients dependent

FIGURE 1.6. Laminate element.
on (x, y). The displacement field is then written in the form:

2 3
2 3
2
( , , , ) ( , , 0, ) ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , 0, ) ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , 0, ) ( , , ) ( , , ).
x x x
y y y
z z
u x y z t u x y t z x y t z x y t z x y t
x y z t x y t z x y t z x y t z x y t
x y z t x y t z x y t z x y t

= + + +
= + + +
= + +
v v
w w
(1.21)
The simplest and widely used schemes reduce to a first-order theory of the
form:

0
0
0
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ),
x
y
u x y z t u x y t z x y t
x y z t x y t z x y t
x y z t x y t
= +
= +
=
v v
w w
(1.22)
introducing the mid-plane displacements :

0
0
0
( , , ) ( , , 0, ),
( , , ) ( , , 0, ),
( , , ) ( , , 0, ).
u x y t u x y t
x y t x y t
x y t x y t
=
=
=
v v
w w
(1.23)
The displacement field (1.22) includes the transverse shear effects. In this case,
particles of the plate originally on a line that is normal to the non-deformed
middle plane remain on a straight line during deformation, but this line is not
necessary normal to the deformed middle plane.
1.3.3 Resultants and Moments
1.3.3.1 In-plane Resultants
The in-plane stress resultant matrix, denoted N(x, y), is defined by:

2
2
( , ) ( ) d
h
k
h
x y M z
N , (1.24)
1
2
k
n
1 k
h

k
h
2
h
1
h
0
h
middle
plane
layer
number
z

FIGURE 1.7. In-plane resultants of the loads applied to a laminate element.
where ( )
k
M is the in-plane stress matrix of elements , and ,
xx yy xy
in the
layer k. Thus, the in-plane resultant matrix is written as:

1
1
( , ) d
k
k
x xx
n
h
y yy
h
k
xy xy
k
N
x y N z
N
=

= =

N . (1.25)
Components N
x
, N
y
and N
xy
are the in-plane resultants, per unit length, respec-
tively, of the normal stresses in the directions x and y and of the shear stresses in
the plane (x, y) They are illustrated in Figure 1.7.
1.3.3.2 Transverse Shear Resultants
The transverse shear resultants are defined in the same way by:

1
1
( , ) d
k
k
n
h
x xz
h y yz
k
k
Q
x y z
Q

=

= =

Q . (1.26)
As the in-plane resultants, the transverse shear resultants are loads per unit
length of the cross-section of the laminate. They are illustrated in Figure 1.8.
1.3.3.3 Resultant Moments
The fundamental equations of laminates also introduce the moment of stresses
applied to the element of the laminate considered. The resultant moments are
defined as:
h
x
y
z
y
N
xy
N
xy
N
xy
N
xy
N
y
N
x
N
x
N

FIGURE 1.8. Transverse shear resultants.

1
f
1
( , ) d
k
k
x xx
n
h
y yy
h
k
xy xy
k
M
x y M z z
M
=

= =

M , (1.27)
where M
x
and M
y
are the bending moments, and M
xy
is the twisting moment. As
previously, the resultant moments are moments per unit length. They are illustra-
ted in Figure 1.9.
1.3.4 Fundamental Equations for Plates in the case of
a First-Order Theory
The fundamental equations of plates are deduced from the fundamental

FIGURE 1.9. Resultant moments applied to a laminate element.
y
Q
y
Q
x
Q
x
Q
x
y
z
h
x
y
z
y
M
xy
M
y
M
xy
M
xy
M
x
M
xy
M
x
M

equations of deformable solids :

,
,
,
xx xy xz x x
yy yz xy y y
zz xz yz z z
f a
x y z
f a
y z x
f a
z x y

+ + + =

+ + + =

+ + + =

(1.28)
where f
x
, f
y
and f
z
are the components of the body forces acting at the point M of
the solid under consideration; a
x
, a
y
and a
z
are the components of the acceleration
vector at the point M and is the material density at the point M.
In a first order theory the acceleration components are:

2 2
0
2 2
2
2
0
2 2
2
0
2
,
,
.
x
x
y
y
z
u
a z
t t
a z
t t
a
t

= +

= +

v
w
(1.29)
The integration of the first two equations (1.28) through the thickness of the
laminate leads to the fundamental equations of a plate element for in-plane resul-
tants. In the same way the third equation leads to the laminate equation for the
transverse shear resultants. The fundamental equations for the moments are
obtained by multiplying the first two equations (1.28) and integrating through the
thickness.
Thus, we obtain the fundamental equations of laminates as:
2 2
0
1 2
2 2
xy
x x
x x x s
N
N u
F R
x y
t t

+ + + = +

,
2
2
0
1 2
2 2
y xy y
y y y s
N N
F R
y x
t t
+ + + = +

v
,
2
0
2
y
x
z s
Q
Q
q F
x y
t

+ + + =

w
, (1.30)
( )
2 2
0
1 2
2 2
2
xy
x x
x x x x xy
M
M h u
P Q R I
x y
t t

+ + + + = +

,
( )
2
2
0
1 2
2 2
2
y xy y
y y y y xy
M M
h
P Q R I
y x
t t
+ + + + = +

v
.
The components F
x
, F
y
and F
z
are the resultants of the body forces and P
x
, P
y
are
the moments:

( )

2
2
, , , , d
h
x y z x y z
h
F F F f f f z
, (1.31)

( )

2
2
, , d
h
x y x y
h
P P zf zf z
. (1.32)
The load q represents the pressure forces applied to each face of the plate:
( ) ( ) ( , ) 2 2
zz zz
q q x y h h = = . (1.33)
The fundamental equations of laminates also consider the case of possible shear
stresses applied to the laminate faces:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2
1 2
2 , 2 ,
2 , 2 .
x xz x xz
y yz y yz
h h
h h

= =
= =
(1.34)
The quantity
s
is the weight per unit area of the laminate at the point (x, y):

2
2
d
h
s
h
z
. (1.35)
Lastly, the previous fundamental equations introduce the rotational inertia terms:
( )

2
2
2
, , d
h
xy
h
R I z z z
. (1.36)
In the case of a plate made of n layers, the layer k having a material density
,
k
the quantities , and
s xy
R I are:
( )

1
2
1
2
1 1
d d
k
k
n n
h h
s k k k k
h h
k k
z z h h
= =
= = =

. (1.37)

( )
2 2
1
1
1
2
n
k k k
k
R h h

=
=
, (1.38)

( )
3 3
1
1
1
3
n
xy k k k
k
I h h

=
=
. (1.39)
When the effect of the transverse shear is neglected, an equation independent
of the transverse shear resultants can be derived from the last three equations
(1.30). In this case the fundamental equations of laminates are simplified as:
2 2
0
1 2
2 2
xy
x x
x x x s
N
N u
F R
x y
t t

+ + + = +

,
2
2
0
1 2
2 2
y xy y
y y y s
N N
F R
y x
t t
+ + + = +

v
,
(1.40)

1.4. Classical Laminate Theory 15

2 2
2
2 2
3
2 3 3 3
0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2
2
.
y xy
x
y
x
s xy
M M
M
q
x y
x y
u
R I
t x t y t x t y t
+ + +

= + + + +

w v

Generally the rotational inertia terms can be neglected and, in the absence of
body forces and shear stresses applied on the laminate faces, the fundamental
equations are simplified as:

2
0
2
2
0
2
2
0
2
,
,
,
0,
0.
xy
x
s
y xy
s
y
x
s
xy
x
x
y xy
y
N
N u
x y
t
N N
y x
t
Q
Q
q
x y
t
M
M
Q
x y
M M
Q
y x

+ =

+ =

+ + =

+ =

+ =

v
w
(1.41)
These equations can also be written when the transverse shear effect is neglect-
ted. We obtain:

2
0
2
2
0
2
2 2
2 2
0
2 2 2
,
,
2 .
xy
x
s
y xy
s
y xy
x
s
N
N u
x y
t
N N
y x
t
M M
M
q
x y
x y t

+ =

+ =

+ + + =

v
w
(1.42)
1.4 CLASSICAL LAMINATE THEORY
1.4.1 Assumptions of the Classical Theory of Laminates
The classical laminate theory is investigated in Chapter 14 of Refs. 1 and 2.
The general displacement field for a first-order theory is given by Equations
(1.22). The strain field is deduced from these relations and is written as:

0
0
0
0
0
0 0
,
,
0,
2 ,
2 ,
2 .
x
xx
y
yy
zz
yz yz y
xz xz x
y
x
xy xy
u u
z
x x x
z
y y y
z z
z y y
u
z x x
u u
z
y x y x y x

= = +

= = +

= = =

= = + = +

= = + = +

= = + = + + +

v v
w w
v w w
w w
v v
(1.43)
This strain field is that of a first-order theory including the transverse shear effect.
The classical laminate theory neglects the effect of the transverse shear. So, in
this model the transverse shear strains are zero, hence:
0, 0.
xz yz
= = (1.44)
This assumption implies from (1.43):

0
0
( , ) ,
( , ) .
x
y
x y
x y
w
x
w
y
(1.45)
The displacement field is then, by (1.22), written as:

0
0
0
0
0
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ).
x
y
x y z t x y t
=
w
w
v v
w w
(1.46)
The deformation of the normal to the middle plane is then a straight line normal to
the deformed middle plane.
1.4.2 Strain Field
Considering the general equation (1.43) of the stress field and taking account
of Equation (1.44), the strain field is written as:

2
0 0
2
2
0 0
2
2
0 0 0
,
,
0,
0, 0,
2 .
xx
yy
zz
yz xz
xy
u
z
x
x
z
y
y
u
z
y x x y

=
= =

= +

w
v w
v w
(1.47)
The strain matrix is reduced to the three non-zero components:
( )
xx
yy
xy
M

=

. (1.48)
This strain field can be described as the superposition of in-plane strains (or
midplane strains)
m
( ) M and flexural strains (bending and twisting strains)
f
( ) M , as:

m f
( ) ( ) ( ) M M M = + , (1.49)
or

0
0
0
xx xx x
yy yy y
xy xy xy
z

= +

, (1.50)
with :

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 2
0 0 0
2 2
( , , ), ( , , ), ,
( , , ), ( , , ), 2 ( , , ).
xx yy xy
x y xy
u u
x y t x y t
x y y x
x y t x y t x y t
x y
x y

= = = +

= = =

v v
w w w
(1.51)
The components
0 0 0
, and
xx yy xy
are the in-plane strains, and the components
, and
x y xy
are the curvatures of the deformed laminate.
1.4.3 Stress Field
1.4.3.1 General expression
The stress field in the layer k of a laminate is deduced from the stress-strain
relation (1.6). Hence:

11 12 13 16
12 22 23 26
13 23 33 36
44 45
45 55
16 26 36 66
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
xx xx
yy yy
zz zz
yz yz
xz xz
xy xy
k
k
C C C C
C C C C
C C C C
C C
C C
C C C C

=

, (1.52)
where the components
ij
C are the stiffness constants of the layer k.
The elementary theory of plates makes the assumption that the normal stresses
zz
are negligible within the volume of the plate. This assumption of a plane
stress state is extended to the theory of laminates and leads to the strain field:

11 12 16
12 22 26
16 26 66
44 45
45 55
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
xx xx
yy yy
xy xy
yz yz
xz xz
k k
Q Q Q
Q Q Q
Q Q Q
C C
C C

=

. (1.53)
The coefficients
ij
Q are the reduced stiffness constants of the layer k introduced
in Equation (1.14). They will be denoted by
ij
Q or
k
ij
Q . Equation (1.53) is the
general expression of the stress field when the transverse shear effect is
considered.
1.4.3.2 Stress Field in the Case of the Classical Laminate Theory
In the case of the classical laminate theory, the transverse shear effect is
neglected and the stress field (1.53) is simplified as:

0
11 12 16 11 12 16
0
12 22 26 12 22 26
0
16 26 66 16 26 66
xx xx x
yy yy y
xy xy xy
k k k
Q Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q z Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q Q

= +

. (1.54)
1.4.4 Resultants and Moments
Expression (1.25) associated with Equation (1.54) leads to the expressions for
the in-plane resultants. We obtain:

0
11 12 16 11 12 16
0
12 22 26 12 22 26
0
16 26 66 16 26 66
x xx x
y yy y
xy xy xy
N A A A B B B
N A A A B B B
N A A A B B B

= +

, (1.55)
introducing the matrices:

( )( ) 1
1
,
n
ij k k ij
k
k
A h h Q
=
=
(1.56)
and

( )( )
2 2
1
1
1
.
2
n
ij k k ij
k
k
B h h Q
=
=
(1.57)
Equation (1.55) shows that the in-plane resultants are functions of the in-plane
strains as well as the bending and twisting curvatures.
In the same way, the moments are obtained by introducing Equation (1.54) for
the stresses into Equation (1.27). Hence:

0
11 12 16 11 12 16
0
12 22 26 12 22 26
0
16 26 66 16 26 66
x xx x
y yy y
xy xy xy
M B B B D D D
M B B B D D D
M B B B D D D

= +

, (1.58)
on introducing the matrix:

( )( )
3 3
1
1
1
.
3
n
ij k k ij
k
k
D h h Q
=
=
(1.59)
The bending and twisting moments are therefore functions of the bending and
twisting curvatures, but are also functions of the in-plane strains.
1.4.5 Constitutive Equation of a Laminate
The constitutive equation of a laminate expresses the resultants and the
moments as functions of the in-plane strains and of the curvatures. This equation
is deduced from Equations (1.55) and (1.58), which yields:

0
11 12 16 11 12 16
0
12 22 26 12 22 26
0
16 26 66 16 26 66
11 12 16 11 12 16
12 22 26 12 22 26
16 26 66 16 26 66
x
xx
y
yy
xy
xy
x
x
y
y
xy
xy
N A A A B B B
N A A A B B B
N A A A B B B
M B B B D D D
M B B B D D D
M B B B D D D
. (1.60)
The terms of the constitutive matrix are given by Expressions (1.56), (1.57) and
(1.59). They can also be expressed by introducing the thickness
k
e and the coor-
dinate
k
z of the midplane of layer k. We obtain:

( )
1
,
n
ij ij k
k
k
A Q e
=
=
(1.61)

( )
1
,
n
ij ij k k
k
k
B Q e z
=
=
(1.62)

( )
3
2
1
12
n
k
ij ij k k
k
k
e
D Q e z
=

= +

. (1.63)
The matrix
ij
A

is the stretching stiffness matrix, the matrix
ij
D

is the
bending-twisting stiffness matrix and the matrix
ij
B

is the coupling stiffness
matrix. The existence of the matrix
ij
B

leads to coupling effects between
stretching and bending-twisting of laminates.
1.4.6 Governing Equations
The governing equations of the classical laminate theory are obtained by intro-
ducing the constitutive equation (1.60) of laminates into Equations (1.30) or
(1.40). Substituting, for example, Equation (1.60) into Equations (1.40), then
taking account of (1.51), we obtain the three governing equations as:
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
11 16 66 16 12 66 26
2 2 2 2
2
u u u
A A A A A A A
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + +

v v v

( )
3 3 3 3
0 0 0 0
11 16 12 66 26
3 2 2 3
3 2 B B B B B
x x y x y y

+

w w w w
(1.64)

2
0
2
s
u
t
,
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
16 12 66 26 66 26 22
2 2 2 2
2
u u u
A A A A A A A
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + +

v v v

( )
3 3 3 3
0 0 0 0
16 12 66 26 22
3 2 2 3
2 3 B B B B B
x x y x y y

+

w w w w
(1.65)

2
0
2
s
t
v
,

( )
4 4 4 4 4
0 0 0 0 0
11 16 12 66 26 22
4 3 2 2 3 4
4 2 2 4 D D D D D D
x x y x y x y y

+ + + + +

w w w w w

( )
3 3 3 3 3
0 0 0 0 0
11 16 12 66 26 16
3 2 2 3 3
3 2
u u u u
B B B B B B
x x y x y y x

+

v

( )
3 3 3
0 0 0
12 66 26 22
2 2 3
2 3 B B B B
x y x y y

+

v v v
(1.66)

2
0
2
s
q
t
w
.
The preceding equations do not take into account the body forces, the possible
shear stresses on the faces of the laminate and neglects the effects of inertia in
rotation. The accounting for these factors leads to introduce additional terms. The
governing equations, associated with the boundary conditions of the laminated
structure (Section 1.4.7), allow us to find, in principle, the displacements
0 0 0
( , , ), ( , , ) and ( , , ), u x y t x y t x y t v w which are solutions of the elasticity
problem. Solving these equations is complex and can be done analytically only in
some particular cases. General cases need to use a finite element analysis.
An important simplification appears in the case of symmetric laminates, for
which the terms
ij
B are zero as well as the quantities R. The governing equations
are then written in the form:
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
11 16 66 16 12 66 26
2 2 2 2
2
u u u
A A A A A A A
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + +

v v v

2
0
2
s
u
t
, (1.67)
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
16 12 66 26 66 26 22
2 2 2 2
2
u u u
A A A A A A A
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + +

v v v

2
0
2
s
t
v
, (1.68)
( )
4 4 4 4 4
0 0 0 0 0
11 16 12 66 26 22
4 3 2 2 3 4
4 2 2 4 D D D D D D
x x y x y x y y

+ + + + +

w w w w w

2 4 4
0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2
s xy
q I
t x t y t

= + +

w w w
. (1.69)
In this case the in-plane behaviour
0 0
( , ) u v is decoupled from the flexural
behaviour
0
( ) w . Equation (1.69) can be solved independently.

FIGURE 1.10. Plate boundary element.
1.4.7 Boundary conditions
1.4.7.1 Basics
A boundary element (Figure 1.10) is described at a point P(x, y, 0) of the
boundary by its unit normal n
and the tangential unit vector t
in the middle
plane. The deformed shape at point P of the laminate is characterized by the
displacement of the point P expressed in the basis ( ) , , n t k
by its components
0 0 0
( , , ), ( , , ), ( , , ),
n t
u x y t u x y t x y t w and by the orientation of the deformed
shape characterized by
0
n
w
. Vector k
is the unit vector of z direction. The loads

applied at point P are characterized by the in-plane resultants , ,
n nt
N N the shear
resultant ,
n
Q and the moments of bending
n
M and twisting
nt
M . The conditions
prescribed at point P take on one of the quantities of each of the following pairs:

0
0 0 0
, ; , ; , ; , .
nt
n n t t n n
u N u N M Q
n t

+

w M
w (1.70)
The quantity
nt
n
Q
t
M
is known as the Kirchhoffs boundary condition.
1.4.7.2 Simply Supported Edge
In the case of a simply supported edge (Figure 1.11), the boundary condition
usually considered is:

0
0, 0, 0, 0.
n n nt
M N N = = = = w (1.71)
1.4.7.3 Clamped Edge
For a clamped boundary element (Figure 1.12), the condition usually retained
x
y
z
P
t
n
M
nt
M

FIGURE 1.11. Simply supported edge.
is the following one:

0
0 0 0
0, 0, 0, 0.
n t
u u
n
= = = =
w
w (1.72)
1.4.7.4 Free Edge
In the case of a free boundary, the resultants and moments are zero and lead to
five conditions, whereas only four conditions are necessary. To remove this diffi-
culty it is usual to introduce the Kirchhoffs boundary condition. And so the
boundary conditions at a free edge are written as:
0, 0, 0, 0.
nt
n nt n n
M
N N M Q
t
= = = + =
(1.73)

FIGURE 1.12. Clamped edge.
n

P
n

P

1.4.8 Energy Formulation of the Classical Laminate
Theory
1.4.8.1 Strain Energy
The strain energy of an elastic solid is expressed as:
( )

d
1
d d d
2
xx xx yy yy zz zz yz yz xz xz xy xy
U x y z = + + + + +
,
(1.74)
where the integration is performed over the whole volume of the solid.
Considering the assumptions of the classical laminate theory,
zz

=
0,
xz

=
0,
yz

=
0, and Relation (1.54) which expresses the stresses as functions of the
strains, Expression (1.74) of the strain energy becomes:

(
)

2 2 2
d 11 22 66 12
16 26
1
2
2
2 2 d d d .
k k k k
xx yy xy xx yy
k k
xx xy yy xy
U Q Q Q Q
Q Q x y z

= + + +
+ +
(1.75)
This relation can be written as a function of the in-plane displacements
0
, u
0 0
and , v w by substituting into the preceding expression the strain-displacement
relations (1.50) and (1.51). Next, the expression of strain energy is obtained by
integrating with respect to z through the thickness of the laminate (Chapter 16 of
Refs. 1 and 2). The expression obtained for the strain energy introduces the
stiffnesses constants , and ,
ij ij ij
A B D given by the relations (1.56), (1.57) and
(1.59), respectively.
The general expression obtained for the strain energy may be simplified in the
case of symmetric laminates for which the stretching/bending-twisting coupling
terms
ij
B are zero. In this case the expression of the strain energy reduces to:

2
2
0 0 0 0
d 11 12 22
2
0 0 0 0 0 0
16 26 66
2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
11 12 22
2 2 2 2
1
2
2
2 d d
1
2
2
u u
U A A A
x x y y
u u u
A A A x y
x y y x y x
D D D
x x y y

= + +

+ + + + +

+ + +

v v
v v v
w w w w

2
2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
16 26 66
2 2
4 4 d d . D D D x y
x y x y
x y

+ + +

w w w w
(1.76)
The strain energy appears as the sum of two terms: the first one contains only the
1.5. Laminate Theory Including the Transverse Shear Effect 25

in-plane displacements
0 0
and u v , the second one contains only the transverse
displacement
0
. w In the case of pure bending, the first term reduced to a constant
C and the strain energy may be written as:

2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
d 11 12 22
2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
16 26 66
2 2
1
2
2
4 4 d d .
U D D D
x x y y
D D D x y C
x y x y
x y
= + +

+ + + +

w w w w
w w w w
(1.77)
1.4.8.2 Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy of a structure is:

2 2 2
c
1
d d d
2
u
E x y z
t t t

= + +

v w
, (1.78)
where is the density of the material at point (x, y, z). The integration is perfor-
med over the whole volume of the structure.
In the case of the classical laminate theory the displacement field is expressed
by (1.46). Substituting these expressions into expression (1.78), we obtain:

2 2
2
2 2
0 0 0 0 0
c
1
d d d
2
u
E z z x y z
t x t t y t t

= + +

w v w w
.
(1.79)
Usually, the derivatives with respect to time of the laminate rotations can be
neglected. In this case the expression of the kinetic energy is reduced to:

2 2 2
0 0 0
c s
1
d d
2
u
E x y
t t t

= + +

v w
, (1.80)
introducing the weight per unit area (1.35) of the laminate at point (x, y).
1.5 LAMINATE THEORY INCLUDING THE
TRANSVERSE SHEAR EFFECT
1.5.1 Constitutive Equation
In the laminate theory including the transverse shear deformation, the
displacement field is expressed in the general form (1.22) of a first-order theory.
Then, a similar process as the one considered in the case of classical laminate

theory is implemented from the expressions (1.22) of the displacement field. This
process leads to the constitutive equation of the laminate theory with transverse
shear which may be written as:

11 12 16 11 12 16
12 22 26 12 22 26
16 26 66 16 26 66
11 12 16 11 12 16
12 22 26 12 22 26
16 26 66 16 26 66
44 45
45 55
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
x
y
xy
x
y
xy
y
x
N A A A B B B
N A A A B B B
N A A A B B B
M B B B D D D
M B B B D D D
M B B B D D D
Q F F
Q F F

=

0
0
0
0
0
xx
yy
xy
x
y
xy
yz
xz

, (1.81)
with

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
, , ,
, , .
, .
xx yy xy
y y
x x
x y xy
yz y xz x
u u
x y y x
x y y x
y x

= = = +

= = = +

= + = +

v v
w w
(1.82)
The stiffness constants A
ij
, B
ij
and D
ij
have been introduced in the classical
laminate theory and the new stiffness constants F
ij
are expressed as:
( )( ) ( )
1
1 1
.
n n
ij k k ij ij k
k k
k k
F h h C C e
= =
= =

(1.83)
The transverse shear stiffness constants
ij
C are referred to the laminate directions
and are given as functions of the stiffness constants
ij
C referred to the layer
directions by:
( )
2 2
44 44 55
45 55 44
2 2
55 44 55
cos sin ,
sin cos ,
sin cos ,
C C C
C C C
C C C

= +
=
= +
(1.84)
where C
44
and C
55
are the transverse shear moduli:

44 55
, .
TT LT
C G C G

= = (1.85)
1.5.2 Governing Equations
The governing equations of the theory of laminates that include the transverse
shear effect are derived by introducing the constitutive equation (1.81) in the
1.5. Laminate Theory Including the Transverse Shear Effect 27

fundamental equations (1.30) of plates. We obtain:
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
11 16 66 16 12 66 26
2 2 2 2
2
u u u
A A A A A A A
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + +

v v v

( )
2 2
2 2 2
11 16 66 16 12 66
2 2 2
2
y y
x x x
B B B B B B
x y x y
x y x

+ + + + + +

2
2 2
0
26
2 2 2
y
x
s
u
B R
y t t

+ = +

, (1.86)
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
16 12 66 26 66 26 22
2 2 2 2
2
u u u
A A A A A A A
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + +

v v v

( )
2 2 2
2 2 2
16 12 66 26 66 26 22
2 2 2 2
2
y y y
x x x
B B B B B B B
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + + +

2
2
0
2 2
y
s
R
t t
= +

v
, (1.87)

2 2 2
0 0 0
55 45 44
2 2
2
y y
x x
F F F q
x y x x y y
x y

+ + + + + + +

w w w

2
0
2
s
t
w
, (1.88)
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
11 16 66 16 12 66 26
2 2 2 2
2
u u u
B B B B B B B
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + +

v v v

( )
2 2
2 2 2
11 16 66 16 12 66
2 2 2
2
y y
x x x
D D D D D D
x y x y
x y x

+ + + + + +

2
0 0
26 55 45
2
y
x y
D F F
x y
y

+ + +

w w

2 2
0
2 2
x
xy
u
R I
t t

= +

, (1.89)
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
16 12 66 26 66 26 22
2 2 2 2
2
u u u
B B B B B B B
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + +

v v v

( )
2 2
2 2 2
16 12 66 26 66 26
2 2 2
2
y y
x x x
D D D D D D
x y x y
x y x

+ + + + + +


2
0 0
22 45 44
2
y
x y
D F F
x y
y

+ + +

w w

2
2
0
2 2
y
xy
R I
t t

= +

v
. (1.90)
Equations (1.86) to (1.90) associated to the boundary conditions of the structure
allow, in principle, to determine the five functions u
0
(x, y, t), v
0
(x, y, t), w
0
(x, y, t),
x
(x, y, t) and
y
(x, y, t), that are the solution of the elasticity problem.
In the case of symmetric laminates, B
ij =
0 and R
=
0, Equation (1.86) and
(1.87) respectively reduce to Equations (1.67) and (1.68) of the classical theory.
Equation (1.69) is unchanged, whereas Equations (1.89) and (1.90) simplify as:
( )
2 2
2 2 2
11 16 66 16 12 66
2 2 2
2
y y
x x x
D D D D D D
x y x y
x y x

+ + + + +

2
0 0
26 55 45
2
y
x y
D F F
x y
y

+ + +

w w

2
2
x
xy
I
t

=
, (1.91)
( )
2 2
2 2 2
16 12 66 26 66 26
2 2 2
2
y y
x x x
D D D D D D
x y x y
x y x

+ + + + +

2
0 0
22 45 44
2
y
x y
D F F
x y
y

+ + +

w w

2
2
y
xy
I
t

=
. (1.92)
1.5.3 Boundary Conditions
The boundary conditions are imposed on one of the variables of each of the
following pairs :

0 0 0
, ; , ; , ; , ; , ;
n n t t n n t t n
u N u N M M Q w
where n and t are the normal and tangential directions at a point of the boundary
element (Figure 1.10).
For a point of a free element, the boundary conditions are:

0
0, 0, 0, 0, 0.
n t n t
N N M = = = = = w (1.93)
For a simply supported element (Figure 1.11), the conditions are:

0
0, 0, 0, 0, 0.
n t n t
N N M = = = = = w (1.94)
1.6. Theory of Sandwich Plates 29

For a clamped element (Figure 1.12), the boundary conditions are:

0 0 0
0, 0, 0, 0, 0.
n t n t
u u = = = = = w (1.95)
1.5.4 Introduction of Transverse Shear Coefficients
An improvement of the theory of laminates including the transverse shear
effect consists to introduce transverse shear coefficients. In this way, the part of
Equation (1.81) related to the in-plane resultants and bending-twisting moments
(N
x
, N
y
, N
xy
, M
x
, M
y
, M
xy
) is not modified. The part related to the transverse shear
resultants is modified by replacing the coefficients F
ij
by new transverse shear
stiffness constants F
ij
of the laminate as:

0
44 45
0
45 55
y yz
x
xz
Q H H
Q H H

=

, (1.96)
with
, , 4, 5.
ij ij ij
H k F i j = = (1.97)
The parameters k
ij
are the shear correction factors. In the case of the initial theory
(previous subsections):
1, , 4, 5
ij
k i j = = . (1.98)
Other values obtained in the case of isotropic homogeneous plate, and then
applied to the case of orthotropic plates, are also used:

2
3
, , 4, 5
ij
k i j = = , (1.99)

5
6
, , 4, 5
ij
k i j = = . (1.100)
More generally the parameters k
ij
can be evaluated by considering cylindrical
bending around the directions x and y (Chapter 17 of Refs. 1 and 2).
1.6 THEORY OF SANDWICH PLATES
1.6.1 Introduction
A sandwich material (Subsection 1.1.3) is constituted of a material of low
density (the core) with laminated face sheets (the skins) bonded to each of the
core faces. The essential function of the core is to transfer, by transverse shear, the
mechanical loading applied on one skin to the other.
In the general case, the skins are laminates of thickness h
1
for the lower skin
and of thickness h
2
for the upper skin (Figure 1.13). The thickness of the core is h
and the plane (x, y) of the coordinate system is the middle plane.

FIGURE 1.13. Notations for a sandwich plate.
1.6.2 Assumptions for the Sandwich Theory
The theory of sandwich plates considers the following basic assumptions:
1. The thickness of the core is much greater than that of the skins,
1 2
, h h h .
2. The in-plane displacements u
c
and v
c
of the core are linear functions of the
z coordinate.
3. The in-plane displacements u and v are uniform through the thickness
of the skins.
4. The transverse displacement w is independent of the z coordinate: the strain

zz
is neglected.
5. The core transmits only the transverse shear stresses
xz
,
yz
: the stresses

xx
,
yy
,
xy
and
zz
are neglected.
6. The transverse shear stresses
xz
and
yz
are neglected within the skins.
Lastly, the theory treats the elasticity problems of small deformations.
1.6.3 Displacement field
Assumption 2 implies a first-order model for the core displacements:

c 0
c 0
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
x
y
= +
= + v v
(1.101)
with

0 c
0 c
( , , ) ( , , , 0),
( , , ) ( , , , 0).
u x y t u x y t
x y t x y t
=
= v v
(1.102)
2 h
1
h
2
h
h
y
x
z

The continuity of the displacements at the core-skin interfaces, associated with
assumption 3, leads to the following expressions for the displacements within the
skins:
lower skin:

1 0
1 0
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
2
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
2
x
y
h
u x y z t u x y t x y t
h
x y z t x y t x y t
=
= v v
(1.103)
upper skin:

2 0
2 0
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
2
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ).
2
x
y
h
u x y z t u x y t x y t
h
x y z t x y t x y t
= +
= + v v
(1.104)
Assumption 4 is written:

0
( , , , ) ( , , ). x y z t x y t = w w (1.105)
The theory of sandwich plates is thus based on the determination of five
functions of displacements and rotation,
0 0 0
, , , and ,
x y
u v w analogous to
those introduced in the theory of laminates including the transverse shear effect
(Section 1.5).
1.6.4 Strain field
The strain field is easily deduced from the displacement field. In the lower
skin, the transverse shear strains are neglected and the strain field may be written
in the form:

1 0
1 0
1 0
2
xx xx x
yy yy y
xy xy xy
h

=

, (1.106)
with

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
, , ,
, , .
xx yy xy
y y
x x
x y xy
u u
x y y x
x y y x

= = = +

= = = +

v v
(1.107)
Similarly, the strain field is the upper skin is:

2 0
2 0
2 0
2
xx xx x
yy yy y
xy xy xy
h

= +

. (1.108)

The strain field in the core can be expressed as the superposition of two strain
fields :
the in-plane strain field:

c 0
c 0
c 0
xx xx x
yy yy y
xy xy xy
z

= +

, (1.109)
the transverse shear strain field:

0
c
c
0
y
yz
xz
x
y
x

+

=

+

w
w
. (1.110)
1.6.5 Stress field
From the assumption 5, the core transmits only the transverse shear stresses:

c c c c
0
xx yy xy zz
= = = = , (1.111)

c c c c
44 45
c c c c
45 55
yz yz
xz xz
C C
C C

=

, (1.112)
where the transverse shear coefficients
c
ij
C are expressed as functions of the
transverse shear stiffnesses of the core as:
( )
c c 2 c 2
44 44 55
c c c
45 55 44
c c 2 c 2
55 44 55
cos sin ,
sin cos ,
sin cos .
C C C
C C C
C C C

= +
=
= +
(1.113)
Assumption 6 implies that the transverse shear stresses are zero in all the layers
k of the skins:
0
k k
xz yz
= = . (1.114)
The other stresses are deduced from the strain field in the skins by the relation:

11 12 16
12 22 26
16 26 66
, 1, 2,
k i
xx xx
k i
yy yy
k i
xy xy
k
Q Q Q
Q Q Q i
Q Q Q

= =

(1.115)
for the layer k of the lower skin (i =1) or upper skin (i
=
2).

1.6.6 Constitutive Equation
The in-plane resultants are obtained by the expression:

( )

2
1
2 2
2 2
d d .
x xx xx
h h h
y yy yy
h h h
xy xy xy
N
N z z
N

+
+

= +

(1.116)
The bending and twisting moments are:

( )

2
1
2 2
2 2
d d ,
x xx xx
h h h
y yy yy
h h h
xy xy xy
M
M z z z z
M

+
+

= +

(1.117)
and the shear resultants are expressed as:

2
2
d
h
y yz
h
x xz
Q
z
Q

. (1.118)
By substituting Expressions (1.12) and (1.115) into the preceding equations for
the resultants and moments, we obtain the constitutive equation:

11 12 16 11 12 16
12 22 26 12 22 26
16 26 66 16 26 66
11 12 16 11 12 16
12 22 26 12 22 26
16 26 66 16 26 66
44 45
45 55
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
x
y
xy
x
y
xy
y
x
N A A A B B B
N A A A B B B
N A A A B B B
M C C C D D D
M C C C D D D
M C C C D D D
Q F F
Q F F

=

0
0
0
0
0
xx
yy
xy
x
y
xy
yz
xz

, (1.119)
with

( )
( )
1 2
2 1
1 2
2 1
,
,
2
,
,
2
ij ij ij
ij ij ij
ij ij ij
ij ij ij
A A A
h
B A A
C C C
h
D C C
= +
=
= +
=
(1.120)
and

( )
( )
( ) ( )

1 1
1 1
2
1
2
1 1
d d
k
k
n n
h h
ij ij ij ij k
k k k
h h h
k k
A Q z Q z Q e
+
= =
= = =

, (1.121)

( )
( )
( ) ( )

1 1
1 1
2
1
2
1 1
d d
k
k
n n
h h
ij ij ij ij k k
k k k
h h h
k k
C z Q z z Q z Q e z
+
= =
= = =

, (1.122)

( ) ( ) ( )

2 2
2
1
2
2
2
1 1
d d
k
k
n n
h h h
ij ij ij ij k
k k k
h h
k k
A Q z Q z Q e
+
= =
= = =

, (1.123)

( ) ( ) ( )

2 2
2
1
2
2
2
1 1
d d
k
k
n n
h h h
ij ij ij ij k k
k k k
h h
k k
C z Q z z Q z Q e z
+
= =
= = =

, (1.124)

c
ij ij
F hC = . (1.125)
where n
1
and n
2
are the numbers of layers respectively in the lower and upper
skins.
The constitutive equation (1.119) has a form similar to Equation (1.81) obtain-
ned in the case of the theory of laminates including the transverse shear effect. It
differs from it by the terms C
ij
which induce an asymmetry in the stiffness matrix.
In the case of symmetric sandwich plates, the skins are identical. Hence:

1 2 1 2
, .
ij ij ij ij
A A C C = = (1.126)
It results that:

2 2
2 , ,
0, 0.
ij ij ij ij
ij ij
A A D hC
B C
= =
= =
(1.127)
In this case there is no coupling between stretching and bending. The constitutive
equation takes a form identical to the constitutive equation of symmetric
laminates with transverse shear.
1.6.7 Fundamental Equations
The governing equations of sandwich plates are obtained by introducing the
constitutive equation (1.119) into the plate equations (1.30). The first three
equations are identical to Equations (1.86) to (1.88), with A
ij
, B
ij
and F
ij
defined in
(1.120) and (1.125). The last two equations are written:
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
11 16 66 16 12 66 26
2 2 2 2
2
u u u
C C C C C C C
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + +

v v v

( )
2 2
2 2 2
11 16 66 16 12 66
2 2 2
2
y y
x x x
D D D D D D
x y x y
x y x

+ + + + + +

2
0 0
26 55 45
2
y
x y
D F F
x y
y

+ + +

w w

2 2
0
2 2
x
xy
u
R I
t t

= +

, (1.128)

( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
16 12 66 26 66 26 22
2 2 2 2
2
u u u
C C C C C C C
x y x y
x y x y

+ + + + + +

v v v

( )
2 2
2 2 2
16 12 66 26 66 26
2 2 2
2
y y
x x x
D D D D D D
x y x y
x y x

+ + + + + +

2
0 0
22 45 44
2
y
x y
D F F
x y
y

+ + +

w w

2
2
0
2 2
y
xy
R I
t t

= +

v
. (1.129)
These equations differ from Equations (1.89) and (1.90) in the substitution of the
coefficients C
ij
for the coefficients B
ij
.
The boundary conditions are identical to the conditions considered in Sub-
section 1.5.3.
In the case of symmetric sandwich materials, the form of the governing
equations is the same as that of symmetric laminates including the transverse
shear effect.

CHAPTER 2
Dynamics of Systems with
One Degree of Freedom
2.1 EQUATIONS OF MOTION OF A SYSTEM
WITH ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM
Mechanical vibrations are induced when an elastic system is disturbed from a
position of stable equilibrium. In general, different modes of vibrations are gene-
rated. The simplest configuration of a vibrating system is a system with one
degree of freedom where the configuration is described by a single coordinate.
The importance of the analysis of one degree of freedom system lies in the fact
that the results which are established for this system constitute the basics for the
analysis of the mechanical vibrations of complex structures.
As one degree of freedom, we consider the spring-mass system of Figure 2.1.
A solid (S) of mass m is linked to a support (T) through an elastic spring cha-
racterized by the stiffness constant k. Moreover, the solid (S) is connected with the
support (T) such that horizontal displacement of the mass centre G of the solid is
possible only along the axis (). The configuration of the system is determined
completely by the coordinate x of the mass centre G from its equilibrium position.
Applying Newton law of motion, the motion equation of the solid (S) is written
as:

d
mx k x X f = + + , (2.1)
where X
d
is the component of the damping forces and f
=
f (t) is a disturbing force

FIGURE 2.1. Spring-mass system.
(T)
(R) (S)
()
O
G
x
y
2.2. Undamped Vibrations 37
acting externally on the solid (S).
Equation of motion of any system with one degree of freedom can be expres-
sed in the form (2.1).
2.2 UNDAMPED VIBRATIONS
2.2.1 Equation of Motion
In the case where there is no damping, X
d

=
0, the equation of motion (2.1)
becomes:
mx k x f = + . (2.2)
This equation can be written in the reduced form:

2
0
x x q + = , (2.3)
introducing

2
0
k
m
= , (2.4)
and the reduced force:

1
( ) ( ) q q t f t
m
= = . (2.5)
The quantity
0
is the natural angular frequency of the system with one degree of
freedom.
2.2.2 Free Vibrations
The free vibrations occur when the solid (S) is displaced from its equilibrium
position and released. So, ( ) 0 q t = , and the equation of motion is:

2
0
0 x x + = . (2.6)
This equation is satisfied by taking
1 0
cos x C t = or
2 0
sin x C t = , where C
1

and C
2
are arbitrary constants. By addition of these solutions, we obtain the gene-
ral solution of Equation (2.6) as:

1 0 2 0
cos sin x C t C t = + . (2.7)
The vibratory motion represented by this equation is a simple harmonic
motion, where the constants C
1
and C
2
are deduced from the initial conditions. If
at the initial instant ( 0) t = the solid (S) has a displacement x
0
from its equili-
brium position and if the solid is released with a velocity
0
x , we have:

0
1 0 2
0
, .
x
C x C
= =

(2.8)
38 Chapter 2. Dynamics of Systems with one Degree of Freedom

FIGURE 2.2. Free vibrations as function of time.
Thus, the expression of the free vibrations of the solid (S) is:

0
0 0 0
0
cos sin
x
x x t t
= +

. (2.9)
This expression can also be written in the form:
( )
m 0
cos x x t = , (2.10)
with

2
2 0
m 0
0
x
x x

= +

, (2.11)
and

1 0
0 0
tan
x
x
=

. (2.12)
The displacement x as a function of time t is reported in Figure 2.2. The
maximum displacement x
m
is the amplitude of vibration and the angle is the
phase difference. The interval of time T
0
for which the motion repeats itself is the
period of vibrations and is expressed as:

0
0
2
T

= . (2.13)
The number f
0
of cycles per unit of time is the natural frequency of the vibrations:

0
0
0
1
2
f
T

= = . (2.14)
2.2.3 Forced Vibrations. Steady State
2.2.3.1 Case of a Harmonic Disturbing Force
In numerous practical applications, the solid (S) is subjected to a periodic
disturbing force or a periodic displacement is imposed to the spring support. The
response of the system to these conditions is referred as forced vibrations.
0
-0.0
0
Time t
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

x

x
0

x
m

T
0

We consider the case where the solid (S) of the spring-mass system of Figure
2.1 is subjected to a periodic force of horizontal component
m
sin f t . The term
m
sin f t is called a harmonic forcing function. Introducing this term into Equa-
tion (2.3), we obtain:

2
0 m
sin x x q t + = , (2.15)
with

m m
1
q f
m
= . (2.16)
A particular solution of Equation (2.15) is:

3
sin x C t = , (2.17)
where C
3
is a constant which must satisfy Equation (2.15). We obtain:

m
3
2 2
0
q
C

=
. (2.18)
Thus, the particular solution is given by:

m
2 2
0
sin
q
x t

=
. (2.19)
The general solution of Equation (2.15) is obtained by adding this particular
solution to the general solution (2.7) of the free vibrations. We obtain:

m
1 0 2 0
2 2
0
cos sin sin
q
x C t C t t

= + +
. (2.20)
The first two terms of this expression represent the free vibrations which were
considered previously. These free vibrations are also called transient vibrations
since in the practice these vibrations are rapidly damped by the damping forces
(Section 2.3). The third term, depending on the disturbing force, represents the
forced vibrations of the system, obtained in a steady state. These forced vibrations
have the same period 2 / T = as that of the disturbing force. They can be
expressed as:

m
2 2 2
0 0
1
sin
1 /
q
x t

=
. (2.21)
The factor
2
m 0
/ q is the displacement that the disturbing force q
m
would produce

if it were acting as a static force. The term ( )
2 2
0
1/ 1 / accounts for the dyna-
mical effect of the disturbing force. Its absolute value:

2 2
0
1
( )
1 /
K

=
, (2.22)
is usually called the magnification factor. It depends only of the frequency ratio
0
/ , ratio of the frequency of the disturbing force to the natural frequency of the
system. The variation of the magnification factor is plotted against the frequency
ratio in Figure 2.3.

FIGURE 2.3. Variation of the magnification factor as function of the frequency.
When the frequency of the disturbing force is small in comparison with the
frequency of the free vibrations, the magnification factor is approximately equal to
1. The displacements are about the same as in the case of a static disturbing force.
When the frequency of the disturbing force approaches the natural frequency of
the system, the magnification factor and thus the amplitude of the forced vibra-
tions rapidly increases and becomes infinite when the force frequency exactly
coincides with the natural frequency. The system is subjected to the resonance. In
practice, there is a dissipation of energy due to damping and the amplitude of the
vibrations is limited by the damping effects (Section 2.3).
When the frequency of the disturbing force increases beyond the natural
frequency, the magnification factor decreases and approaches zero for high values
of the frequency. The system may be considered as remaining stationary.
Considering the sign of the expression ( )
2 2
0
1/ 1 / , it is observed that for the
case where
0
< this expression is positive. The displacement of the vibrating
mass has the same sign as that of the disturbing force. The vibration is in phase
with the excitation. In the case where
0
> , the expression is negative and the
displacement of the mass is in the direction opposite to that of the force. The
vibration is out of phase.
2.2.3.2 Case of a Harmonic Displacement of the Spring Support
It is also possible to produce forced vibrations by imposing a displacement to
the end support of the spring (Figure 2.4). In the case of a harmonic displacement,
the support displacement is:

m
sin
s s
x x t = , (2.23)
where x
s
is the displacement of the support from the equilibrium position. The
displacement of the solid (S) referred to the support (T) is:

s r
x x x = + , (2.24)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0
1
2
3
4
Frequency
0
/
M
a
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r

K


FIGURE 2.4. Displacement imposed to the spring end.
introducing the displacement x
r
referred to the end support of the spring. The
component of the force exerted by the spring is:

r
R k x = , (2.25)
and the equation of motion (2.2) is modified as:

r
mx k x = . (2.26)
This equation leads to the motion equation of forced vibrations:

m
sin
s
mx k x k x t + = . (2.27)
This motion equation can be written in the reduced form (2.15), introducing:

2
m m 0 m s s s
k
q x x
m
= = . (2.28)
The motion equation is reduced to the case of a disturbing force.
In some applications, the end support of the spring is subjected to a harmonic
acceleration as:

m
sin
s
x a t = . (2.29)
Considering relations (2.24) and (2.26), the equation of motion is written in the
form:

s r r
mx mx k x + = , (2.30)
or

m
sin
r r
mx kx ma t + = . (2.31)
Whence, the reduced form of motion equation:

2
0 m
sin
r r
x x q t + = , (2.32)
introducing

m m
q a = . (2.33)
Again, the motion equation is reduced to the form (2.15) obtained in the case of a
disturbing force.
y
(T)
(R) (S)
()
O
G x
x
s
x
However, it must be noted that Equation (2.32) is the motion equation expres-
sed in the relative reference associated to the end support of the spring. The forced
vibrations in this reference are transposed from Equation (2.21):

m
2 2
0
2
0
1
sin
1
r
a
x t

(2.34)
2.3 VIBRATIONS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING
2.3.1 Introduction
In previous discussions we did not consider the effects of dissipative forces. In
practice, it is necessary to take into consideration the damping forces which may
arise from several different sources, such as friction between dry sliding surfaces,
friction between lubricated surfaces, air or fluid resistance, internal friction due to
imperfect elasticity of materials, etc. Among all these processes of energy
dissipation, the simplest case to deal with mathematically is the case where the
damping force is proportional to the velocity. This damping process is called
viscous damping. The damping processes of complex types are generally re-
placed, for the purpose of the analyses, by an equivalent viscous damping. This
equivalent damping is determined in such a way as to produce the same dissi-
pation of energy by cycle as that produced by the actual damping processes
(Section 2.4).
2.3.2 Equation of Motion with Viscous Damping
In the case of a viscous damping of the spring-mass system of Figure 2.1, the
component X
d
of the damping forces is proportional to the velocity. Thus:

d
X cx = . (2.35)
The coefficient c is the coefficient of viscous damping. The motion equation (2.1)
becomes:
mx cx k x f + + = . (2.36)
This equation can be rewritten in the reduced form:

2
0
2 x x x q + + = , (2.37)
introducing:

2
c
m
= . (2.38)
The parameter is the damping coefficient. Equation (2.37) is the general reduced
form of the vibrations of a one degree of freedom system with viscous damping.
2.3 Vibrations with Viscous Damping 43
2.3.3 Free Vibrations
2.3.3.1 Characteristic Equation
The equation of free vibrations is derived from Equation (2.37) when f
=
0.
Hence:

2
0
2 0 x x x + + = . (2.39)
For solving this equation, a solution is assumed in the form:

rt
x Ce = , (2.40)
where r is a parameter determined by reporting Expression (2.40) into Equation
(2.39). Thus, we obtain the characteristic equation:

2 2
0
2 0 r r + + = . (2.41)
The solutions of this equation are:

1,2
r = , (2.42)
where is the reduced discriminant of the characteristic equation:

2 2
0
= . (2.43)
The final form of the solution of Equation (2.42) depends on the sign of .
2.3.3.2 Case of Low Damping
In the case of low damping such as:

0
< , (2.44)
the term is negative and Equation (2.41) has two conjugated complex roots:

2
1,2 0
2
0
1 r i

= . (2.45)
These two roots can be put in the form:

1,2 d
r i = , (2.46)
introducing the angular frequency:

2
0
2
0
1
d

= . (2.47)
It is usual to introduce the viscous damping ratio , defined as:

0
0
or
= = . (2.48)
It results that:

2
0
1
d
= , (2.49)
and the two roots (2.46) are expressed as:

2
1,2 0 0
1 r i = . (2.50)
Finally, Equation (2.39) of the free vibrations can be written in the form:

2
0 0
2 0 x x x + + = . (2.51)
The two complex roots (2.46) are given by:

1 2
, .
d d
r i r i = + = (2.52)
or from (2.50):
( ) ( )
2 2
1 0 2 0
1 , 1 r i r i = + = . (2.53)
Substituting these roots into Expression (2.40), we obtain two solutions of Equa-
tion (2.39) or Equation (2.41). Any linear combination of these solutions is also a
solution. For example:

( )
1 2
1
1 1
cos ,
2
r t r t t
d
C
x e e C e t
= + = (2.54)

( )
1 2
1
2 2
sin .
2
r t r t t
d
C
x e e C e t
i

= = (2.55)
Adding these solutions, we obtain the general solution of Equation (2.39) in the
form:
( )
1 2
cos sin
t
d d
x e C t C t
= + , (2.56)
where C
1
and C
2
are constants which are determined from the initial conditions.
The factor
t
e

in Solution (2.56) decreases with time, and the vibrations gene-
rated by the initial conditions are gradually damped out.
The expression between brackets in Equation (2.56) is of the same form that the
one obtained in the case of vibrations without damping (Equation (2.7)). It repre-
sents a harmonic function of angular frequency given by Equation (2.47) or (2.49).
This frequency is the angular frequency of the damped vibrations. The variation
0
/
d
of this frequency referred to the natural frequency of the free undamped vi-
brations is plotted in Figure 2.5 as function of the damping ratio
0
/ = . From
this figure, it is observed that the frequency of the damped vibrations is close to
the frequency of undamped vibrations, even for notable value of the damping
ratio. For 0.1 = , the damped frequency is
0
0.995
d
= ; for 0.2 = , the fre-
quency is equal to
0
0.98 and for 0.3 = , the damped frequency is still
0
0.95 .
Constants C
1
and C
2
in Expression (2.56) are deduced from the initial condi-
tions at time 0 t = : solid is displaced from its equilibrium position by a displace-
ment x
0
and the solid is released with a velocity
0
x . Thus, we obtain:

0 0
1 0 2
,
d
x x
C x C

+
= =

. (2.57)
Thus, the motion of damped free vibrations of a one degree of freedom system is:

0 0
0
cos sin
t
d d
d
x x
x e x t t
+

= +

. (2.58)

FIGURE 2.5. Damped natural frequency variation as a function of damping.
This expression can be rewritten in the form:
( )
m
cos
t
d
x x e t
= , (2.59)
in which the maximum value is:

( )
2
2 2 2 0 0
m 1 2 0
2
d
x x
x C C x

+
= + = +

, (2.60)
and the phase angle is given by:

1 1 0 0 2
1 0
tan tan
d
x x C
C x

+

= =

. (2.61)
Equation (2.58) may be considered as representing a pseudo-harmonic motion,
having an exponentially decreasing amplitude
m
t
x e

, a phase angle and a
pseudo-period:

2
d
d
T

= . (2.62)
The graph of the motion is plotted in Figure 2.6. The displacement-time curve is
tangent to the envelopes
m
t
x e

at the points m
1
,
1
m , m
2
,
2
m , etc., at instants of
time separated by the time interval /2
d
T . Because the tangents at these points are
not horizontal, the points of tangency do not coincide with the points of extreme
displacements from the equilibrium position. If the damping ratio is low, the
difference in these points may be neglected. For any damping, the time interval
between two consecutive extreme positions is however equal to half the pseudo-
period. Indeed, the velocity of the vibrating solid is:
( ) ( )
m m
cos sin
t t
d d d
x x e t x e t

= . (2.63)
The velocity is equal to zero when:
( ) tan
d
d
t

= , (2.64)
damping
1 0
0
1
d
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y


FIGURE 2.6. Pseudo-harmonic motion.
which leads effectively to / /2
d d
t T = = .
The ratio between two successive amplitudes
mi
x and
m 1 i
x
+
is:

m
m 1
d
T i
i
x
e
x

+
= . (2.65)
The quantity
l d
T = is the logarithmic decrement and is given by:

m
m 1
2
ln
i
l d
i d
x
T
x

+
= = = . (2.66)
This equation can be used for an experimental determination of the damping coef-
ficient . However, a greater accuracy is obtained by measuring the extreme am-
plitudes separated by n pseudo-cycles. In this case we have:

m
m
d
n T i
i n
x
e
x

+
= , (2.67)
and the logarithmic decrement is obtained by:

m
m
1
ln
i
l
i n
x
n x
+
= . (2.68)
2.3.3.3 Case of High Damping
In the case of high damping such as:

0
> , (2.69)
the term is positive and Equation (2.41) has two roots r
1
and r
2
which are real
and negative. The general equation of the motion equation (2.39) is:
0
0
m
1
m
2
m
3
m
4
1
m

2
m

3
m

/
d

m3
x

m4
x

m1
x
m2
x
d
T

m
x

0
x

0
Time t

D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

x

t
m
x e


FIGURE 21.7. Displacement as a function of time in the case of an aperiodic motion.

1 2
1 2
r t r t
x C e C e = + . (2.70)
In this case the viscous damping is such as when the solid is displaced from its
equilibrium position, it does not vibrate but creeps gradually back to that position.
The motion is said aperiodic.
Constants C
1
and C
2
in Equation (2.70) are evaluated from the initial condi-
tions which lead:

1 2 0 1 1 2 2 0
, . C C x r C r C x + = + = (2.71)
We deduce:

0 2 0 1 0 0
1 2
1 2 1 2
, ,
x r x r x x
C C
r r r r

= =

(2.72)
and Equation (2.70) becomes:

1 2
0 2 0 1 0 0
1 2 1 2
r t r t
x r x r x x
x e e
r r r r

= +

. (2.73)
The motion depends on the values of
0 0
, and x x . Figure 2.7 shows examples of
displacement-time curves for a fixed value of the initial displacement x
0
and seve-
ral values of the initial velocity
0
x (positive, zero or negative).
2.3.3.4 Critical Damping
The transition between the pseudo-harmonic motion and the aperiodic motion
corresponds to a viscous damping
cr
called critical damping given by:

cr 0
= . (2.74)
In this particular case, Equation (2.41) has a repeated root:

1 2 0
r r = = , (2.75)
0
0
Time t
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

x

x
0
0
0 x >
0
0 x =
0
0 x <

and the solution of the motion equation is:
( )
0
1 2
t
x C C t e

= + . (2.76)
Taking the initial conditions into account, we obtain:

1 0 2 0 0 0
, , C x C x x = = + (2.77)
and Solution (2.76) is written as:
( ) [ ]
0
0 0 0 0
t
x x x x t e

= + + . (2.78)
The displacement-time curves are similar to the curves obtained in the case of
aperiodic motion (Figure 2.7), but the solid comes back to the equilibrium posi-
tion more rapidly.
2.3.4 Vibrations in the case of Harmonic Disturbing
Force
2.3.4.1 Time Domain
As in Section 2.2.3 we consider the case where the solid (S) of the spring-mass
system (Figure 2.1) is subjected to a harmonic force of horizontal component
m
cos f t . Under this condition, the motion equation (2.36) of the forced
vibrations becomes:

m
cos mx cx k x f t + + = . (2.79)
The reduced form (2.37) is written as:

2
0 m
2 cos x x x q t + + = , (2.80)
with

m m
1
q f
m
= . (2.81)
Equation (2.80) constitutes the general form of the forced vibrations of a system
with one degree of freedom in the case of harmonic disturbing force.
A particular solution of Equation (2.80) is:
cos sin x A t B t = + , (2.82)
where A and B are constants which are determined by substituting Expression
(2.82) of this particular solution in the general equation of motion (2.80). We
obtain:
( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
0 m 0
2 cos 2 sin 0 A B A q t B A B t + + + + = . (2.83)
This equation is satisfied for all values of timet if :

2 2
0 m
2 2
0
2 ,
2 0.
A B A q
B A B

+ + =
+ =
(2.84)
From which:

( )
( )
2 2
0
m
2
2 2 2 2
0
m
2
2 2 2 2
0
,
4
2
.
4
A q
B q

=
+
=
+
(2.85)
Next, the total solution of Equation (2.80) is obtained by adding the particular
solution (2.82) to the general solution of Equation (2.80) with the second member
equal to zero, thus to the general solution of Equation (2.39) of the free vibrations.
We consider hereafter the case of low damping for which the damping is lower
than the critical damping. Thus, the solution of Equation (2.80) is given by:
( )
1 2
cos sin cos sin
t
d d
x e C t C t A t B t
= + + + . (2.86)
The first term represents the damped free vibrations, whereas the last two terms
represent the damped forced vibrations. The free vibrations have the angular fre-
quency
d
as determined in Section 2.3.3, when the forced vibrations have the
angular frequency of the disturbing force. Due to the factor ,
t
e

the free
vibrations gradually decrease, then vanish, leaving only the steady forced vibra-
tions. These vibrations are maintained as long as the disturbing force is applied.
We study the forced vibrations hereafter.
In the case of steady-state, the harmonic response (2.82) may be written in the
form:
( )
m
cos x x t = , (2.87)
with

2 2 1
m
, tan .
B
x A B
A

= + = (2.88)
Whence:

( )
m
2
m 0
m
2 2
2
2 2 2 2 2
0
2
0
0
2 4
1
q
q
x

= =

+
+

, (2.89)
and

1 1 0
2 2 2
0
2
0
2
2
tan tan
1

= =

. (2.90)
When a static load f
m
is applied to the system, the static displacement x
st
is
deduced from (2.79) as:

st m m
k x f mq = = . (2.91)
From which:

m m
st
2
0
q f
x
k
= = . (2.92)
Thus, considering Equations (2.89) and (2.92) the amplitude x
m
of the displace-
ment may be written in the form:

m st
( ) x K x = , (2.93)
in which K() is the magnification factor expressed by:

2
2 2
2
0
0
1
( )
1 2
K

=

+

. (2.94)
So, the damped harmonic vibrations can be written as:
( )
st
( )cos x x K t = . (2.95)
2.3.4.2 Frequency Domain
The steady state of the harmonic forced vibrations can be studied in the fre-
quency domain by representing the excitation ( ) f t and the response ( ) x t in com-
plex forms ( ) and ( ) ,
i t i t
F e X e

respectively. The quantities ( ) F and ( ) X
are the complex amplitudes associated to the excitation and response, respecti-
vely. In the case of the harmonic forced vibrations considered previously, the
complex amplitudes are:

m m
( ) , ( ) .
i
F f X x e

= = (2.96)
Introducing these complex forms into the motion equation (2.80) leads to the
complex equation of motion which may be written in the following forms:
( )
2 2
0
1
2 ( ) ( ) i X F
m
+ = , (2.97)
or
( )
2 2
0 0
1
2 ( ) ( ) i X F
m
+ = . (2.98)
Thus, the response as a function of the excitation in complex form is expressed as:

1
( ) ( ) ( ) X H F
m
= , (2.99)
introducing the transfer function of the vibration system expressed by:

2 2
0 0
1
( )
2
H
i

=
+
. (2.100)
When the frequency approaches zero, the transfer function ( ) H approaches
2
0
1 and the function X( =0) is identified with the static response x
st
introduced
in Equation (2.92). So, Expression (2.99) of the response may be rewritten as:

1
( ) ( ) ( )
r
X H F
k
= , (2.101)
introducing the reduced transfer function:

2
2
0
0
1
( )
1 2
r
H
i
=
+
. (2.102)
So, the complex amplitude X() is simply given by:

st
( ) ( )
r
X H x = . (2.103)
Next, the amplitude x
m
of the harmonic steady-state vibration is deduced from
the previous expression by considering the modulus of X( ), which yields:

m st
( )
r
x H x = , (2.104)
with

2
2
2
2
0 0
1
( )
2
1
r
H

=

+

.
The modulus of the function H
r
( ) is identified with the magnification factor in-
troduced in (2.94).
The phase is the opposite of the argument of the transfer function or of the
reduced function H
r
( ). Thus:

1 0
2 2
0
2 /
arg ( ) tan
1 /
r
H

= =
, (2.105)
which is the result expressed in Equation (2.90).
2.3.4.3 Effect of the Frequency of the Disturbing Force
The amplitude x
m
of the harmonic forced vibrations, referred to the static
displacement x
st
, is simply given either by the magnification factor (2.94) or by
the modulus of the reduced transfer function:

m
st
( ) ( )
r
x
H K
x
= = , (2.106)
Figure 2.8 shows the variation of the magnification factor as a function of the
reduced frequency
0
/ for different values of damping. From these curves it is
observed that when the angular frequency is small compared to the natural
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
0
1
2
3
4
Frequency
0
/
M
a
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r

K

0 =
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.50
0.70
1.00

FIGURE 2.8. Variation of the reduced amplitude of harmonic vibrations as function of the
frequency for different values of damping.
frequency, the value of the magnification factor is not greatly different from unity.
Thus, the amplitude of vibrations is approximately the one which would be pro-
duced by a static disturbing force.
When the angular frequency of the excitation is large compared to the natural
frequency, the value of the magnification factor tends toward zero, regardless the
value of damping. So, a high frequency disturbing force induces practically no
forced vibrations of the system.
The curves of Figure 2.8 show that for low values of damping the magni-
fication factor grows rapidly with the frequency, and its value near resonance is
very sensitive to the values of damping. It is also observed that the maximum
value occurs for a value of
0
/ less than unity. Setting the derivative of the ma-
gnification factor with respect to
0
/
r
= equal to zero, we find that the maxi-
mum occurs for a reduced frequency
m r
defined by:

2 m
m
0
1 2
r

= = . (2.107)
The maximum amplitude is then given by:

m m
2
1
( ) ( )
2 1
r
K H

= =
. (2.108)
For small damping ratios the maximum value of the magnification factor occurs
very near to the undamped natural frequency and the maximum is approximately:

m m
1
( ) ( )
2
r
K H
= . (2.109)
For example, for 0.20 = , the maximum occurs for
0
0.96 and its value is
2.55. Then, when the damping increases, the value of angular frequency
m

decreases and vanishes when 1 = .
In the case of low damping, the peak width of the magnification factor can be
evaluated by considering the reduced frequencies
r
for which the magnification
factor is reduced by a factor 1/ 2 with respect to the maximum, corresponding to
a reduction of 3 dB. We obtain:

( )
2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1
2
2 1
1 4
r r

=
+
, (2.110)
which leads to:
( )
4 2 2 2 4
2 1 2 1 8 8 0
r r
+ + = . (2.111)
The solutions for this equation are:

( )
( )
2 2 2
1
2 2 2
2
2 1 2 2 1 ,
2 1 2 2 1 .
r
r

= +
=
(2.112)
An approximate solution can be formulated in the case of low values of damping
by expressing that
1 r
and
2 r
are not greatly different from the frequency
m r

of the maximum. Whence:

2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 m 1 2
( )( ) 2 ( )
r r r r r r r r r
= + , (2.113)
or considering (2.107):

2 2 2
1 2
2 1 2
r r r
, (2.114)
where
r
is the frequency band corresponding to 3 dB reduction of the magni-
fication factor. Considering Equations (2.112), we obtain:

2
2
1
2
1 2
r

. (2.115)
In the case of low damping the bandwidth is simplified as:
2
r
. (2.116)
The frequency response of the damped system is also characterized by the
phase angle expressed by Equations (2.90) and (2.105). Figure 2.9 shows the
variation of the phase angle as a function of the frequency obtained for different
values of damping.
2.3.4.4 Damping Modelling Using Complex Stiffness
Another way to take account of the energy dissipation in the case of forced
harmonic vibrations consists in introducing a complex stiffness k
in the form:

FIGURE 2.9. Variation of the phase angle as a function of the frequency, for different
values of damping.
( ) 1 k k i
= + , (2.117)
where is the structural damping coefficient. Then, the complex equation is
deduced from the motion equation (2.2) without damping (c
=
0) by introducing
the complex forms (2.96) and substituting k
for k. We obtain:
( )
2 2 2
0 0
1
( ) ( ) i X F
m
+ = . (2.118)
This form is similar to Expressions (2.97) and (2.98), which leads to:

2
0
0
2 2

= = . (2.119)
Substituting this expression into Equation (2.102), the reduced transfer function
for the steady state response is written as:

2
2
0
1
( )
1
r
H
i
=
+
, (2.120)
and the magnification factor becomes:

2
2
2
2
0
1
( ) ( )
1
r
K H
= =

+

. (2.121)
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0.1
0 =
0.2
0.5
1 2 4
Frequency
0
/
P
h
a
s
e

a
n
g
l
e

)

When the frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the vibrating system, the
magnification factor is:

0 0
1
( ) ( )
r
K H
= = ,
and the amplitude of the forced vibrations is deduced from (2.106) as:

m
m st
1 1 f
x x
k
= = . (2.122)
At this frequency the phase angle is deduced from Equation (2.105), which yields:
tan = . (2.123)
Thus, coefficient is also called the loss factor.
2.3.5 Vibrations in the case of Periodic Disturbing Force
A periodic disturbing force ( ) f t of period T can be expressed in the form of
Fourier series as:
( )
0
1
( ) cos sin
n n
n
f t a a n t b n t
=
= + +
, (2.124)
with 2 /T = . The quantities a
0
, a
n
and b
n
are obtained by:

0
0
1
( )d
T
a f t t
T
=

, (2.125)

0
2
( )cos d
T
n
a f t n t t
T
=

, (2.126)

0
2
( )sin d
T
n
b f t n t t
T
=

. (2.127)
Considering Equation (2.124), the motion equation leads to:
( )
2
0 0 0
1
2 cos sin
n n
n
x x x q q n t p n t
=
+ + = + +
, (2.128)
with

0
0
, , .
n n
n n
a a b
q q p
m m m
= = = (2.129)
The general solution of Equation (2.128) consists of the sum of the free vibra-
tions and the forced vibrations. The free vibrations diminish and vanish with
damping. The forced vibrations are obtained by superimposing the steady state
forced vibrations produced by every terms of the second member of Equation
(2.128). These vibrations can be obtained by applying the results obtained in the
previous section (Subsection 2.3.4). In the practice, the coefficients of the terms of
the series decrease when n increases. So, the analysis will be limited to a value N
of n for which the terms of upper orders can be neglected. Considering the results
established in Subsection 2.3.4, it can be concluded that forced vibrations with
high amplitudes may occur when the period of one of the terms of series (2.124)
coincides with the period of the natural vibrations of the system, i.e. if the period
T of the disturbing force is equal to, or a multiple, of the damped period T
d
.
2.3.6 Vibrations in the case of Arbitrary Disturbing
Force
The differential equation of motion for a damped one-degree system subjected
to an arbitrary disturbing force is given by Equations (2.36) and (2.37). The arbi-
trary reduced force ( ) q t is represented in Figure 2.10.
At any instant t , we may consider (Figure 2.10) an impulse of height ( ) q t q =
and width dt . This impulse imparts to each unit of mass an instantaneous
acceleration from the instant t given by:

d
d
x x q
t
= =
, (2.130)
which leads to an increase in velocity from t given by:
d d x q t = , (2.131)
regardless of what other forces, such as the spring force, may be acting, and
regardless of the displacement and velocity of solid (S) at the instant t . Then, the
increment of displacement at instant t posterior to t , is deduced from Equation
(2.58) by substituting the velocity increment (2.131) for the initial velocity
0
x
(with a zero initial displacement) and substituting the instant t t for instant t (in
Equation (2.58), the disturbing force is exerted at instant 0 t = , whereas the force
( ) q t is applied at t t = ). We obtain:

( )
d
d sin ( )
t t
d
d
q t
x e t t

= . (2.132)

FIGURE 2.10. Arbitrary force as a function of time.
t dt Time t
R
e
d
u
c
e
d

f
o
r
c
e

q
(
t
)

q
2.4 Equivalent Viscous Damping 57
Since each impulse ( ) d q t t between 0 t = and t t = produces an increment of
displacement given by expression (2.132), the total displacement x(t) which
results from the disturbing force is obtained by integration between 0 and t:

0
( ) ( )sin ( )d
t
t
t
d
d
e
x t e q t t t t
. (2.133)
This form is referred as Duhamels integral. It includes both steady state and
transient terms. The integral can be evaluated by an analytical method or a nume-
rical process.
To take account of the effect of possible initial conditions of displacement x
0

and velocity
0
x , it is necessary to add to the results (2.133) the solution for the
initial conditions considered in Equation (2.58). Thus, the total solution is:

0 0
0
0 0
1
( ) cos sin ( )sin ( )d
t
t t
d d d
d
x x
x t e x t t e q t t t t

+
= + +

.
(2.134)
2.4 EQUIVALENT VISCOUS DAMPING
2.4.1 Introduction
As reported in Section 2.3.1, the different types of damping may be replaced
by an equivalent viscous damping, leading to the linear differential equation
(2.36) of the damped motion. Only structural damping will be considered here-
after. The other damping processes can be analyzed in a similar way.
2.4.2 Energy Dissipated in the case of Viscous Damping
The work done per cycle by the disturbing force
m
( ) cos f t f t = during the
steady state response is:

0
cos d
T
m
W f x t t =
. (2.135)
The velocity x may be obtained by differentiating Equation (2.87) with respect to
time. Whence:

m
sin( ) x x t = . (2.136)
Substituting this expression into Equation (2.135), then integrating leads to the
expression of work as:

m m
sin W x f = . (2.137)
Similarly the energy U dissipated per cycle by the viscous damping force cx
is given by:

0
d
T
U cxx t =
, (2.138)
which leads to:

2
m
U cx = . (2.139)
For a harmonic steady state, the work done by the disturbing force is equal to the
dissipated energy. From which the amplitude of the displacement is deduced as:

m
m
sin
f
x
c

= . (2.140)
When the angular frequency is equal to the natural frequency (
0
= ), the phase
angle is /2 and the displacement amplitude is:

m
m 0
0
( )
f
x
c
= . (2.141)
This result coincides with the result (2.109) obtained for low values of damping.
The equivalent viscous damping constant will be obtained by equating Expres-
sion (2.139) of the energy dissipated by viscous damping to the energy dissipated
by the actual damping process. This energy will be derived from Equation (2.130).
2.4.3 Loss Factor and Specific Damping Capacity
The maximum elastic energy stored per cycle in the case of the spring-mass
system is:

2
d
1
2
m
U k x = . (2.142)
Thus, the energy dissipation is characterized by:

d
2 U c
U k

= , (2.143)
or considering Equations (2.38) and (2.119):

d
2
U
U

= . (2.144)
In Equations (2.138) and (2.139) the dissipated energy is evaluated per cycle in
the case of a harmonic disturbing force. The energy dissipated by viscous damping
can be also evaluated during a pseudo-cycle of the damped vibrations as:

d
d
t T
T
U cxx t
+
=
. (2.145)
For low values of damping, it may be considered that the amplitude x
a
of
2.4 Equivalent Viscous Damping 59
vibrations during a pseudo-cycle is practically constant and equal to:

m
t
a
x x e

. (2.146)
It results that the integration of Equation (2.145) leads to:

2
a d
U cx . (2.147)
The maximum elastic energy stored during the pseudo-cycle is:

2
d
1
2
a
U kx = , (2.148)
and the energy dissipation per cycle is characterized by the coefficient:

d
U
U

= , (2.149)
where U and
d
U are expressed by Equations (2.147) and (2.148), respectively.
We obtain:

d 0 0
2 2 4
d
l l
U
U

= . (2.150)
Coefficient is the specific damping capacity and the comparison of Equations
(2.144) and (2.149) leads to the relation:
2 = . (2.151)
Finally, the relations between the different coefficients which characterize the
viscous damping are reported in Table 2.1.
2.4.4 Structural Damping
The structural damping is associated to internal friction in materials that are not
perfectly elastic. For these materials, the loading stress-strain curve for increasing

TABLE 2.1. Parameters characterizing viscous damping of a onedegreeof freedom system.

l

damping coefficient
0

2
d
l

2
0
2

damping ratio
0

2 2
4
l
l
+
0
2

logarithmic decrement
l

2
d

2
2
1

l

2
0
d

structural damping
( 2 = )
2
0
2

0
2

2
0
d
l


FIGURE 2.11. Stress-strain curve for successive loading and unloading of a material
levels of stress and strain is different from the unloading curve. Figure 2.11 shows
the hysteresis loop obtained in the case of one cycle of vibration. The expe-
rimental results show that the energy dissipated per cycle is approximately pro-
portional to the square of the strain amplitude. So, the work
s
U dissipated by
structural damping may be written as:

2
m
s
s
U x = , (2.152)
in which
s
is a parameter which characterizes the structural damping of the
material considered. Equating expressions (2.139) and (2.152) of the dissipated
energies leads to the equivalent viscous damping constant:

eq
s
c

= . (2.153)
This relation associated to relations (2.38) and (2.119) leads to the expression of
the equivalent loss factor:

eq
s
k
= . (2.154)
In fact, this relation introduces the stiffness k of the equivalent spring-mass
system. In practice the loss factor or the specific damping capacity is evaluated in
experimental investigation considering Equation (2.144) or (2.151), respectively,
where
d
U is the strain energy stored per cycle and U is the dissipated energy.

loading
unloading
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s

CHAPTER 3
Beam Bending and Cylindrical Bending
Vibrations of Undamped Laminate
and Sandwich Materials
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The theory of beams considers that the length a of a beam is much greater than
its width b, a b (Figure 3.1). It results that the investigation of the beam ben-
ding vibrations can be reduced to a one-dimension analysis. In this chapter we
will consider the bending vibrations of beams made of symmetric laminates or
sandwiches for which there is no stretching bending coupling. The importance of
developing the analysis of beam behaviour is related to the use of beams as basic
elements of structures and to the mechanical characterization of laminate and
sandwich materials on test specimens in the form of beams.
Another type of one-dimension analysis is that of the investigation of cylin-
drical bending which concerns plates that have a high length-to-width ratio.
Cylindrical bending vibrations will be studied in the last section of this chapter.

FIGURE 3.1. Beam element.
a
b
h
y
z
x
2 h
62 Chapter 3. Beam Bending and Cylindrical Bending Vibrations of Undamped Materials
3.2 EQUATION OF MOTION OF SYMMETRIC
LAMINATE BEAMS
In the case of pure bending of a symmetric laminate beam, the constitutive
equation (1.60) reduces to:

11 12 16
12 22 26
16 26 66
x x
y y
xy xy
M D D D
M D D D
M D D D

=

, (3.1)
where
x
,
y
and
xy
are the curvatures of plate defined in Equations (1.51):

2 2 2
0 0 0
2 2
( , , ), ( , , ), 2 ( , , ).
x y xy
x y t x y t x y t
x y
x y

= = =

w w w
(3.2)
Equation (3.1) can be written in the following inverted form:

1 1 1
11 12 16
1 1 1
12 22 26
1 1 1
16 26 66
x x
y y
xy xy
D D D
M
D D D M
M
D D D

=

, (3.3)
where the
1
ij
D
are the elements of the inverse matrix of [D

ij
]:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2 1
11 22 66 26 12 16 26 12 66
1 1 2
16 12 26 16 22 22 11 66 16
1 1 2
26 12 16 26 11 66 11 22 12
1 1
, ,
1 1
, ,
1 1
, ,
D D D D D D D D D
D D D D D D D D D
D D D D D D D D D

= =
= =
= =
(3.4)
and is the determinant of the matrix [D
ij
]:

2 2 2
11 22 66 12 16 26 11 26 22 16 66 12
2 D D D D D D D D D D D D = + .
The beam theory makes the assumption that in the case of bending along the x-
direction, the bending and twisting moments M
y
and M
xy
are zero:
0, 0.
y xy
M M = = (3.5)
Relations (3.2) and (3.3) thus lead to:

2
1 0
11
2
x x
D M
x
= =
w
. (3.6)
Lastly, the beam theory makes the additional assumption that the deflection is a
function of x only:
3.3. Natural Modes 63

0 0
( , ) x t = w w . (3.7)
So, the mode shape of beam only depends on the coordinate x.
In the framework of the beam theory, Equation (1.42) is written in the form:

2 2
0
2 2
x
s
M
q
x t

+ =

w
. (3.8)
Equations (3.6) and (3.8) lead to:

2 4
0 0
2 1 4
11
1
( , )
s
q x t
t D x

+ =

w w
, (3.9)
where ( , ) q x t is the pressure load applied to the beam.
Finally, the differential equation of motion for an undamped laminate beam
may be written as:

2 4
0 0
2 4
( , )
s s
k q x t
t x

+ =

w w
, (3.10)
introducing the stiffness per unit area given by:

1
11
1
s
k
D
= . (3.11)
It has to be noted that the effective bending modulus E
x
of the beam is exp-
ressed as:

3 1
11
12
x
E
h D
= . (3.12)
3.3 NATURAL MODES
3.3.1 Mode Shapes
In the case of free vibrations, q
=
0, and the motion equation (3.10) is:

2 4
0 0
2 4
0
s s
k
t x

+ =

w w
. (3.13)
This equation of the free transverse vibrations may be rewritten in the form:

2 4
2 4 0 0
0
2 4
0, a
t x

+ =

w w
(3.14)
introducing the angular frequency of the undamped beam:

3
0
2 2 1 2
11
1 1 1 1
.
12
s x
s s
s
k E h
a a D a

= = = (3.15)
When the beam vibrates in its ith natural mode, the harmonic transverse dis-
placement at a point of coordinate x is:
( ) ( )( )
0
, cos sin ,
i i i
x t x A t B t = + w w (3.16)
where ( )
i
x w is the mode shape of the natural mode and
i
is its angular fre-
quency. Substitution of Equation (3.16) into Equation (3.14) results in:

4 2
4 4 2
0
d
1
0.
d
i i
i
X
X
x a

= (3.17)
The general solution for Equation (3.17) may be written in the form:
( )
1 2 3 4
sin cos sinh cosh
i i i i i
x x x x
x C C C C
a a a a
= + + + w . (3.18)
Introducing this solution in Equation (3.17) leads to the evaluation of the natural
frequency as:

2
0 i i
= . (3.19)
The parameter
i
and the constants, C
1
, C
2
, C
3
and C
4
, in Equation (3.18) are
determined by considering the boundary conditions at the ends of the beam under
consideration.
For example, at an end which is simply supported, the transverse displacement
and the bending moment are equal to zero, and the boundary conditions are:

2
2
d
0, 0.
d
i
i
X
X
x
= = (3.20)
At a clamped end the transverse displacement and the slope are zero. In this case
the conditions are:

d
0, 0.
d
i
i
X
X
x
= = (3.21)
At a free end the bending moment and the shear resultant both vanish. So, the
conditions are:

2 3
2 3
d d
0, 0.
d d
i i
X X
x x
= = (3.22)
For the two ends of a beam, we will have four such end conditions.
It results that the constants, C
1
, C
2
, C
3
and C
4
, are determined to within an
arbitrary constant. So, we will express the shape mode as:
( ) ( )
i i i
x C X x = w , (3.23)
where the function ( )
i
X x is expressed in the form (3.18) introducing only three
constants: one constant is taken equal to 1.
Then the normal modes can be superimposed to obtain the total response of the
beam as:
( ) ( )( )
0
1
, cos sin
i i i
i
x t X x A t B t
=
= +
w . (3.24)
3.3. Natural Modes 65
3.3.2 Properties of the Mode Shapes
Equation (3.17) may be written for the mode i in the form:

4
4
d
d
i
i i
X
X
x
= , (3.25)
where

2
4 2
0
1
i
i
a

= . (3.26)
For the mode j, Equation (3.25) is:

4
4
d
d
j
j j
X
X
x
= . (3.27)
Multiplying Equation (3.25) by
j
X and Equation (3.27) by
i
X and integrating
over the length of the beam, we obtain:

4
4
0 0
d
d d
d
a a
i
j j i i
X
X x X X x
x
=

, (3.28)

4
4
0 0
d
d d
d
a a
j
j j i i
X
X x X X x
x
=

. (3.29)
Integration by parts of the left-hand sides of these two equations leads to:

2
3 2 2
3 2 2 2
0 0
0 0
d d
d d d
d d
d
d d d d
a a
a a
j j
i i i
j j i i
X X
X X X
X x X X x
x
x x x x

+ =

, (3.30)

3 2 2
2
3 2 2 2
0 0
0 0
d d d
d d
d d
d
d d d d
a a
a a
j j j
i i
j i j i
X X X
X X
X x X X x
x
x x x x

+ =

. (3.31)
The end conditions (3.20)-(3.22) require that the integrated terms in the left-hand
sides vanish. Therefore, subtraction of Equations (3.30) and (3.31) yields:

( )

0
d 0
a
j j i i
X X x =
. (3.32)
When i and j are different, the values
i
and
j
are distinct, and to satisfy the
preceding equation, we must have:

0
d 0, .
a
j i
X X x i j =
(3.33)
Substituting this relation into Equation (3.30) leads to:

2
2
2 2
0
d
d
d 0, ,
d d
a
j
i
X
X
x i j
x x
=
(3.34)
and from Equation (3.28) it is obtained:

4
4
0
d
d 0, .
d
a
i
j
X
X x i j
x
=
(3.35)
Equations (3.33) to (3.35) constitute the orthogonality relationships for the mode
shapes of the transverse vibrations of beams.
As constants, C
1
, C
2
, C
3
and C
4
, in Equation (3.18) are determined to within an
arbitrary constant, the integral in Equation (3.32), for the case , i j = may be any
constant k
i
:

2
0
d
a
i i
X x k =
. (3.36)
When the functions X
i
are normalized by the constant k
i
, Equations (3.28) and
(3.30) lead to:

2
4 2 2
4 2 4 2
0 0
0
d d
1
d d
d d
a a
i i i
i i i i
X X
X x x k k
x x a

= = =

. (3.37)
It is possible to set the normalization constant equal to unity ( 1
i
k = ), so that
Equations (3.36) and (3.37) are simply:

2
0
d 1
a
i
X x =
, (3.38)

2
4 2 2
4 2 4 2
0 0
0
d d
1
d d
d d
a a
i i i
i
X X
X x x
x x a

= =

. (3.39)
3.4 NATURAL MODES OF BEAMS WITH
DIFFERENT END CONDITIONS
3.4.1 Simply Supported Beam
For a simply supported end the boundary conditions (1.71) are written:

0
0, 0,
x
M = = w (3.40)
where the moment M
x
is expressed by (3.6). For the ith natural mode the trans-
verse displacement is given by Equation (3.16) and the boundary conditions for
the mode shape are:
at the end 0 x =

2
0
2
0
d
0, 0,
d
i
i
x
x
X
X
x
=
=
= = (3.41)
at the end x a =

2
2
d
0, 0.
d
i
i
x a
x a
X
X
x
=
=
= = (3.42)
3.4. Natural Modes of Beams with Different End Conditions 67
These conditions are deduced from the boundary conditions considered in Equa-
tion (3.20).
From the first conditions in Equation (3.41), it is derived:

2 4
0, 0. C C = = (3.43)
From the conditions in Equation (3.42), it is obtained:

3 1
0, sin 0.
i
C C = = (3.44)
A non-zero solution for C
1
is obtained when:
sin 0
i
= , (3.45)
which is the frequency equation for the case of a simply supported beam. The
non-zero positive roots of this equation are:
, 1, 2, ... , .
i
i i = = (3.46)
Considering Expressions (3.15) and (3.19), the natural angular frequencies of the
beam are given by:

3
2 2 2 2
2 1 2
11
1
.
12
x
i
s
s
E h
i i
a D a

= = (3.47)
The mode shapes of the beam for the various modes of bending vibrations are
of the form:

1
( ) sin , 1, 2, ... , .
i
x
x C i i
a
= = w (3.48)
Thus, the mode shapes are sine curves, the first three modes of which are shown
in Figure 3.2. The value of the amplitude C
1
of the vibrations depends on the
initial deformation.

FIGURE 3.2. Bending vibrations of a simply supported beam.
1 0
1 9.870 i = =
2 0
2 39.478 i = =
3 0
3 88.826 i = =
3
0
2
1
12
x
s
E h
a
=
3.4.2 Clamped Beam
In the case of a beam clamped at the two ends, the boundary conditions (1.72)
lead to:
at the end 0 x =

0
0
d
0, 0,
d
i
i
x
x
X
X
x
=
=
= = (3.49)
at the end x a =

d
0, 0.
d
i
i
x a
x a
X
X
x
=
=
= = (3.50)
The first two conditions are satisfied if in the general solution (3.18) we take:

3 1 4 2
, . C C C C = = (3.51)
Taking C
2

=
1, the shape function can be written as:
( )
( )
cos cosh sin sinh
i i i i i i
x x x x
X x
a a a a
= . (3.52)
From the other two conditions at end x
=
a, it is derived the following equation:

( )
( )
cos cosh sin sinh 0,
sin sinh cos cosh 0.
i i i i i
i i i i i

=
=
(3.53)
A non-zero solution for the constant
i
exists only when the determinant of Equa-
tions (3.53) is equal to zero, which yields:
( )
2 2 2
cos cosh sin sinh 0
i i i i
+ = . (3.54)
Taking into account the equalities:

2 2 2 2
cos sin 1, cosh sinh 1,
i i i i
+ = = (3.55)
the previous expression reduces to:
cos cosh 1
i i
= . (3.56)
The first eight non-zero roots of this equation are reported in Table 3.1. Then the
coefficients
i
are derived from one of Equations (3.53). For example:

cos cosh
sin sinh
i i
i
i i

=

. (3.57)
The values of
i
It should be noted that an approximate solution can be given in the case where
i
is large enough. In fact in this case:
cosh
2
i
i
e
, (3.58)
TABLE 3.1. Values of coefficients
i
and
i
of the function of a beam clamped at the
two ends.
i
i

i

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
4.7300408
7.8532046
10.9956078
14.1371655
17.2787596
20.4203522
23.5619449
26.7035376
0.98250222
1.00077731
0.99996645
1.00000145
0.99999994
1.00000000
1.00000000
1.00000000
and Equation (3.56) may be written:
cos 2 0.
i
i
e

(3.59)
Roots of this equation are:

( )
2 1 .
2
i
i

= + (3.60)
These approximate solutions are compared in Table 3.2 with the exact solutions of
Equation (3.56).
The expression for the frequencies of the free bending vibrations is derived
from Equations (3.15) and (3.19), which leads to:

2 2 3
2 1 2
11
1
.
12
i i x
i
s
s
E h
a D a

= = (3.61)
The fundamental frequency is:

3
1
2
22.373
.
12
x
s
E h
a

= (3.62)
The beam mode shapes are of the form:
( ) ( ), 1, 2, ..., ,
i i i
x C X x i = = w (3.63)
where the shape functions ( )
i
X x are given by Expression (3.52). The deformed
shapes are shown in Figure 3.3 for the first three modes.
TABLE 3.2. Exact and approximate values of
i
.

1

2

3

4

5

Solution of Equation (3.56) 4.730 7.853 10.996 14.137 17.279
Approximate solution (3.60) 4.712 7.854 10.996 14.137 17.279

FIGURE 3.3. Bending vibrations of a clamped beam.
3.4.3 Beam Clamped at One End and Simply Supported
at the Other
We consider the case of a beam clamped at the end x
=
0 and simply supported
at the end x
=
a. The boundary conditions are thus:
at the end 0 x =

0
0
d
0, 0,
d
i
i
x
x
X
X
x
=
=
= = (3.64)
at the end x a =

2
2
d
0, 0.
d
i
i
x a
x a
X
X
x
=
=
= = (3.65)
The first two conditions are identical to conditions (3.49). It results that the shape
functions ( )
i
X x are of the form (3.52). The other conditions (3.65) lead to the
following equations:

( )
( )
cos cosh sin sinh 0.
i i i i i
i i i i i

=
+ + =
(3.66)
A non-zero solution for the coefficient
i
is obtained when:

cos cosh cos cosh
sin sinh sin sinh
i i i i
i i i i

+
=
+
, (3.67)
or
tan tanh
i i
= . (3.68)
The first eight solutions of this equation are reported in Table 3.3. The coefficient
i
is next determined by:
1 0
1 22.373 i = =
2 0
2 61.673 i = =
3 0
3 120.90 i = =
3
0
2
1
12
x
s
E h
a
=
TABLE 3.3. Coefficients
i
of the function of a simply supported-clamped beam.

i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
i
3.927 7.069 10.210 13.352 16.493 19.635 22.776 25.918

cos cosh
sin sinh
i i
i
i i

. (3.69)
The values of
i
are almost exactly equal to 1.
It should be noticed that for high enough values of
i
:
tanh 1
i
, (3.70)
and Equation (3.68) is reduced to:
tan 1
i
= . (3.71)
Roots of this equation are:

( )
0.25
i
i = + . (3.72)
The calculation of these approximate solutions shows that they are practically
identical to the exact values of the solutions of Equation (3.68).
The natural frequencies are expressed by Expression (3.61) where the values of
i
are given in Table 3.3. The fundamental frequency is:

3
1
2
15.421
.
12
x
s
E h
a

= (3.73)
The deformed shapes are shown in Figure 3.4 for the first three modes.

FIGURE 3.4. Bending vibrations of a beam clamped at one end and simply supported at
the other.
1 0
1 15.421 i = =
2 0
2 49.971 i = =
3 0
3 104.24 i = =
3
0
2
1
12
x
s
E h
a
=
3.4.4 Beam Clamped at One End and Free at the Other
In the case of a beam clamped at the end x
=
0 and free at the other end x
=
a,
the boundary conditions are:
at the end 0 x =

0
0
d
0, 0,
d
i
i
x
x
X
X
x
=
=
= = (3.74)
at the end x a = , by (1.73)
0, 0.
x x
x a x a
M Q
= =
= = (3.75)
The moment is expressed by (3.6). The transverse shear resultant is obtained
from the fourth equation for plates (1.41) as:

x
x
M
Q
x
. (3.76)
Thus, the boundary conditions (3.75) are:

2 3
2 3
d d
0, 0.
d d
i i
x a x a
X X
x x
= =
= = (3.77)
The first two conditions (3.74) are identical to the boundary conditions at the
end 0 x = of the beam considered in Sections 3.4.2 and 3.4.3. It results that the
shape functions ( )
i
X x are again of the form (3.52). The conditions (3.77) at the
end x a = lead to:

( )
( )
i i i i i
i i i i i

+ + =
+ + =
(3.78)
A non-zero solution for the coefficient
i
is obtained when:

cos cosh sin sinh
sin sinh cos cosh
i i i i
i i i i

+
=
+ +
, (3.79)
or
cos cosh 1
i i
= . (3.80)
The coefficient
i
is next determined by the expression:

cos cosh
sin sinh
i i
i
i i

+
=
+
. (3.81)
The first eight solutions of Equation (3.80) are reported in Table 3.4 with the
corresponding values of
i
. For high enough values of
i
, approximate values can
be written in the form:

( )
0.5
i
i = . (3.82)
These values are also reported in Table 3.4 and show that they are the same as the
solutions (3.80) in practice for 3. i
The natural frequencies are given by Expression (3.61) where the values of
i

are given in Table 3.4. The fundamental frequency is:
TABLE 3.4. Coefficients of the clamped-free beam function.
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
i

1.875 4.694 7.855 10.996 14.137 17.279 20.420 23.562
i

0.734 1.018 0.999 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
(i 0,5) 1.571 4.712 7.854 10.996 14.137 17.279 20.420 23.562

3
1
2
3.516
.
12
x
s
E h
a

= (3.83)
The deformed shapes are shown in Figure 3.5 for the first three modes.
3.4.5 Beam with Two Free Ends
In the case of a beam with free ends, the boundary conditions are:

2 3 2 3
2 3 2 3
0 0
d d d d
0, 0, 0, 0.
d d d d
i i i i
x x x a x a
X X X X
x x x x
= = = =
= = = = (3.84)
The first two conditions are satisfied if in the general solution (3.18) we have:

3 1 4 2
, . C C C C = = (3.85)
Taking C
2

=
1, the shape functions ( )
i
X x can be written as:
( )
( )
cos cosh sin sinh
i i i i i i
x x x x
X x
a a a a
= + + . (3.86)

FIGURE 3.5. Bending vibrations of a beam clamped at one end and free at the other.
1 0
1 3.516 i = =
2 0
2 22.034 i = =
3 0
3 61.701 i = =
3
0
2
1
12
x
s
E h
a
=
The other two conditions at the free end x
=
a are satisfied if:

( )
( )
i i i i i
i i i i i

+ + =
+ + =
(3.87)
A non-zero solution for the constant
i
exists only when the determinant of Equa-
tions (3.87) is equal to zero, which yields:
( ) ( )
2 2 2
cos cosh sin sinh 0
i i i i
+ = . (3.88)
or
cos cosh 1
i i
= . (3.89)
We obtain the same equation that the one (3.56) obtained in the case of a
clamped-clamped beam. Then coefficients
i
are derived from one of Equations
(3.87) which gives expression (3.57).
Moreover, Equation (3.89) has a double root equal to zero which corresponds
to the rigid-body motion of the beam which can be superimposed to the transverse
vibrations of the beam. The rigid-body motions can be expressed in the form:

0 1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) x C X x C X x = + w , (3.90)
with

1
( ) 1 X x = , (3.91)

( ) 2
( ) 3 1 2
x
X x
a
= . (3.92)
These functions correspond to the rigid modes of translation and rotation. They
are normalized according to Equation (3.38). The two roots
1 2
0 and 0 = = are
associated with these functions. The other roots
i
of Equation (3.89) and the
corresponding values of
i
are identical to those found in the case of two clamped
ends (Table 3.1). Finally, the values of
i
and
i
for a free-free beam are reported
in Table 3.5 for i varying from 1 to 9.
The first mode of the free vibrations is obtained for 3 i = . Then the free vibra-
tion frequencies are obtained with 4, 5, ..., i = and are the same as the fre-
quencies obtained for the beam with clamped ends. In contrast, the deformed
shapes are different (3.86). Figure 3.5 illustrates the first three mode shapes.
TABLE 3.5. Coefficients of the free-free beam functions.
i 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
i
0 0 4.730 7.853 10.996 14.137 17.279 20.420 23.562
i
0.9825 1.0008 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
3.5. Normal Mode Analysis 75

FIGURE 3.6. Bending vibrations of a beam with both ends free.
3.5 NORMAL MODE ANALYSIS
3.5.1 Motion Equation in Normal Coordinates
In this section we consider the normal mode analysis for determining the
transverse response of a beam. In this analysis the transverse motion of the beam
is expressed in terms of time functions ( )
i
t and normal displacement functions
( )
i
X x as:
( ) ( ) ( )
0
1
, .
i i
i
x t t X x
=
=
w (3.93)
Substitution of this expression into the motion equation (3.10) leads to:
( )

4
4
1
d
,
d
i
s i i s i
i
X
X k q x t
x

=

+ =

. (3.94)
Then, multiplying this expression by the normal function ( )
j
X x and integrating
over the length of the beam, we obtain:

4
4
0 0 0
1
d
d d d
d
a a a
i
j j s i i s i i
i
X
X X x k X x qX x
x

=

+ =

. (3.95)
From the orthogonality and normalisation relations (3.33), (3.35) and (3.38),
Equation (3.95) reduces to:
( )
2
, 1, 2,...,
i i i i
p t i + = =
, (3.96)
where
1 0
1 22.373 i = =
2 0
2 61.673 i = =
3 0
3 120.90 i = =
3
0
2
1
12
x
s
E h
a
=
( ) ( )

0
, d ,
a
i i
p t p x t X x =
(3.97)
with
( ) ( )
1
, , .
s
p x t q x t
= (3.98)
Equation (3.96) is the motion equation for transverse vibrations expressed in
normal coordinates, which is constituted of separate equations which allow to
derive the time functions ( )
i
t for 1, 2,..., i = .
3.5.2 Response to Initial Conditions
3.5.2.1 General Formulation
In this subsection we apply the normal mode analysis for determining the
transverse response of a beam to initial conditions of transverse displacement and
velocity. We assume that for instant t
=
0, the initial transverse displacements and
the initial velocities are:

0
0 1 0 2
( , 0) ( ), ( , 0) ( , 0) ( ), x t f x x t x t f x
t
= = = = = =
w
w w (3.99)
where
1
( ) f x and
2
( ) f x are given functions.
The transverse motion of the beam is given by Expression (3.93) and it results
that the initial displacements and velocities (3.99) can be expressed in the forms:

0 0 1
1
( , 0) ( ),
i i
i
x t X f x
=
= = =
w (3.100)

0 0 2
1
( , 0) ( ),
i i
i
x t X f x
=
= = =
w (3.101)
where

0 0
( , 0), ( , 0).
i i i i
t t = =

(3.102)
Multiplying Expressions (3.100) and (3.101) by
j
X and integrating over the
length of the beam, it is obtained:

0 1
0 0
1
d ( ) d
a a
j j i i
i
X X x f x X x
=
=

, (3.103)

0 2
0 0
1
d ( ) d
a a
j j i i
i
X X x f x X x
=
=
. (3.104)
From the orthogonality and normalisation relations (3.33) and (3.37), Equations
(3.103) and (3.104) lead to the following initial conditions expressed in normal
coordinates:

0 1
0
( ) d , 1, 2, ... , ,
a
i i
f x X x i = =
(3.105)

0 2
0
( ) d , 1, 2, ... , .
a
i i
f x X x i = =
(3.106)
The motion equation in normal coordinates for free vibrations of beam is deri-
ved from (3.96) considering that ( ) 0
i
p t = . We obtain:

2
0, 1, 2,...,
i i i
i + = =
. (3.107)
Therefore, the free vibration responses of the normal modes are:

0
0
( ) cos sin , 1, 2,...,
i
i i i i
i
t t t i
= + =
. (3.108)
Substitution of this expression into Equation (3.93) gives the combined response
of all the modes:
( ) ( )
0
0 0
1
, cos sin .
i
i i i i
i
i
x t X x t t
=

= +

w (3.109)
This equation constitutes the general form of the free transverse response of a
beam to initial conditions.
3.5.2.2 Beam with Simply Supported Ends
We consider the transverse response to initial conditions of a beam with simply
supported ends. The shape functions are derived from expression (3.48) where the
constant C
1
must be determined. Expression (3.48) verifies the orthogonality
relations (3.33). To satisfy the normalization relations (3.38) and (3.39), it is
necessary to use the constant
1
2 C a = . Thus, the shape functions are:

2
( ) sin , 1, 2, ... , .
i
x
X x i i
a a
= = (3.110)
It results that the initial conditions derived from (3.105) and (3.106) are:

0 1
0
2
( ) sin d , 1, 2, ... ,
a
i
x
f x i x i
a a
= =
, (3.111)

0 2
0
2
( ) sin d , 1, 2, ... ,
a
i
x
f x i x i
a a
= =
. (3.112)
Substitution of these expressions into Expression (3.109) yields:
( ) ( )
0
1
, cos sin sin
i i i i
i
x
x t A t B t i
a

=
= +
w , (3.113)
with

1
0
2
( ) sin d , 1, 2, ... ,
a
i
x
A f x i x i
a a
= =
, (3.114)

2
0
2
( ) sin d , 1, 2, ... ,
a
i
i
x
B f x i x i
a a
= =
. (3.115)
As an example, we consider the case of an impact for which an initial velocity
v
0
is given to the beam at point of coordinate x
1
. In this case we have:

1 2 0 1
( ) 0, ( ) ( ), f x f x x x = = v (3.116)
where
1
( ) x x is the Dirac function localized at x
1
. Substituting these expres-
sions into Equations (3.114) and (3.115), we obtain:

0 0 1
1
0
2 2
0, sin ( ) d sin
a
i i
i i
x
x
A B i x x x i
a a a a

= = =
v v
. (3.117)
So, the beam response becomes:
( )
0 1
0
1
2
1
, sin sin sin
i
i
i
x
x
x t i i t
a a a

=
=

v
w . (3.118)
If the impact is localized at the middle point of the span (
1
2 x a = ), the transverse
displacement becomes:

( )
0
0 1 3
1 3
5
5
2
1 1
, sin sin sin3 sin
1
sin5 sin . . . ,
x x
x t t t
a a a
x
t
a

v
w
(3.119)
where the angular frequencies are given by (3.47). So, the previous equation can
be rewritten as:

( )
(
)
0 0 1 3
3
2
5
12
2 1
, sin sin sin3 sin
9
1
sin5 sin . . . .
25
s
x
x x
x t a t t
a a
E h
x
t
a

=
+
w v
(3.120)
It results that only the symmetric modes of transverse vibrations are excited and
the amplitude of the mode contributions decreases as
2
1 . i
3.5.2.3 Beam with Other End Conditions
The response of a beam to initial conditions involves the evaluation of the
integrals (3.105) and (3.106). Direct integrations are possible in the case of a
beam with simply supported ends, as considered in the previous Subsection
3.5.2.2. Beams with other conditions involve normal functions X
i
with hyperbolic
functions. In these cases the evaluation of the integrals (3.105) and (3.106) re-
quires numerical integrations.
3.5.3 Forced Response
3.5.3.1 General Formulation
In this section we consider the transverse response of a beam to a distributed or
concentrated load. The motion equation expressed in normal coordinates of a
beam submitted to the load ( , ) q x t is given by Expression (3.96). The response
i
of the ith mode of transverse vibrations is derived from the Duhamel integral
(Section 2.3.6 of Chapter 2) to be:

0 0
1
( ) ( ) ( , ) sin ( )d d
a t
i i i
i
t X x q x t t t t x
=

. (3.121)
Substitution of this time function into Equation (3.93) gives the transverse
vibration response as:

0
0 0
1
( )
( , ) ( ) ( , ) sin ( )d d
a t
i
i i
i
i
X x
x t X x q x t t t t x
=
=

w . (3.122)
If the load is concentrated at point x
1
with an amplitude Q
1
(t), the load ( , ) q x t
is expressed as:

1 1
( , ) ( ) ( ) q x t Q t x x = , (3.123)
where
1
( ) x x is the Dirac function localized at point x
1
. From Equation (3.97)
it results that:

1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
i i
p t P t X x = , (3.124)
with

1 1
1
( ) ( )
s
P t Q t
= . (3.125)
In this case the response (3.122) is simplified as:

0 1 1
0
1

1
( , ) ( ) ( ) ( ) sin ( )d
t
i i i
i
i
x t X x X x P t t t t
=
=

w . (3.126)
The response of a beam to a distributed or concentrated load involves the eva-
luation of integrals (3.121) or (3.126). As in the case of a beam submitted to
initial conditions, direct integrations are possible only in the case of a beam with
simply supported ends.
3.5.3.2 Beam with Simply Supported Ends
In this case the angular frequencies and normalized functions are given by
Expressions (3.47) and (3.110), respectively. Substitution of the normal functions
(3.47) into the response (3.122) to a distributed load gives:

0
0 0
1
2 1
( , ) sin sin ( , ) sin ( )d d
a t
i
i
i
x x
x t i i q x t t t t x
a a a

=
=

w . (3.127)
Similarly, the response (3.126) for a concentrated load is:

1
0 1
0
1
2 1
( , ) sin sin ( ) sin ( )d
t
i
i
i
x x
x t i i P t t t t
a a a

=
=

w . (3.128)
As an example, we consider the case of a harmonic load
1
( ) sin Q t Q t =
applied at point x
1
. The response given by Equation (3.128) is:

1
0
0
1
2 1
( , ) sin sin sin sin ( )d
t
i
s i
i
Q x x
x t i i t t t t
a a a

=
=

w . (3.129)
This expression leads to the transverse response:
2
3 2
1
0
4 3 4 2 2
1

2 12 1
( , ) sin sin sin sin ( ),
s
i i
s x i
Qa x x a
x t i i t t K
a a
E h i i a

=

=

w
(3.130)
introducing the magnification factor :

2
2
1
( )
1
i
i
K
. (3.131)
The first part of Expression (3.130) represents the steady state forced vibrations of
the beam, whereas the second part is the transient vibrations. These vibrations
decrease rapidly and die out in the presence of damping. Next, only the steady-
state response subsists.
3.6 CYLINDRICAL BENDING VIBRATIONS

3.6.1 Introduction
In the case of the beam bending the analyses developed in the previous
sections were reduced to one-dimension analyses. Another type of one-dimension
analysis concerns plates that have a high length-to-width ratio (Figure 3.7), so that
the deformation of the plate can be considered to be independent of the coordinate
along the length of the plate. Such behaviour is called cylindrical bending.
The plate is supported along the length of its edges x
=
0 and x
=
a. If the
transverse load is a function only of x and time, the deformation of the plate is
cylindrical, that is:

0 0
0 0
0 0
( , , ) ( , ),
( , , ) ( , ),
( , , ) ( , ).
u x y t u x t
x y t x t
x y t x t
=
=
=
v v
w w
(3.132)
Cylindrical bending vibrations will be considered in the present section in the
case of plate constituted of laminate and sandwich materials.
3.6. Cylindrical Bending Vibrations 81

FIGURE 3.7. Plate with a great length.
3.6.2 Classical Laminate Theory
3.6.2.1 Equations
By substituting Expressions (3.132) into the fundamental equations (1.64) to
(1.66) of the classical laminate theory, we obtain the one-dimension equations:

2 2 3 2
0 0 0 0
11 16 11
2 2 3 2
s
u u
A A B
x x x t

+ =

v w
, (3.133)

2 2 3 2
0 0 0 0
16 66 16
2 2 3 2
s
u
A A B
x x x t

+ =

v w v
, (3.134)

4 3 3 2
0 0 0 0
11 11 16
4 3 3 2
s
u
D B B q
x x x t

=

w v w
. (3.135)
For the free vibrations of the plates, no transverse load is applied. The vibra-
tions are harmonic and the displacement field can be expressed in complex form
as:

0 0

0 0

0 0
( , , ) ( , ) ,
( , , ) ( , ) ,
( , , ) ( , ) ,
i t
i t
i t
u x y t u x y e
x y t x y e
x y t x y e
=
=
=
v v
w w
(3.136)
where is the angular frequency of the plate vibrations. Taking account of these
expressions, the equations of free vibrations are deduced from Equations (3.133)
to (3.135) as:

2 2 3
2 0 0 0
11 16 11 0
2 2 3
d d d
0
d d d
s
u
A A B u
x x x
+ + =
v w
, (3.137)
x
y
a

2 2 3
2 0 0 0
16 66 16 0
2 2 3
d d d
0
d d d
s
u
A A B
x x x
+ + =
v w
v , (3.138)

4 3 3
2 0 0 0
11 11 16 0
4 3 3
d d d
0
d d d
s
u
D B B
x x x
=
w v
w . (3.139)
3.6.2.2 Plate Simply Supported
In the case where the plate is simply supported along its edges x
=
0 and x
=
a,
the boundary conditions are satisfied by the displacements:

0
0
0
( ) cos ,
( ) cos ,
( ) sin .
m
m
m
x
u x A m
a
x
x B m
a
x
x C m
a
=
=
=
v
w
(3.140)
Substituting these expressions into Equations (3.137) to (3.139), we obtain:

2 2 2 2 3 3
2
11 16 11
2 2 3
2 2 2 2 3 3
2
16 66 16
2 2 3
3 3 3 3 4 4
2
11 16 11
3 3 4
0,
0,
0.
s m m m
m s m m
m m s m
m m m
A A A B B C
a a a
m m m
A A A B B C
a a a
m m m
B A B B D C
a a a

+ =

+ + =

+ =

(3.141)
As a function of the order of the magnitude of the vibration frequencies, it is pos-
sible to neglect the term
2
s
in the coefficients of A
m
and B
m
in the two first
equations. Equations (3.141) may then be written as:

11 16 11
16 66 16
3 3 3 3 4 4
2
11 16 11
3 3 4
0,
0,
0.
m m m
m m m
m m s m
m
A A A B B C
a
m
A A A B B C
a
m m m
B A B B D C
a a a

+ =
+ =

+ =

(3.142)
Solving the first two equations leads to:
, ,
m m m m
m B m C
A C B C
a A a A

= = (3.143)
introducing the parameters :

2
11 66 16
66 11 16 16
11 16 16 11
,
,
.
A A A A
B A B A B
C A B A B
=
=
=
(3.144)
Substituting A
m
and B
m
into the last equation (3.142), it yields:

4 4
2
4
0
s m
m D
C
A
a

=

, (3.145)
with

11 11 16
D D A B B B C = . (3.146)
A non-zero solution of Equation (3.145) is obtained when the coefficient of C
m

vanishes, which leads to the expression for the natural frequencies:

2 2
2
1
m
s
m D
A
a
= . (3.147)
The expressions of the natural frequencies can be written in the form:
1
m m
H = , (3.148)
introducing the coefficient

11 16
11
B B B C
H
AD
+
= . (3.149).
In Expression (3.148)
m
is the bending vibration frequencies in the case where
there exists no stretching/bending-twisting coupling (B
ij =
0):

2 2
11
2
m
s
m D
a
= . (3.150)
The stretching/bending-twisting coupling thus reduces the values of the natural
vibration frequencies.
3.6.2.3 Plates with Other End Conditions
Other end conditions of plates can be easily investigated in the case of sym-
metric laminates. In this case, Equations (3.137) to (3.139) become:

2 2
2 0 0
11 16 0
2 2
d d
0
d d
s
u
A A u
x x
+ + =
v
, (3.151)

2 2
2 0 0
16 66 0
2 2
d d
0
d d
s
u
A A
x x
+ + =
v
v , (3.152)

4 3
2 0 0
11 11 0
4 3
d d
0
d d
s
u
D B
x x
=
w
w . (3.153)
The first two equations for the in-plane vibrations are decoupled from the third
equation for the transverse vibrations. This last equation can be expressed as
Equation (3.10) obtained for the transverse vibrations of beams introducing the
stiffness:

11 s
k D = . (3.154)
So, the results obtained in the case of the transverse vibrations of symmetric
laminated beams (Sections 3.2-3.5) can be applied to the cylindrical vibrations of
symmetric plates.
3.6.3 Effect of Transverse Shear
In this section we consider the effect of transverse shear deformation on the
cylindrical vibrations.
In the case of a laminate constituted of an arbitrary number of orthotropic
layers, with cloth or unidirectional reinforcement, the material directions of which
are parallel to the directions x and y of the plate, we have:

16 26 16 26 16 26
0, 0, 0. A A B B D D = = = = = = (3.155)
The laminate is orthotropic. The plate of great length in the y direction is consi-
dered to be in a state of cylindrical deformation. That is:

0 0 0 0 0
( , ), ( , ), 0, 0, ( , ).
x x y
u u x t x t x t = = = = = v w w (3.156)
Equations (1.86) to (1.90), taking (1.97) into account, reduce to:

2 2 2 2
0 0
11 11
2 2 2 2
x x
s
u u
A B R
x x t t

+ = +

, (3.157)

2 2
0 0
55 55
2 2
x
s
k F q
x
x t

+ + =

w w
, (3.158)

2 2 2 2
0 0 0
11 11 55 55
2 2 2 2
x x
x xy
u u
B D k F R I
x
x x t t

+ + = +

w
. (3.159)
We now consider the case of an orthotropic laminate which is symmetric
( 0
ij
B = ). In this case, Equations (3.157) to (3.159) become:

0 0
2 2
0 0
55 55
2 2
2 2
0
11 55 55
2 2
0, 0,
,
.
x
s
x x
x xy
u
k F q
x
x t
D k F I
x
x t
= =

+ + =

+ =

v
w w
w
(3.160)
In the case of simple supports, the boundary conditions are given by Equations
(1.94) which yields:

0
0, 0, 0.
x x
N M = = = w (3.161)
The free vibrations are obtained for q
=
0. Thus, the solutions for
0
and
x
w
which satisfy these boundary conditions and the free vibration equations are of the
form:

0
cos ,
sin .
i t
x m
i t
m
x
B e m
a
x
C e m
a
=
= w
(3.162)
Substituting these expressions into Equations (3.160) yields:

2 2
2
55 55 55 55
2
2 2
2
11 55 55 55 55
2
0,
0.
m s m
xy m m
m m
k F B k F C
a
a
m m
D k F I B k F C
a
a

+ =

+ + =

(3.163)
A non-zero solution is obtained when the determinant of these equations vanishes.
Hence the expression for the natural frequencies is:

2 2 2 2
2
55 55 11
2 2
1
2
m xy s s
s xy
m m
I k F D
I
a a

= + +

, (3.164)
with

2
2 2 2 2 4 4
55 55 11 55 55 11
2 2 4
4
xy s s s xy
m m m
I k F D I k F D
a a a

=

+ +

. (3.165)
In the case of a laminate with layers made from the same material but having
different orientations and thicknesses, the density of each layer is identical. It
results that:

3
0 0
, ,
12
s xy
h
h I = = (3.166)
where
0
is the density of the orthotropic material. The free vibration frequencies
are given by:

2
2 2 2 2 2 2
55 55 11
2 3
0
6
12
m
h
a m k F m D
a h

= + +

, (3.167)
with

2
2 4 4 4
2 2 2 2 2
55 55 11 55 55 11
2
12
3
h m h
a m k F m D k F D
a
=

+ +

. (3.168)
If the rotatory inertia terms may be neglected (I
xy

=
0), Equations (3.163)
reduce to:

2 2
2
55 55 55 55
2
2 2
11 55 55 55 55
2
0,
0.
m s m
m m
m m
k F B k F C
a
a
m m
D k F B k F C
a
a

+ =

+ + =

(3.169)
The vibration frequencies may then be written in the form:

2 2
1
1
m m
m S

=
+
, (3.170)
where S is the term that takes into account the transverse shear effect of the
laminate:

11
2
55 55
D
S
a k F
= , (3.171)
and
m
is the natural vibration frequencies with transverse shear neglected, given
by Expression (3.150). Transverse shear deformation reduces the value of the
vibration frequencies. The expression of the shear factor S can be rewritten by
introducing an effective bending stiffness of the plate,
11
, Q having the dimension
of a modulus, and an effective shear modulus,
13
, G expressed as:

11 55
11 13
3
12
, .
D F
Q G
h
h
= = (3.172)
So, the shear factor is written as:

2
11
55 13
1
12
Q h
S
k G a

=

. (3.173)
The influence of the shear effect on the values of the vibration frequencies
depends on the ratio
11 13
Q G and the ratio a/h of the span length between the
supports to the thickness of the laminate. The variation of the fundamental fre-
quency (m
=
1) as a function of the ratio a/h is plotted in Figure 3.8, in the case of
a [0/90/90/0] laminate, of which the characteristics are:

230 GPa, 14 GPa, 5 GPa,
4 GPa, 0.3.
L T LT
TT LT
E E G
G
= = =
= =
(3.174)
For large values of the ratio a/h, the results deduced from the analysis including
the transverse shear effect tend to the ones obtained by the classical theory.
3.6.4 Cylindrical Vibrations of Sandwich Plates
As an example of sandwich plate vibrations, we consider the case of a plate
constituted of:
two identical orthotropic skins, the directions of which are parallel to the
directions x and y of the plate:

16 26 16 26
0,
0,
ij ij
B C
A A D D
= =
= = = =
(3.175)
a core, the principal directions 1 and 2 of which are parallel to the direc-
tions x and y of the plate:

45 44 23, 55 13,
0, F F hG F hG = = = (3.176)
where G
13
and G
23
are the transverse shear moduli measured along directions 1
and 2.

FIGURE 3.8. Influence of the transverse shear effect on the fundamental frequency of an
orthotropic plate subjected to cylindrical bending.
The cylindrical deformation of the sandwich plate is described as:

0 0 0 0
0, ( , ), 0, 0, ( , ).
x x y
u x t x t = = = = = v w w (3.177)
It results that the fundamental Equations (1.128) and (1.129) here reduce to:

2 2
0
11 13
2 2
x x
x xy
D hG I
x
x t

+ =

w
, (3.178)

2 2
0 0
13
2 2
x
s
hG q
x
x t

+ + =

w w
. (3.179)
These equations have the same form as Equations (3.160). So, the results deduced
for laminate plates can be transposed to sandwich plates.
In the case of simple supports, the results for the sandwich plates are deduced
from the results (3.164) to (3.173) by changing
55 55 3
into . k F hG In particular
when the rotary inertia terms can be neglected, the natural frequencies are
deduced from Equation (3.170) introducing the frequencies:

2 2
11
2
m
s
m D
a
= , (3.180)
and considering the shear term:

11
2
13
D
S
a hG
= . (3.181)
0 5 10 15
length-to-thickness ratio a h

1
1

f
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

1.2
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.2
classical theory
transverse shear
55
1 k =
1
55
3
k =
CHAPTER 4
Flexural Vibrations of Undamped
Rectangular Laminate Plates
4.1 FREE VIBRATIONS OF RECTANGULAR
ORTHOTROPIC PLATES SIMPLY SUPPORTED
In the analysis of plate vibrations, the most complex problem is that of lami-
nate made with an arbitrary stacking sequence which introduces coupling between
stretching and bending-twisting. The first simplification of the analysis consists in
the study of symmetric laminates for which there exists no coupling: B
ij
= 0. An
additional simplification occurs when there exists no bending-twisting coupling:
D
16
= D
26
= 0. The laminates are referred to as orthotropic laminates and the
fundamental equations (1.67) to (1.69) may be written as:
( )
0 0
4 4 4 2
0 0 0 0
11 12 66 22
4 2 2 4 2
4 4
0 0
2 2 2 2
0, 0,
2 2
.
s
xy
u
D D D D q
x x y y t
I
x t y t
= =

+ + + + +

= +

v
w w w w
w w
(4.1)
In the case where the rotary inertia terms can be neglected, I
xy
= 0, the free
vibration equation is deduced from the latter equation as:
( )
4 4 4 2
0 0 0 0
11 12 66 22
4 2 2 4 2
2 2 0
s
D D D D
x x y y t

+ + + + =

w w w w
. (4.2)
The transverse displacement is expressed in the complex form:

0 0
( , , ) ( , )
i t
x y t x y e
= w w , (4.3)
where is the angular frequency of the harmonic vibrations. Substituting expres-
sion (4.3) in Equation (4.2) leads to:
( )
4 4 4
2 0 0 0
11 12 66 22 0
4 2 2 4
2 2 0
s
D D D D
x x y y

+ + + =

w w w
w . (4.4)
4.1. Free Vibrations of Rectangular Orthotropic Plates Simply Supported 89
In the case of a plate simply supported along its four edges, the boundary con-
ditions are deduced from conditions (1.71):
edges 0 and : x x a = =

0
0, 0,
x
M = = w (4.5)
edges 0 and : y y b = =

0
0, 0,
y
M = = w (4.6)
From the constitutive equation (1.60), the conditions on the bending moments
along the edges are:
edges 0 and : x x a = =

2 2
0 0
11 12
2 2
0
x
M D D
x y

= =

w w
, (4.7)
edges 0 and : y y b = =

2 2
0 0
12 22
2 2
0
y
M D D
x y

= =

w w
. (4.8)
It results that the boundary conditions are verified by the transverse displa-
cement of the form:

0
( , ) sin sin
mn
x y
x y C m n
a b
= w . (4.9)
Substituting this expression into Equation (4.4) yields:
( )
4 4 2 2 4 4 4
2
11 12 66 22
4 2 2 4
2 2 0
s mn
m m n n
D D D D C
a a b b

+ + + =

. (4.10)
A non-zero value of C
mn
is obtained if the coefficient of C
mn
vanishes, whence the
expression for the natural frequencies of the transverse vibrations:
( )
2
4 2 2 2 4 4
11 12 66 22
2
1
2 2
mn
s
m D m n R D D n R D
a

= + + +

, (4.11)
where R is the length-to-width ratio of the plate (R
=
a/b). The deformed shape of
the plate corresponding to the natural frequency
mn
is given by (4.9).
In the case of an isotropic plate, we have:

11 22 12 66
2 D D D D D = = + = , (4.12)
and the expression for the vibration frequencies reduces to:

2
4 2 2 2 4 4
2
2
mn
s
D
m m n R n R
a
= + + . (4.13)
In the case of an orthotropic plate, the fundamental frequency corresponds to
m
=
n
=
1 and is given by:
( )
2
2 4
11 11 12 66 22
2
1
2 2
s
D R D D R D
a

= + + +

, (4.14)
and in the case of an isotropic plate we have :
90 Chapter 4. Flexural Vibrations of Undamped Rectangular Laminate Plates

( )
2
2
11
2
1
s
D
R
a
= + . (4.15)
The deformed shape of the fundamental mode is given for the two cases by:

0 11
( , ) sin sin
x y
x y C
a b
= w . (4.16)
So as to evaluate the influence of anisotropy, we compare the behaviour of a
square plate made from an orthotropic material with the characteristics:

11 22 12 66 22
10 , 2 , D D D D D = + = (4.17)
with the behaviour of a plate made of an isotropic material.
In the case of the isotropic material, the natural vibration frequencies (4.13)
are:

2
2 2
2
, ,
mn mn mn
s
D
k k m n
a
= = + (4.18)
when for the isotropic material, the vibration frequencies are given by:

2
22
2
,
mn mn
s
D
k
a
= (4.19)
with

4 2 2 4
10 2 .
mn
k m m n n = + + (4.20)
The values of the frequencies and the corresponding modes of vibrations are
reported in Table 4.1 for the isotropic plate and in Table 4.2 for the orthotropic
plate. The results reported show that there is no privileged direction in the case of
an isotropic plate. The vibration frequencies and the modes are the same for
m
=
1, n
=
2 and m
=
2, n
=
1; for m
=
1, n
=
3 and m
=
3, n
=
1, etc. In contrast, in
the case of the orthotropic plate, for example, the second mode corresponds to
m
=
1, n
=
2 (with k
12
= 5.83), whereas m
=
2, n
=
1 corresponds to the fourth
mode mode (with k
21

=
13.0), etc.
4.2 VIBRATIONS OF ORTHOTROPIC PLATES
WITH VARIOUS CONDITIONS ALONG THE EDGES
4.2.1 General Expressions
In the preceding section, the exact solutions of Equation (4.2) were derived in
the case of simply supported edges. In the case of other conditions, it is not pos-
sible to solve Equation (4.2) directly. The determination of natural frequencies
then requires using approximation methods. In this section we consider the Ritz
method.
In the case of orthotropic laminates
16 26
( 0) D D = = , the strain energy U
d
is
4.1. Free Vibrations of Rectangular Orthotropic Plates Simply Supported 91

TABLE 4.1. Natural frequencies and vibration modes of a simply supported isotropic
square plate.

2
2
mn mn
s
D
k
a
=

1st mode 2nd mode 3rd mode 4th mode
m 1 1 2 2 1 3
n 1 2 1 2 3 1
k
mn

2.0 5.0 5.0 8.0 10.0 10.0
Nodal
lines

TABLE 4.2. Natural frequencies and vibration modes of a simply supported othotropic
square plate.

2
22
2
mn mn
s
D
k
a
=

1st mode 2nd mode 3rd mode 4th mode 5th mode 6th mode
m 1 1 1 2 2 1
n 1 2 3 1 2 4
k
mn

3.61 5.83 10.44 13.0 14.42 17.26
Nodal
lines

y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y
x
y y
x x
y
x
y
x
deduced from Expression (1.77) as:

2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
d 11 12 22
2 2 2 2
0 0
2
2
0
66
1
2
2
4 d d .
a b
x y
U D D D
x x y y
D x y C
x y
= =
= + +

+ +

w w w w
w
(4.21)
The maximum kinetic energy is obtained from Expression (1.80) on introducing
the transverse displacement w
0
in the form (4.3). We obtain:

2 2
cmax 0
0 0
1
d d
2
a b
s
x y
E x y
= =
=

w . (4.22)
In the absence of transverse loads, the maximum energy function reduces to
U
d max
E
c max
with:

2 2
2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
d max cmax 11 12 22
2 2 2 2
0 0
2
2
2 2 0
66 0
1
2
2
4 d d . (4.23)
a b
x y
s
U E D D D
x x y y
D x y
x y

= =
= + +

+

w w w w
w
w

In the Ritz method the solution for the transverse displacement is expanded in
the form of a double series as:

0
1 1
( , ) ( ) ( )
M N
mn m n
m n
x y A X x Y y
= =
=
w , (4.24)
where the functions X
m
(x) and Y
n
(y) have to form a functional basis and are
chosen to satisfy the essential boundary conditions along the edges x
=
0, x
=
a
and y
=
0, y
=
b. The coefficients A
mn
are next determined from the stationarity
conditions which make extremum the energy function:
[ ]
dmax cmax
1, 2, . . . , ,
0,
1, 2, . . . , ,
mn
m M
U E
n N A
=
=
=

(4.25)
where
dmax cmax
U E

is the energy obtained by substituting Expression (4.24) for
the transverse displacement into Expressions (4.22) and (4.23).
So, the calculation of the energy function requires to express the terms:

2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2 0 0 0 0 0
0
2 2 2 2
, , , , .
x y
x x y y

w w w w w
w
For example:

2 2
0
2 2
1 1
d
d
M N
m
mn n
m n
X
A Y
x x
= =

w
. (4.26)
4.2. Vibrations of Orthotropic Plates with Various Conditions along the Edges 93
Whence

2
2 2 2
0
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
d d
d d
M N M N
m i
mn ij n j
m n i j
X X
A A Y Y
x x x
= = = =

=

w
, (4.27)
and

2
2 2 2
0
2 2 2
1 1
1 d d
2
d d
M N
m i
ij n j
mn
i j
X X
A Y Y
A
x x x
= =

=

w
. (4.28)
Integration of this term yields:

2
2
0
2
0 0
1
d d
2
a b
x y mn
x y
A
x = =

=

w

2 2
2 2
0 0
1 1
d d
d d
d d
M N a b
m i
ij n j
i j
X X
A x Y Y y
x x
= =

.
(4.29)
In order to express these integrals, it is useful to introduce the reduced variables:
et
x y
u
a b
= = v . (4.30)
Expression (4.29) may then be written as:

2
2
0
2
0 0
1
d d
2
a b
x y mn
x y
A
x = =

=

w

(4.31)

1 1 2 2
3 2 2
0 0
1 1
d d
d d
d d
M N
m i
ij n j
i j
b X X
A u Y Y
a u u
= =

v
The integrals are then dimensionless.
Proceeding in the same way for the other terms, we obtain:

( )
{
}

22 00 20 02 02 20
11 12
2
1 1
11 11 2 00 22 4
66 22
1
4 ,
M N
d
mi nj mi nj mi nj
mn
i j
mi nj mi nj ij
U
D I J D I J I J
A
Ra
D I J R D I J R A
= =

= + +
+ +
(4.32)
where R is the length-to-width ratio and introducing the dimensionless integrals:

1
0
, 1, 2, . . . , , d d
d ,
00, 02, 11, 20, 22.
d d
p q
pq m i
mi
p q
m i M X X
I u
pq
u u
=
=
=
(4.33)

1
0
d , 1, 2, . . . , , d
d ,
00, 02, 11, 20, 22.
d d
s
r
j
rs n
nj
r s
Y n j N Y
J
rs
=
=
=
v
v v
(4.34)
The approximate expression for the maximum kinetic energy is obtained from
the expression:

2

cmax
0 0
1 1
1
d d
2
M N
a b
j s m i n
x y
i j
E X X x Y Y y
= =
= =
=

, (4.35)
which yields:

4 2 00 00 cmax

1 1
1
M N
s mi nj
ij
i j
E
a I J
A R

= =

. (4.36)
Finally, the stationarity conditions (4.25) lead to the system of M N homo-
geneous equations:

( )
{
}

22 00 20 02 02 20 11 11 2
11 12 66
1 1
00 22 4 4 2 00 00
22
4
0,
for 1, 2, . . . , , 1, 2, . . . , .
M N
mi nj mi nj mi nj mi nj
i j
mi nj s mi nj ij
D I J D I J I J D I J R
D I J R a I J A
m M n N

= =

+ + +

+ =
= =
(4.37)
This system of equations can also be written in a reduced form as:

( )
{
}

2200 2002 0220 1111 2
11 12 66
1 1
0022 4 4 2 0000
22
4
0,
for 1, 2, . . . , , 1, 2, . . . , ,
M N
minj minj minj minj
i j
minj s minj ij
D C D C C D C R
D C R a C A
m M n N

= =

+ + +

+ =
= =
(4.38)
on writing the products of the integrals (4.33) and (4.34) in the form:

1 1
0 0
d
d d d
d d
d d d d
s
p q r
j pqrs pq rs m i n
nj minj mi
p q r s
Y
X X Y
C I J u
u u
= =

v
v v
. (4.39)
Next, the system can be rewritten in the form of a dimensionless system as:

( )
{
}

2200 2002 0220 1111 2
12 66
1 1
0022 4 2 0000
22
4
0,
for 1, 2, . . . , , 1, 2, . . . , ,
M N
minj minj minj minj
i j
minj minj ij
C C C C R
C R C A
m M n N

= =

+ + +

+ =
= =
(4.40)
by expressing the bending stiffness constants D
ij
as functions of D
11
:

12 12 11 66 66 11 22 22 11
, , , D D D D D D = = = (4.41)
and introducing the reduced frequency:

2
11
s
a
D
= . (4.42)
The system of Equations (4.37), (4.38) or (4.40) in A
ij
is a homogeneous system
which can be solved as an eigenproblem. Eigenvalues are the natural frequencies
and eigenvectors give coefficients A
ij
which determine the vibration modes.
4.2.2 Rayleighs Approximation
Rayleighs approximation consists of using for a given mode only the domi-
nant term mn of the series (4.24):
( , ) ( ) ( )
mn mn m n
x y A X x Y y = w . (4.43)
The vibration frequency of the mode mn is then obtained by equating the maxi-
mum strain energy with the maximum kinetic energy associated with the maxi-
mum transverse displacement w
mn
.
In this case, the maximum strain energy is given by:

( )
2 22 00 20 02 11 11 2
dmax 11 12 66
00 22 4
22
1
2 2
2
,
mn mm nn mm nn mm nn
mm nn
U A D I J D I J D I J R
D I J R ab
= + +
(4.44)
and the maximum kinetic energy is:

2 00 00 2
cmax
1
2
s mm nn mn
E ab I J A =
. (4.45)
The equality of these two expressions leads to:

2
0000
mmnn
mn
mmnn
B
C
= , (4.46)
where the coefficient B
mmnn
is given by:
( )
2200 2002 1111 2 0022 4
12 66 22
2 2
mmnn mmnn mmnn mmnn mmnn
B C C C R C R = + + + . (4.47)
In the case of transverse vibrations of orthotropic plates the difference between
the value of the vibration frequencies obtained by Rayleighs approximation and
the values deduced by Ritz method from an approximation with a large number of
terms is small (less than a few percent) in the case of plates with edges clamped or
simply supported. The difference increases when the geometric constraints impo-
sed on the four edges decrease. Schematically, the change of a clamped or simply
supported edge into a free edge increases the difference noticeably. The inter-
section of two free edges produces the highest differences.
4.2.3 Two-term Approximation
In the case of a two-term approximation the transverse displacement is given,
for example, by:

0 11 1 1 12 1 2
( , ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) x y A X x Y y A X x Y y = + w , (4.48)
and the system (4.40) reduces to a system of two equations:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2 0000 2 0000
1111 1111 11 1112 1112 12
2 0000 2 0000
1112 1121 11 1122 1122 12
0,
0,
B C A B C A
B C A B C A

+ =
+ =
(4.49)
with
( )
2200 2002 1111 2 0022 4
11 11 12 11 66 11 22 11
2 2 0, , 1, 2.
ij ij ij ij ij
B C C C R C R i j = + + = =
(4.50)
The vibration frequencies of modes 11 and 12 are obtained when the determinant
of (4.49) vanishes. Whence:

2 0000 2 0000
1111 1111 1112 1112
2 0000 2 0000
1112 1121 1122 1122
det 0
B C B C
B C B C

=

. (4.51)
The Rayleighs approximation of modes 11 et12 is obtained directly from the
diagonal terms, that is:

2 2 1111 1122
11 12
0000 0000
1111 1122
and .
B B
C C
= = (4.52)
We recover the approximations deduced from (4.46).
4.2.4 Orthotropic Plates with Simply Supported
or Clamped Edges
As an application we consider in this subsection the case of a rectangular ortho-
tropic plate clamped or simply supported along its edges.
In the case of opposite edges being clamped it is possible to use, for the
functions X
m
(x) and Y
n
(y), the beam function (3.52):
for clamped edges x
=
0 and x
=
a:
( ) cos cosh sin sinh
m m m m m m
x x x x
X x
a a a a

=

, (4.53)
for clamped edges y
=
0 and y
=
b:
n n n n n n
y y y y
Y y
b b b b

=

, (4.54)
where
m
,
n
,
m
and
n
are reported in Tables 3.1. According to approximation
(3.60), we have:

( )
1
4.730, 0.5 2, 3, . . ..
i
i i = = + = (4.55)
In the case of simply supported opposite edges, the functions X
m
(x) and Y
n
(y),
are expressed as the sine functions introduced in Equation (3.48):
for simply supported edges x
=
0 and x
=
a:
( ) sin
m
x
X x m
a
= , (4.56)
for simply supported edges y
=
0 and y
=
b:
( ) sin
n
y
Y y n
b
= . (4.57)
In the case where one edge is clamped and the other opposite edge is simply
supported, the functions X
m
(x) and Y
n
(y) can be expressed by the beam function
(3.52):
for clamped edge x
=
0 and simply supported edge x
=
a:
m m m m m m
x x x x
X x
a a a a

=

, (4.58)
for clamped edge y
=
0 and simply supported edge y
=
b:
n n n n n n
y y y y
Y y
b b b b

=

, (4.59)
where
m
,
n
,
m
and
n
are reported in Tables 3.3. The values of
m
and
n
are
well approximated by Equation (3.72).
The natural frequencies and the corresponding vibration modes are next deter-
mined by introducing functions (4.53)-(4.59) into the system of Equations (4.40).
We have the relations:

0000 2002 0220 1111
1, .
mnij mnij mnij mnij
C C C C = = = (4.60)
So, the system of Equations (4.40) is written in the form:

( )
2200 1111 2 0022 4 2
12 66 22
1 1
2 2 0,
for 1, 2, . . . , , 1, 2, . . . , ,
M N
minj minj minj ij
i j
C C R C R A
m M n N

= =

+ + + =

= =
(4.61)
with

2200 22 00 22 1111 11 11 0022 00 22 22
, , .
minj mi nj mi minj mi nj minj mi nj nj
C I J I C I J C I J J = = = = = (4.62)
The values of these integrals must be evaluated using an analytical or nume-
rical process. Some of these values are reported in Appendix B of Refs. 1 and 2.
We consider hereafter the case of the Rayleighs approximation (4.46). In this
case the vibration frequency of the mode mn is given by:
( )
2200 1111 2 0022 4 11
12 66 22
2
1
2 2 .
mn mmnn mmnn mmnn
s
D
C C R C R
a

= + + + (4.63)
In the case of two opposite edges simply supported:

2200 4 4 1111 2 2 2 0022 4 4
, , .
mmnn mmnn mmnn
C m C m n C n = = = (4.64)
In the case of two clamped opposite edges, or of one edge clamped and the
other simply supported:

2200 4 0022 4
, ,
mmnn m mmnn n
C C = = (4.65)
and

1111 11 11
mmnn mm nn
C I J = . (4.66)
The evaluation of these integrals shows that:
( )
11 11
12.30, 2 2, 3, 4, . . ..
ii ii i i
I I i = = (4.67)
in the case of two opposite edges clamped, and:
( )
11
1 1, 2, 3, . . ..
ii i i
I i = (4.68)
in the case of one edge clamped and the other simply supported.
Finally, Equation (4.63) associated with Equations (4.64) to (4.68) shows that
Rayleighs approximation of the vibration frequency of mode mn may be written
in the following form:
( )
4 2 4 4 11
1 12 66 2 22 3
2
1
2 2 ,
mn
s
D
c R c R c
a

= + + + (4.69)
where the values of coefficients c
1
, c
2
and c
3
are reported in Table 4.3 for each
combination of clamped and simple supports along the plate edges.
In the case of an isotropic plate (4.12), the expression for the transverse vibra-
tion frequencies may be written as:

4 2 4 4
1 2 3
2
1
2 .
mn
s
D
c R c R c
a
= + + (4.70)
For an isotropic plate with four clamped edges, the values reported in Table 4.3
lead to the following expression for the fundamental frequency:

11
2
36.1
.
s
D
a
= (4.71)
Using a 64-term series (M
=
N
=
8), the solution of the system (4.61) leads to:

11
2
35.99
.
s
D
a
= (4.72)
So, the value deduced from one-term approximation is very close to the exact
value for the fundamental frequency.
In the case of a square orthotropic plate, clamped along its four edges, with the
stiffness constants:

11 22 12 66 22
10 , 2 1.2 , D D D D D = + = (4.73)
the values of the natural frequencies obtained by the one-term approximation are
compared in Table 4.4 with the values obtained by using a 64-term series. These
results show that the values deduced from the one-term approximation are suffi-
ciently precise for this type of edge conditions.
x
y
E

E E
E
x
y
E

E E
S
x
y
S

E E
S
x
y
S

S
S

S
x
y
S
E
E
S
x
y
S
E
S
S
TABLE 4.3. Coefficients introduced in the expression (4.69) for natural frequencies of
orthotropic plates (clamped edges: E, simply supported edges: S).
Boundary
conditions
m n
1
c
3
c
2
c

1
1
2, 3, 4, . . .
2, 3, 4, . . .
1
2, 3, 4, . . .
1
2, 3, 4, . . .
4.730
4.730
( 0.5) m +
( 0.5) m +
4.730
( 0.5) n +
4.730
( 0.5) n +
2
12.3 151.3 =
3 3
( 2) 12.3c c
1 1
( 2) 12.3c c
1 1 3 3
( 2) ( 2) c c c c

1, 2, 3, . . . 1, 2, 3, . . . m n
2 2 4
n m

1, 2, 3, . . . 1, 2, 3, . . .
( 0.25) m + ( 0.25) n +
1 1 3 3
( 2) ( 2) c c c c

1
2, 3, 4, . . .
1, 2, 3, . . .
1, 2, 3, . . .
4.730
( 0.5) m +
n
n
2 2
12.3n
2 2
1 1
( 2) n c c

1
2, 3, 4, . . .
1, 2, 3, . . .
1, 2, 3, . . .
4.730
( 0.5) m +
( 0.25) n +
( 0.25) n +
3 3
( 2) 12.3c c
1 1 3 3
( 2) ( 2) c c c c

1, 2, 3, . . . 1, 2, 3, . . .
( 0.25) m +
n
2 2
1 1
( 2) n c c
TABLE 4.4. Natural frequencies of flexural vibrations of an orthotropic square plate
clamped along its four edges.

2
1
mn mn
s
D
k
a
=
k
mn

m n Approximation (4.69) 64-Term Series
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
3
1
2
4
3
4
24.227
31.889
47.480
63.163
68.504
70.722
79.740
98.460
24.213
31.861
47.436
63.116
68.428
70.645
79.676
98.369
4.3 VIBRATIONS OF SYMMETRIC LAMINATE
PLATES
4.3.1 General Expressions
The analysis of the free vibrations of symmetric plates can be implemented by
the Ritz method as considered in the previous section. In the present case the
strain energy is given by Expression (1.77). It results that the system (4.38) is
modified by introducing the bending-twisting terms D
16
and D
26
. Whence the
system of M N equations:

( )
{
( ) ( )
}

2200 2002 0220 1111 2 0022 4
11 12 66 22
1 1
1210 2101 1012 0121 3 4 2 0000
16 26
4
2 2 0,
for 1, 2, . . .
M N
minj minj minj minj minj
i j
minj minj minj minj s minj ij
D C D C C D C R D C R
D C C R D C C R a C A
m

= =

+ + + +

+ + + + =
=
, , 1, 2, . . . , . (4.74) M n N =

As in the case of orthotropic plates, it is possible to derive the Rayleighs
approximation (Subsection 4.2.2) that leads to expressions analogous to (4.46).
However in the present case, the Rayleighs approximation for the natural fre-
quencies differs notably from the value obtained with a large number of terms by
the Ritz method. In effect, in the case of arbitrary symmetric laminates, the one-
term approximation of the transverse displacement (4.43) does not describe the
actual transverse displacement correctly enough.
4.3. Vibrations of Symmetric Laminate Plates 101
4.3.2 Symmetric Plates with Clamped or Free Edges
As an application of the preceding general formulation, we consider in this
section the case of a symmetric rectangular plate with clamped or free edges.
The case of clamped opposite edges has already been considered in Section
4.2.4 (Expressions (4.53) to (4.55)).
For one edge clamped and the other opposite edge free, the transverse displa-
cement is expressed by the beam function introduced in Section 3.4.4:
clamped edge x
=
0 and free edge x
=
a:
m m m m m m
x x x x
X x
a a a a

=

, (4.75)
clamped edge y
=
0 and free edge y
=
b:
n n n n n n
y y y y
Y y
b b b b

=

, (4.76)
where
m
,
n
,
m
and
n
In the case of free opposite edges, the transverse displacement is expressed by
the beam functions introduced in Equations (3.86) to (3.92):
free edges x
=
0 and x
=
a:

1
2
( ) 1,
( ) 3 1 2 ,
( ) cos cosh sin sinh , 3,
m m m m m m
X x
x
X x
a
x x x x
X x m
a a a a

=

=

= + + +

(4.77)
free edges y
=
0 and y
=
b:

1
2
( ) 1,
( ) 3 1 2 ,
( ) cos cosh sin sinh , 3.
n n n n n n
Y y
y
Y y
b
y y y y
Y y n
b b b b

=

=

= + + +

(4.78)
The coefficients
m
,
n
,
m
and
n
are given in Table 3.5.
It must be noted that if the beam functions (4.75) to (4.78) satisfy the boundary
conditions (3.84) exactly at the free ends of a beam, they satisfy the boundary
conditions only approximately in the case of free edges of a plate. In fact, in the
case of one free edge in the y direction, for example, the boundary conditions
(1.73) are:
0, 0.
xy
x x
M
M Q
y
= + =
(4.79)
The transverse shear resultant Q
x
is given by the fourth plate equation (1.41) and
the boundary conditions become:
0, 2 0.
xy
x
x
M
M
M
x y
= + =

(4.80)
The equations for the bending moment M
x
and the twisting moment M
xy
are
deduced from the constitutive equation (1.60) for laminates. The boundary condi-
tions thus are:

2 2 2
0 0 0
11 12 16
2 2
2 0 D D D
x y
x y

+ + =

w w w
, (4.81)
( )
3 3 3 3
0 0 0 0
11 16 12 66 26
3 2 2 3
4 4 2 0 D D D D D
x x y x y y

+ + + + =

w w w w
. (4.82)
In the case of a free edge in the x direction, the boundary conditions are derived
by interchanging the respective roles of x and y, and the indices 1 and 2.
The beam functions (4.75) and (4.77) in the x direction satisfy conditions
(3.84) for the free ends of the beam, that is:

2 3
0 0
2 3
0, 0.
x x

= =

w w
(4.83)
It results that conditions (4.81) and (4.82) are only approximated by the beam
functions. The approach by the Ritz method is then less precise in the case of free
edges and a large number of terms of series (4.24) must be considered.
Considering the functions which correspond to the boundary conditions
imposed on the four edges of the plates it is possible to evaluate the integrals
and
pq rs
nj mi
I J , and to establish the corresponding system (4.74) of homogeneous
equations. This system can be solved as an eigenvalue and eigenvector problem,
where the eigenvalues are the natural frequencies of the vibrations and the
eigenvectors determine the vibration modes. Solving this problem can be carried
out by the use of a general-purpose software package for scientific and
engineering applications that integrates numerical analysis, matrix computation
and graphics.
As a numerical application we consider the case of a square plate made of an
orthotropic laminate with stiffness constants in the material directions given by:

0 0 0 0 0 0
22 11 12 11 66 11
0.25 , 0.075 , 0.125 . D D D D D D = = = (4.84)
We consider the case where the material directions are oriented at 30 to the plate
axes. The bending stiffnesses with respect to the plate directions are then derived
by applying to the constants (4.84) the transformation reported in Table 1.1 of
Chapter 1. We obtain:

0 0 0
11 11 12 11 16 11
0 0 0
22 11 26 11 66 11
0.70 , 0.1875 , 0.2273 ,
0.325 , 0.0974 , 0.2375 .
D D D D D D
D D D D D D
= = =
= = =
(4.85)
4.3. Vibrations of Symmetric Laminate Plates 103
TABLE 4.5. Natural frequencies of the first six flexural modes of a square plate
constituted of a symmetric material, (C: clamped edge, F free edge).

0
11
2
for the mode
i
i
s
k D
i
a
=
k
i

Boundary
conditions
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6
CCCC
FFFF
CCFF
CFCF
CCCF
CFFF
25.670
8.311
5.429
18.096
18.995
2.693
45.090
11.645
15.108
19.723
28.191
6.145
58.648
18.532
22.092
30.478
47.226
15.698
71.211
19.577
31.833
49.198
51.570
17.373
82.994
26.853
39.625
52.061
62.619
23.521
100.929
36.077
51.835
52.282
74.397
34.431

The values of the free vibration frequencies of the first six modes are reported in
Table 4.5 for various combinations of clamped or free edges. The frequencies
have been calculated by using a 64-term series for the transverse displacement.
The shapes of the modes are shown in Figure 4.1 for the case of four clamped
edges and Figure 4.2 for the case of two adjacent edges clamped with the other
two free.

FIGURE 4.1. Free flexural modes of a square plate constituted of a symmetric material
clamped along its four edges.

FIGURE 4.2. Free flexural modes of a square plate constituted of a symmetric material,
two adjacent edges of which are clamped and the other two are free.
4.4 VIBRATIONS OF NON-SYMMETRIC
LAMINATE PLATES
4.4.1 Plate Constituted of an Antisymmetric Cross-Ply
Laminate Plate

We consider the case of a rectangular plate of length a and width b, constituted
of a [0/90]
p
cross-ply laminate. From Equations (1.56), (1.57) and (1.59), the
laminate is characterized by:

16 26 12 16 26 66 16 26
22 11 22 11 22 11
0, 0, 0,
, , .
A A B B B B D D
A A B B D D
= = = = = = = =
= = =
(4.86)
In the case of free vibrations the displacements can be expressed in the form:

0 0

0 0

0 0
( , , ) ( , ) ,
( , , ) ( , ) ,
( , , ) ( , ) ,
i t
i t
i t
u x y t u x y e
x y t x y e
x y t x y e
=
=
=
v v
w w
(4.87)
where is the angular frequency of the harmonic vibrations of the plate. Introdu-
cing these expressions into Equations (1.64) to (1.66) and neglecting the in-plane
4.4. Vibrations of Non-Symmetric Laminate Plates 105
inertia terms, the equations of free vibrations (q
=
0) are written as:

( )
( )
( )
2 2 2 3
0 0 0 0
11 66 12 66 11
2 2 3
2 2 2 3
0 0 0 0
12 66 66 11 11
2 2 3
4 4 4 3 3
0 0 0 0
11 12 66 11
4 4 2 2 3
0,
0, (4.88)
2 2
u u
A A A A B
x y
x y x
u
A A A A B
x y
x y x
u
D D D B
x y x y x

+ + + =

+ + + + =

+ + +

v w
v v w
w w w v
2 0
0
3
0.
s
y

=

w

Equations (4.88) can be solved in the case of hinged edges, free in the in-plane
normal direction. In this case the boundary conditions are:
along edges 0 x = and x a = :

2 2
0 0 0
0 11 11 12
2 2
2
0 0 0
0 11 12 11
2
0, 0,
0, 0,
x
x
u
M B D D
x
x y
u
N A A B
x y
x

= = =

= = + =

w w
w
v w
v
(4.89)
along edges 0 y = and y b = :

2 2
0 0 0
0 11 12 11
2 2
2
0 0 0
0 12 11 11
2
0, 0,
0, 0.
y
y
M B D D
y
x y
u
u N A A B
x y
x

= = =

= = + + =

v w w
w
v w
(4.90)
These boundary conditions are satisfied by considering the displacements of the
form:

0
0
0
cos sin ,
sin cos ,
sin sin .
mn
mn
mn
x y
u A m n
a b
x y
B m n
a b
x y
C m n
a b

=
=
=
v
w
(4.91)
Substituting these expressions into Equations (4.88), we obtain:

1 2 3
2 4 5
2
2
3 5 6
2
0,
0,
0,
mn mn mn
mn mn mn
s
mn mn mn
a A a B a C
a A a B a C
a
a A a B a C
+ + =
+ + =

+ + =

(4.92)
with

( )
( )
( )
2 2 2
1 11 66
2 12 66
3
3 11
2 2 2
4 66 11
3 3
5 11
2
4 4 4 2 2 2
6 11 12 66
2
,
,
,
,
,
2 2 ,
.
a m A n R A
a mnR A A
a m B
a
a m A n R A
a n R B
a
a m n R D m n R D D
a
a
R
b
= +
= +
=
= +
=

= + + +

=
(4.93)
A non-zero solution is obtained for the plate displacements when the determinant
of the system (4.91) is zero. Whence the natural frequencies are derived as:

( )
( ) {
( )
}

4
2 4 4 4 2 2 2
11 12 66
4
2
4 4 4 11
3 2
1
2 2
,
mn
s
m n R D m n R D D
a
B
m n R

= + + +

+
(4.94)
on setting:

( )( ) ( )
( )
( )

2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 11 66 66 11 12 66
2
4 2 2 2 4 4
2 12 66 11 66
4 2 2 2 4 4
3 66 11 12 66
,
,
.
m A n R A m A n R A m n R A A
m A A m n R A n R A
m A m n R A n R A A
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
(4.95)
When the stretching/bending-twisting coupling is neglected (
11
0 B = ), Equa-
tion (4.94) is simplified as:

( )
( )
4
2 4 4 4 2 2 2
11 12 66
4
2 2 ,
mn
s
m n R D m n R D D
a

= + + +

(4.96)
which is the expression (4.11) for the free vibrations of simply supported ortho-
tropic plates for which D
22

=
D
11
.
In the case of orthotropic laminates, Equation (4.96) shows that the funda-
mental frequency corresponds to 1 m n = = . It is not the same in the case where a
coupling exists. The m and n values corresponding to the fundamental frequency
depend on the mechanical characteristics of the layers constituting the laminate.
We consider the case of an antisymmetric [0/90]
p
cross-ply laminate made of
layers the engineering moduli of which are:
20 , 0.5 , 0.25.
L T LT T LT
E E G E = = = (4.97).
From expressions (1.56), (1.57) and (1.59), the stiffness constants are expressed
as:

FIGURE 4.3. Variation of the fundamental frequency of a rectangular plate made of cross-
ply laminates as a function of the aspect ratio of the plate.

11 11 12 12 66 66
1
1 , , ,
2
T
L
E
A Q h A Q h A Q h
E

= + = =

2
11 11
1
1 ,
8
T
L
E
B Q h
p E

=

(4.98)

3 3 3
11 12 66
11 12 66
1
1 , , ,
2 12 12 12
T
L
E Q h Q h Q h
D D D
E

= + = =

where the reduced stiffness constants are expressed as functions of the engi-
neering constants by Equations (1.20).
The variation of the fundamental frequency as a function of the length-to-width
ratio (a/b) of the plate is reported in Figure 4.3 in the case of [0/90], [0/90]
2

and [0/90]
3
cross-ply laminates, and in the case of an orthotropic laminate
(
11
0 B = ). The fundamental frequencies are obtained for all the cases for
1 m n = = . The stretching/bending-twisting coupling reduces the values of the
vibration frequencies, and the results of Figure 4.3 show that the values of the
frequencies rapidly tend to the orthotropic solution (4.96) when the layer number
increases.
4.4.2 Plate Constituted of an Angle-Ply Laminate
In this subsection we consider the case of a rectangular plate constituted of a
[ ]
n
angle-ply laminate. The reduced stiffness constants of the + layers and
layers are related by the expressions:
0 0.5 1 1.5
length-to-width ratio a b
40
30
20
10
0
orthotropic laminate
(B
11
= 0)
[ ]
0 / 90
2

2
1
1
3

f
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

s
T
a
E
h

[ ]
2
0 / 90
[ ]
3
0 / 90

11 11 12 12 16 16
22 22 26 26 66 66
, , ,
, , ,
Q Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q Q

+ + +
+ + +
= = =
= = =
(4.99)
where the relations between the stiffness constants
ij
Q
+
and the constants
ij
Q
referred to the layer directions are given in Table 1.1. From Expressions (1.56),
(1.57) and (1.59), it results that:

16 26 11 12 22 66 16 26
0, 0, 0. A A B B B B D D = = = = = = = = (4.100)
Considering these relations, the introduction of Expressions (4.87) for the
displacements into Equations (1.64) to (1.66), neglecting the in-plane inertia
terms, leads to the equations of the free vibrations:

( )
( )
( )
2 2 2 3 3
0 0 0 0 0
11 66 12 66 16 26
2 2 2 3
2 2 2 3 3
0 0 0 0 0
12 66 66 22 16 26
2 2 3 2
4 4 4
0 0 0
11 12 66 22
4 2 2 4
3 0,
3 0,
2 2
u u
A A A A B B
x y
x y x y y
u
A A A A B B
x y
x y x x y
D D D D
x x y y

+ + + =

+ + + =

+ + +

v w w
v v w w
w w w
3 3 3 3
2 0 0 0 0
16 26 0
2 3 3 2

3 3 0.
s
u u
B B
x y x y x y

+ + =

v v
w
(4.101)
Equations (4.101) can be solved in the case of hinged edges free in the in-plane
tangential direction. In this case the boundary conditions are:
edges 0 x = and x a = :

2 2
0 0 0 0
0 16 11 12
2 2
2 2
0 0 0 0
0 66 16 26
2 2
0, 0,
0, 0,
x
xy
u
M B D D
x y
x y
u
u N A B B
y x
x y

= = + =

= = + =

v w w
w
v w w
(4.102)
edges 0 y = and y b = :

2 2
0 0 0 0
0 26 12 22
2 2
2 2
0 0 0 0
0 66 16 26
2 2
0, 0,
0, 0.
y
xy
u
M B D D
y x
x y
u
N A B B
y x
x y

= = + =

= = + =

v w w
w
v w w
v
(4.103)
These boundary conditions are verified by taking displacements in the form:

0
0
0
sin cos ,
cos sin ,
sin sin .
mn
mn
mn
x y
u A m n
a b
x y
B m n
a b
x y
C m n
a b

=
=
=
v
w
(4.104)
Substituting these expressions into Equations (4.101), we obtain:

1 2 3
2 4 5
2
2
3 5 6
2
0,
0,
0.
mn mn mn
mn mn mn
s
mn mn mn
a A a B a C
a A a B a C
a
a A a B a C
+ + =
+ + =

+ + =

(4.105)
This system has the same form as the system (4.92) with:

( )
( )
( )
2 2 2
3 16 26
2 2 2
4 66 22
2 2 2
5 16 26
2
4 2 2 2 4 4
6 11 12 66 22
2
3 ,
,
3 ,
2 2 .
a nR m B n R B
a
a m A n R A
a m m B n R B
a
a m D m n R D D n R D
a
= +
= +
= +

= + + +

(4.106)
The expressions for the vibration frequencies may then be written in a form analo-
gous to (4.94):
( ) {
( ) ( ) }

4
2 4 2 2 2 4 4
11 12 66 22
4
2 2 2 2 2 2
16 26 2 16 26 3
1
2 2
1
3 3 ,
mn
s
m D m n R D D n R D
a
m m B n R B nR m B n R B

= + + +

+ + +

(4.107)
where

( )( ) ( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )

2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 11 66 66 22 12 66
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 11 66 16 26
2 2 2 2 2
12 66 16 26
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 66 22 16 26
2 2 2 2 2
12 66 16 26
,
3
3 ,
3
3 .
m A n R A m A n R A m n R A A
m A n R A m B n R B
n R A A m B n R B
m A n R A m B n R B
n R A A m B n R B
= + + +
= + +
+ +
= + +
+ +
(4.108)

FIGURE 4.4. Variation of the fundamental frequency of a rectangular plate made of
angle-ply laminates as a function of the layer orientation.
When the stretching/bending-twisting coupling is neglected (
16 26
0 B B = = ),
Expression (4.107) for the free vibration frequencies are reduced to Expression
(4.11) obtained in the case of simply supported orthotropic plates. In the case
where this coupling cannot be neglected, the m and n values corresponding to the
fundamental mode depends on the mechanical characteristics of the laminate
layers.
We consider the case of angle-ply laminates with the layer characteristics given
in (4.97). In this case the fundamental frequency corresponds to 1 m n = = and its
variation as a function of layer angle is plotted in Figure 4.4 for a square plate
constituted of [+ / ], [+ / ]
2
and [+ / ]
3
. The variation is also plotted for
an orthotropic laminate (
16 26
0 B B = = ). The results reported show that the values
of the fundamental frequencies rapidly tend to the solution (4.11) of the ortho-
tropic laminate when the number of layers increases.
4.5 EVALUATION OF THE LAMINATE BENDING
STIFFNESSES BY ANALYSIS OF PLATE VIBRATIONS
4.5.1 Introduction
Different works [3-10] have been developed for evaluating the elastic para-
meters of laminated composites from the vibrations of rectangular plates. In these
works the elastic constants are deduced from the measurement of the natural fre-
quencies of vibrations of a single plate. Works were also developed which take
0 5 10 15
angle ( )
16
14
20
10
orthotropic laminate
(B
16
= B
26
= 0)
[ ]

20

2
1
1
3

f
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

s
T
a
E
h

12
18
25 30 35 40 45
[ ]
2

[ ]
3

4.5. Evaluation of the Laminate Bending Stiffnesses by Analysis of Plate Vibrations 111
the measured mode shapes into consideration [11-14]. Deobald and Gibson [5]
consider three different boundary conditions where the plate edges were clamped
or free. In fact it has been considered that it is difficult to obtain perfect clamped
conditions and the works developed in literature have been generally carried out
in the case of free plates, where the four edges were free. The characteristic
equations of free vibrations which model the flexural vibrations of rectangular
plates have been derived using either the Ritzs method, for example [5], or the
finite element analysis, for example [8].
The characteristic equations of free vibrations relate the natural frequencies of
vibrations and mode shapes to the bending stiffnesses and are obtained by solving
an eigenvalue problem (previous sections). The inverse problem of deriving the
bending stiffnesses from the natural frequencies is solved using an iterative proce-
dure which minimizes an error function containing the deviations of natural fre-
quencies between experiment and procedure. The experimental results obtained
show that this inverse problem of deriving the bending stiffnesses is faced with
difficulties associated with the inherent tendency of the equations of the inverse
problem to be ill conditioned. This tendency was considered in [5].
So, the purpose of this section is to analyze the difficulties of evaluating the
elastic constants of laminate materials from the flexural vibrations of plates and to
show how some of these difficulties can be overcome. In such a way to have an
extended analytical investigation of this problem, the Ritz method has been used
to model the flexural vibrations of rectangular plates. This investigation was
developed in [15, 16].
4.5.2 Experimental Features
4.5.2.1 Materials
The analysis developed hereafter is placed in an experimental context. So, the
experimental work was performed in the case of glass fibre laminates. Unidi-
rectional plates were made from epoxy resin with hardener and unidirectional
glass fabric. The laminates were cured with pressure, and then post-cured in an
oven. The engineering constants referred to the plate directions were measured in
static tests. We obtained:
E
L
= 34.61 GPa, E
T
= 7.020 GPa, G
LT
= 3.190 GPa,
LT
= 0.186, (4.109)
as mean values of 10 tests for each constant. Hence we deduce the values of
reduced stiffnesses:

11 12 16
22 26 66
34.86 GPa, 1.315 GPa, 0,
7.070 GPa, 0, 3.190 GPa,
Q Q Q
Q Q Q
= = =
= = =
(4.110)
The nominal thickness of the plates being equal to 2.1 mm, relation (1.59) allows
then to evaluate the bending stiffnesses:

11 12 16
22 26 66
26.90 Nm, 1.015 Nm, 0,
5.156 Nm, 0, 2.462 Nm.
D D D
D D D
= = =
= = =
(4.111)
It has to be noted that these materials have an anisotropy ratio (E
L
/E
T
) of about 5,
which is intermediate between those of balanced cross-plies (ratio equal to 1) and
unidirectional carbon fibres (ratio about 10 to 20).

4.5.2.2 Boundary Conditions
Free boundary conditions are generally chosen [3-5, 10] for the experimental
modal analysis of plates, considering that free conditions along edges can be more
easily realized than clamped or simply-supported edges. The free boundary
conditions are obtained by testing the plates on soft foam [5, 6] or cotton pads [3],
or by hinging up the plates with thin threads [3, 4, 7, 10]. The stiffness of these
supports would tend to increase the natural frequencies. Moreover the mode
shapes are not easy to evaluate experimentally with actual free conditions.
Deobald and Gibson [5] considered the case of plates with clamped edges,
obtained by adhesively bonding steel shoulders to both surfaces of the plates. The
shoulders were then clamped to an isolation table. In this case, it could be
advanced that the actual clamped conditions along the edges would exhibit a
degree of elasticity which would tend to lower the natural frequencies slightly.
In fact the tests we performed did not show any particular difficulties to
implement a correct clamping along the edges of a plate. It results that we have
considered more specially the case of plates the edges of which were either
clamped (C) or free (F). The L direction of the materials coincides with the x-
direction of the plate (figure 4.5), the edges are identified from 1 to 4 and the
boundary conditions along the edges are noted in this order. Six arrangements will
be considered hereafter: the CCCC, CFFF, FCFF, CCFF, CCCF and CFCC confi-
gurations. The FFFF configuration was not investigated in this work on account of
the different works in the literature, and finally considering the difficulty to
control this type of boundary conditions in an industrial process.
Clamping the edges has been carried out by squeezing the plate directly in
serrated jaws of a solid base (figure 4.6) where the experimental modal analysis
was implemented. The edges were squeezed by applying gradually a pressure of
about 500 kPa, until the natural frequencies of plates were stable. This equipment
allows us to investigate rectangular plates the dimensions of which can be varied
from 278 177 mm
2
to 285 215 mm
2
with any combination of clamped or free

FIGURE 4.5. Plate directions and identification of the edges.
a
b
x y
z
1
2
3
4

FIGURE 4.6. Plate clamped along its four edges.
edges. The validation of this clamping process was established by the repetitive
results obtained when plates were unset and set successively on the one hand, and
by the good agreement between the experimental results and the results deduced
from models.
4.5.2.3 Experiment
The impulse technique was chosen to perform modal analysis because of the
ease of implementation and the quickness of the test. The equipment used is
shown in Figure 4.7. An impulse hammer is used to induce the excitation of the
flexural vibrations of the plate. A force transducer positioned on the hammer
allows us to obtain the excitation signal as a function of the time. The width of the

FIGURE 4.7. Modal analysis equipment.
Impulse hammer
Signal
conditionner
Laser vibrometer
Dynamic signal
analyzer
Computer
Storage
Accelerometer
Signal
conditionner
Signal
conditionner
impulse and whence the frequency is controlled by the stiffness of the head of the
hammer. Added mass can be placed at the back of the hammer to increase the
energy dissipated by the impact and hence the height of the excitation signal. In
such a way to simplify the tests, an accelerometer of low mass (equal to 0.7 g)
was generally used in the tests. So as to justify the use of this accelerometer,
verification tests were implemented by using a laser vibrometer (optical head and
signal conditioner) which measured the velocity of the transverse displacement of
a given point. It was observed that the use of low mass accelerometer can modify
slightly the response at the level of the modal damping. But it was observed that
this type of accelerometer had no measurable influence on the evaluation of the
natural frequencies. Next, through amplifiers and conditioners, the excitation and
the response signals were digitalized and processed by a dynamic analyzer of
signals. This analyzer associated with a PC computer performs the acquisition of
signals, controls the acquisition conditions (sensibility, frequency range, trigger
conditions, etc.), and next performs the analysis of the signals acquired (Fourier
transform, frequency response, mode shapes, etc.).Then, the signals and the
associated processing can be saved for new post-processings.
4.5.3 Introduction to the Experimental Modal Analysis
of Orthotropic Plates
4.5.3.1 Evaluation of the Natural Frequencies
The natural frequencies of rectangular plates can be evaluated using the Ritz
method as considered in the previous sections. The natural frequencies are derived
from Equation (4.40) for orthotropic laminates or (4.74) for arbitrary symmetric
laminate plates. To solve the system of equations (4.40) or (4.74) it is necessary to
choose the admissible functions X
m
(x) and Y
n
(y) which satisfy the appropriate
boundary conditions and then to calculate the integrals (4.33) and (4.34). As
introduced by Young [17] and considered in the previous sections 4.2 and 4.3, the
characteristic functions of the beam bending vibrations, introduced in Section 3.4
of Chapter 3, can be used as admissible functions. Polynomial functions [1, 2]
satisfying the essential boundary conditions can also be considered. The dimen-
sionless integrals (4.33) and (4.34) can be calculated by an analytical development
or by a numerical process and then stored in computer. Next, the appropriate
integral values can be read from computer memory to form system (4.40) or
(4.74). Some of these integrals are tabulated in [1, 2, 15, 16]. It has to be noted
that the beam functions satisfy orthogonality relations (Section 3.3.2) which make
zero many of the integrals.
Calculation implemented to derive the natural frequencies from the system
(4.40) or (4.74) when the bending stiffnesses are given shows a faster
convergence of the values obtained with the characteristic beam functions when
the number of terms used in series (4.24) increases. However the difference
between the values obtained with beam functions and polynomial functions
become low when the number of terms is great. This difference is smaller than
0.1% for the six first modes of the different configurations considered with a
series of 100 terms (M
=
N
=
10). At last the determination of the natural fre-
quencies by finite element analysis shows that, for a series of 100 terms, the
difference with the frequencies deduced from finite element is smaller than 0.3%
for the beam functions and smaller than 0.2% for the polynomial functions.
Finally the beam functions were chosen considering the interest of orthogonality
relationship of these functions.
4.5.3.2 Different Results
The conditions of plate fabrication and realization of the boundary conditions
lead to a value of the length-to-width ratio R of about 1.5. Table 4.6 reports for
this value the contribution to the square of the natural frequencies (whence the
contribution to the vibration energy) of each reduced stiffness as function of the
boundary conditions and for the nine natural frequencies f
ij
(i, j
=
1, 2, 3), in the
case of orthotropic laminates (4.109) to (4.111). Also table 4.6 reports the differ-
rence between the Rayleighs approximation (4.2.2) and the Ritzs evaluation with
100 terms (M
=
N
=
10). The results reported show that this difference is generally
small: difference smaller than 1.3% for 42 cases of the 54 cases reported in the
table, 4 other cases showing a difference of 1.8% (hence 85% of the cases give a
difference smaller than 1.8%). The other values calculated by the Rayleigh's
approximation lead to differences ranging from 3 to 7.8%. The highest differences
(7.6 and 7.8%) are observed in the case of the configurations with three free
edges: CFFF configuration (frequency f
12
) and FCFF configuration (frequency
f
21
). The other differences are smaller than 4.5%. The differences observed are the
results of the capacity of the Rayleighs approximation to describe more or less
accurately the actual mode shapes.
Next the results of table 4.6 show that the natural frequencies f
i1
depend only
on the reduced stiffness Q
11
in the case of the CFFF configuration. In the same
way, the natural frequencies f
1j
depend only on the reduced stiffness Q
22
in the
case of the FCFF configuration. These natural frequencies are associated with
cylindrical bending modes along the directions 1 and 2 (Figures 4.8 and 4.9).
Then it is possible to evaluate the reduced stiffnesses Q
11
and Q
22
from these two
configurations. From relation (4.46) we obtain:

4 0000
2 2 11
11 1
3 2200
11
48 (CFFF)
s ii
i
ii
a C
Q f
h C
= , (4.112)

0000
4
11
2 2
22 1
3 4 0022
11
48 (FCFF)
jj
s
i
jj
C
a
Q f
h R C
= . (4.113)
The differences between the values of f
i1
and f
1j
frequencies calculated by the
Rayleighs approximation and the values obtained by the 100-term Ritzs
estimation are smaller than 0.36%. Furthermore the determination of Q
11
and Q
22

from the different frequencies f
i1
and f
1j
allows us to obtain an evaluation of the
TABLE 4.6. Contributions (expressed in percent) of the reduced stiffnesses to the squares
of the natural frequencies of a rectangular orthotropic plate of length-to-width ratio equal
to 1.5, constituted of material (4.109)-(4.111). Differences (in percent) between Rayleigh
frequencies and 100-term Ritz frequencies.

f
11
f
12

Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66
Diff. Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66
Diff.
CCCC
CFFF
FCFF
CCFC
CCCF
CCFF
42.97
100.0
0
2.163
89.62
28.77
44.12
0
100.0
89.91
2.273
29.54
2.206
0
0
0.313
0.321
0.291
10.70
0
0
8.239
8.432
41.40
0.102
0.080
0.079
0.487
0.491
3.852
10.07
21.20
0
0.302
36.93
1.953
78.60
0
100.0
95.55
36.78
78.75
1.936
0
0
0.164
2.049
0.306
9.391
78.80
0
4.313
24.24
19.60
0.147
7.786
0.364
0.458
0.556
0.569

f
13
f
21

Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66
Diff. Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66
Diff.
CCCC
CFFF
FCFF
CCFC
CCCF
CCFF
2.994
1.731
0
0.080
9.466
0.294
89.78
71.99
100.0
97.55
73.91
92.84
1.236
0.251
0
0.094
1.813
0.159
5.995
26.53
0
2.461
14.81
7.029
0.123
0.369
0.046
0.320
0.309
0.731
77.94
100.0
0
35.81
95.43
78.26
10.53
0
21.65
37.91
0.319
2.046
1.971
0
0
2.048
0.168
0.312
9.562
0
78.35
24.23
4.423
20.01
0.024
0.239
7.638
0.559
0.466
4.530

f
22
f
23

Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66
Diff. Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66
Diff.
CCCC
CFFF
FCFF
CCFC
CCCF
CCFF
38.75
60.24
0
8.481
67.49
25.83
39.79
0
60.87
68.22
8.847
26.52
3.668
0
0
1.816
1.844
1.596
17.80
39.76
39.13
21.48
21.82
46.05
0.042
1.822
1.798
0.969
0.969
3.233
16.30
20.67
0
2.645
34.57
7.399
64.32
21.89
83.65
81.75
35.52
59.57
3.313
1.182
0
1.216
3.261
1.579
16.08
56.26
16.35
14.38
26.65
31.46
0.185
3.851
0.593
0.946
0.386
1.196

f
31
f
32

Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66
Diff. Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66
Diff.
CCCC
CFFF
FCFF
CCFC
CCCF
CCFF
89.46
100.0
71.42
73.21
97.49
92.65
3.147
0
1.811
9.885
0.085
0.309
1.264
0
0.256
1.844
0.096
0.163
6.134
0
27.03
15.06
2.525
7.203
0.177
0.045
3.779
0.309
0.327
1.295
63.42
83.28
21.32
34.60
81.30
58.81
16.95
0
21.23
35.50
2.773
7.702
3.355
0
1.183
3.262
1.242
1.601
16.28
16.72
56.27
26.65
14.69
31.89
0.185
0.506
3.822
0.387
0.956
3.153

f
33
FFFF plate

Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66
Diff.
mode Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66

CCCC
CFFF
FCFF
CCFC
CCCF
CCFF
37.15
50.31
6.539
14.71
57.11
29.29
38.15
6.793
51.06
57.99
15.27
30.08
4.221
1.267
1.252
2.978
3.012
2.753
20.48
41.64
41.15
24.33
24.60
37.88
0.110
1.794
1.785
0.457
0.482
1.191
1
2
3
4
5
6
2.519
56.95
36.39
53.57
1.900
19.40
2.477
37.42
58.39
1.912
54.22
19.84
0.134
5.621
5.174
0.297
0.286
1.429
94.87
0.007
0.051
44.22
43.59
59.33

FIGURE 4.8. Shapes of the cylindrical bending modes in the case of CFFF plates.

FIGURE 4.9. Shapes of the cylindrical bending modes in the case of FCFF plates.
variation of these stiffnesses as a function of the frequency.
Also the results of Table 4.6 show that the natural frequency f
22
depends only
on the stiffnesses Q
11
and Q
66
for the CFFF configuration and on the stiffnesses
Q
22
and Q
66
for the FCFF configuration. The differences observed between
Rayleighs approximation and Ritz evaluation are equal to 1.8%. For the mode 22,
relation (4.46) leads to:
( )
3
2 2200 2002 1111 2 0022 4
22 2222 11 2222 12 2222 66 2222 22
4
2 2
12
s
h
C Q C Q C Q R C Q R
a

= + + +

. (4.114)
In the case of two free opposite edges, the term
0022
2222
C is zero. In addition we have
x
z
y
x
z
y

FIGURE 4.10. Shapes of mode 22 in CFFF and FCFF configurations
the following relations for the CFFF configuration:

2200 22
2222 22
1111 11 11
2222 22 22
1111
2222
(CFFF) (CF),
(CFFF) (CF) (FF),
(CFFF) 0.
C I
C I I
C
=
=
=
(4.115)
So Relation (4.114) associated with (4.115) gives:

3
2 22 11 11 2
22 22 11 22 22 66
2 4
1
(CFFF) (CF) 4 (CF) (FF)
48
s
h
f I Q I I Q R
a

= +

. (4.116)
The FCFF configuration is obtained by transposing axes 1 and 2. Whence:

3 4
2 11 11 22
22 22 22 66 22 22
2 4 2
1 1
(FCFF) 4 (CF) (FF) (CF)
48
s
h R
f I I Q I Q
a R

= +

. (4.117)
Figure 4.10 shows the shapes of modes 22 in the two configurations.
Also the natural frequencies f
12
and f
32
for the CFFF configuration depend only
on the stiffnesses Q
11
and Q
66
. In the same way the frequencies f
21
and f
23
for the
FCFF configuration depend only on the stiffnesses Q
22
and Q
66
. However for
these frequencies either the difference between Rayleigh's approximation and
Ritzs evaluation is marked (about 8% for f
12
(CFFF) and f
21
(FCFF)) or the par-
ticipation of the stiffness Q
66
is rather low (about 16% for f
23
(FCFF) and
f
32
(CFFF)).
Lastly, Table 4.6 shows very low contribution of the stiffness Q
12
to the diffe-
rent modes, and this result specifies clearly the tendency to have ill conditioned
numerical equations for the evaluation of the bending stiffnesses from the natural
frequencies of a single plate. In practice the best contributions are obtained in the
case where the four edges of the plate are clamped: the contributions vary from
1.2% for the mode 13 to 4.2% for the mode 33. For comparison we report also in
Table 4.6 the contributions of stiffnesses in the case of a plate free along its four
edges. Again we observe a low contribution of the stiffness Q
12
in this confi-
guration.
x
z
y
4.5.4 Experimental Results and Discussion in the case
of Orthotropic Plates
4.5.4.1 Values of the Natural Frequencies
Before we evaluate the bending stiffnesses from the natural frequencies, it is
needed to have an estimation of the consistency of the values measured for the
frequencies. Table 4.7 compares the values of the natural frequencies of a plate
made of the orthotropic material considered in Subsection 4.5.2.1 as determined
by experimental modal analysis, Rayleighs approximation and 100-term Ritzs
evaluation. Different boundary conditions along the four edges have been consi-
dered and the experimental analysis was implemented in the case of a plate of 278
mm length and 185 mm width. The comparison is limited to the first six modes.
Rayleigh and Ritz frequencies were calculated using the values of stiffnesses

TABLE 4.7. Natural frequencies (in Hz) measured and calculated for a rectangular plate.
Differences (in percent) between the measured values and the calculated values: diff. 1
(Rayleighs approximation) and diff. 2 (100-term Ritz approximation).

Mode 1 Mode 2

Exp. Rayleigh Ritz Diff. 1 Diff. 2 Exp. Rayleigh Ritz Diff. 1 Diff. 2
CCCC
CCFC
CCCF
CCFF
CFFF
FCFF
192.1
139.5
130.5
35.5
18.9
19.1
190.81
133.67
132.13
36.65
19.66
19.12
190.62
133.02
131.48
35.29
19.64
19.11
0.67
4.17
1.25
3.24
4.02
0.10
0.77
4.69
0.75
0.59
3.92
0.05
382.1
206.3
201.9
131.9
38.1
40.8
390.55
205.85
205.82
139.25
42.69
41.10
389.98
204.70
204.68
133.21
39.60
38.18
2.21
0.22
1.94
5.57
12.05
0.74
2.06
0.78
1.38
0.99
3.94
6.42

Mode 3 Mode 4

CCCC
CCFC
CCCF
CCFF
CFFF
FCFF
410.9
376.6
339.7
144.0
119.0
120.1
394.08
357.42
352.95
140.66
123.18
119.84
393.50
355.79
351.31
139.87
122.78
119.40
4.09
5.09
3.90
2.32
3.51
0.22
4.23
5.52
3.42
2.87
3.18
0.58
559.3
394.6
411.0
236.4
152.4
143.1
553.88
403.13
406.55
242.38
149.38
142.10
552.83
401.89
405.30
234.79
143.96
136.92
0.97
2.16
1.08
2.53
1.98
0.70
1.16
1.85
1.39
0.68
5.54
4.32

Mode 5 Mode 6

CCCC
CCFC
CCCF
CCFF
CFFF
FCFF
699.1
435.4
421.4
341.5
155.3
156.2
714.64
422.99
419.69
358.34
158.71
153.60
713.37
418.93
415.66
353.76
155.87
150.89
2.22
2.85
0.41
4.93
2.20
1.66
2.04
3.78
1.36
3.59
0.37
3.40
759.6
589.6
590.6
377.2
272.7
266.3
722.87
586.42
586.42
362.75
270.93
260.08
721.98
585.21
584.17
360.12
260.88
250.51
4.84
0.54
0.71
3.83
0.65
2.34
4.95
0.74
1.09
4.53
4.33
5.93
(4.109) and (4.110) measured in static tests. The use of these values assumes that
the stiffnesses are not depending on the frequency. The experimental values are
the average of 10 tests by plate configuration, performed by setting and unsetting
successively the different plates studied. The values reported in table 4.7 show
that the differences observed are smaller than 5.6 percent, except for the mode 2
of the CFFF configuration. The analysis of the experimental results shows that the
measured values are randomly distributed near the calculated frequencies. For the
Rayleighs approximation the differences are in the range [6%, 6%], 70 percent
of the values being distributed in the interval [3%, 3%].
Finally the differences observed appear to be associated with a usual scattering
of the experimental results, which is not possible to reduce more in an industrial
context. Previously we reported that setting and unsetting the plates do not modify
perceptibly the measured values of the natural frequencies. Considering the differ-
rent factors which can contribute to the scattering of the measured values, we may
advance that the main factor is the one of the homogeneity of fabrication of the
rectangular plates, which corresponds in our work to a usual industrial fabrication.
Thus the results obtained validate the experimental process for measuring the
natural frequencies as well as the use of clamping conditions.
4.5.4.2 Determination of the Stiffnesses by an Iterative Procedure
The inverse problem of deriving the bending stiffnesses from the natural fre-
quencies needs the use of an iterative technique in the case of the evaluation of the
flexural vibrations of rectangular plates by the Ritzs method or by numerical
methods. Starting from a set of initial values of the stiffnesses, these values are
iteratively updated until the difference of natural frequencies between calculation
and experiment is sufficiently small. In Ritzs evaluation, Deobald and Gibson [5]
introduce a solution matrix, when in numerical evaluation the iterative process
is established by considering a sensibility matrix [4, 7, 10], introduced first by
De Wilde [3]. The two procedures lead to similar developments and we consider
the formulation of Deobald and Gibson hereafter.
For orthotropic plates, the system (4.40) with four indices m, n, i and j can be
expressed in the following formulation with two indices k and l as:
( )
2
1
0
M N
kl kl l
k
a b A
=
=
, (4.118)
where the coefficients a
kl
and b
kl
are given by the expressions:

( )
2200 2002 2002 1111 2 0022 4
12 66 22
0000
4 ,
,
kl minj minj minj minj minj
kl minj
a C C C C R C R
b C

= + + + +

=
(4.119)
and the indices k and l are deduced from the indices m, n, i and j by the relations:

( ) ( )
1 , 1 ,
for , 1, 2, . . . , , , 1, 2, . . . , .
k m N n l i N j
m i M n j N
= + = +
= =
(4.120)
Then, the system (4.118) can be expressed in the matrix form:

( )
2
0 = a b A , (4.121)
where a and b are the square matrices of respective elements a
kl
and b
kl
and A is
the column matrix of the eigenvectors which give the mode shapes of the vibra-
tions. Equation (4.121) can be solved as an eigenvalue and eigenvector problem.
Let
1 2 3 4
, , and
e e e e
f f f f be the experimental values of four natural frequencies
evaluated by modal analysis. The four corresponding eigenvalues of the system
(4.121) are deduced from Expression (4.42) and can be expressed as:
( )
2
11
, 1, 2, 3, 4,
e
e i
i
i
D
= = (4.122)
with
( )
2
2
2
e e
i i s
f a = . (4.123)
The iterative process is initiated by solving the eigenvalue problem with four
initial estimates of the bending stiffnesses D
11
, D
22
, D
12
and D
66
. In this way the
system (4.121) is rewritten in the form:
( )
11
1
0
M N
kl kl l
k
D a b A
=
=
, (4.124)
with
( )
2
2
2
s
f a = . (4.125)
The system (4.124) is simplified in the case where the assumed functions present
orthogonality relationships:

00
00
1 if ,
,
0 if ,
1 if ,
,
0 if .
mi mi mi
nj nj nj
m i
I
m i
n j
I
n j

=
= =

=
= =

(4.126)
These relations are verified by the beam functions. In this case the system (4.124)
is written as:
( )
11
1
1 if ,
0,
0 if .
M N
kl kl l kl
k
k l
D a A
k l

=
=
= =

(4.127)
If the initial estimates of the bending stiffnesses are reasonable, it is possible to
identify, among the solutions of system (4.124) or (4.127), the four approximate
eigenpairs
{ } { } { } { }
(1) (2) (3) (4)
1 2 3 4
, , and , A A A A corresponding to the
experimental eigenvalues
1 2 3 4
, , and
e e e e
, respectively.
Next, the approximate eigenvectors are used to derive the matrix formulation
which relates the four experimental eigenvalues to the four bending stiffnesses.
For each eigenpair,
{ }
( )
and
i
i
A , the system, for example (4.127), leads to the P
equations (P = M ):

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
11 11 12 1 1 2 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
11 21 22 2 1 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
11 1 2 1 2
. . .
,
. . .
,
.
. . .
.
.
.
i i i i
P i P
i i i i
P i P
i i i i
P P PP i P P
D a A a A a A A
D a A a A a A A
D a A a A a A A
+ + + =
+ + + =
+ + + =
(4.128)
From these equivalent equations, it is practical to select the equation which cor-
responds to the maximum value
( ) i
q
A in the second member. Hence we obtain:

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
11 1 2 1 2
. . .
, 1, 2, 3, 4.
i i i i
i q q q qP P
A D a A a A a A i = + + + = (4.129)
Introducing expression (4.119) of a
kl
, Equation (4.128) can be expressed in the
following form:

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 1 11 2 1 22 3 1 12 4 1 66 1
( )
1 2 11 2 2 22 3 2 12 4 2 66 2
( )
1 11 2 22 3 12 4 66
. . .
,
i i
i q q q q q
i
q q q q
i
qP qP qP qP P
A A C D C D C D C D
A C D C D C D C D
A C D C D C D C D
= + + +
+ + + +
+ + + + +
(4.130)
with

( )
2200 0022 4
1 2
2002 0220 2 1111 2
3 4
, ,
, 4 ,
kl minj kl minj
kl minj minj kl minj
C C C C R
C C C R C C R
= =
= + =
(4.131)
where subscripts k, l are defined as functions of subscripts m, n, i and j by Relation
(4.120). Thus the relation between the eigenvalues and the bending stiffnesses can
be written in the following matrix form:

11 12 13 14 11 1
21 22 23 24 22 2
31 32 33 34 12 3
41 42 43 44 66 4
H H H H D
H H H H D
H H H H D
H H H H D

=

, (4.132)
where the coefficients H
ij
are expressed as:

( )
( )
1
1
, , 1, 2, 3, 4.
P
i
ij jpq P
i
q
p
H A C i j
A
=
= =
(4.133)
The matrix
ij
H

is the sensibility matrix.
The solution of system (4.132) for the stiffnesses
11 12 22 66
( , , , ) D D D D is
searched by using an iterative process. This process is initiated with a set of the
stiffnesses and approximate eigenvectors are obtained by solving system (4.118)
At each step of the iterative process new estimates
it it it it
11 12 22 66
( , , , ) D D D D of the
bending stiffnesses are obtained by solving (4.132) with the use of eigenvalues
from the experimental natural frequencies as:

it
11 1
11 12 13 14
it
21 22 23 24 22 2
it
31 32 33 34
12 3
it
41 42 43 44
66 4
e
e
e
e
D
H H H H
H H H H D
H H H H
D
H H H H
D

=

, (4.134)
where the coefficients H
ij
are calculated with the eigenvectors of the preceding
iteration. The cycle is then repeated by solving again the system (4.118) with the
new estimates of the bending stiffnesses upgrading the accuracy.
In fact and whatever the boundary conditions along the edges of the plates may
be, the results obtained show that the iterative procedures depend strongly on the
conditioning of the sensibility matrix, on accuracy of the experimental natural
frequencies and on the initial estimates for the bending stiffnesses. The first
feature is the inherent tendency for the sensibility matrix to be ill conditioned.
This problem results from the fact that one or more of the stiffnesses does not
contribute much to all four natural frequencies considered. The results of table 4.6
show clearly that the stiffness D
12
is usually the cause of ill conditioned matrices
when they occurred. It results that the convergence of iterative procedures is
inconsistent. Thus mode combinations may produce sensibility matrix nearly
singular, then the values of bending stiffnesses may diverge or be completely
unreasonable.
The other major problem is that the experimental natural frequencies do not
closely match the predicted values. We reported in Subsection 4.5.4.1 that the
scattering observed on the experimental values of frequencies was associated with
the inherent inhomogeneity of the materials. The experimental results obtained
shown that the experimental values of the natural frequencies match the exact
values within about 5 percent. In fact numerical simulations show that a slight
error in the natural frequencies greatly magnifies the error in the bending
stiffnesses, also depending on the initial estimates of stiffnesses. With the exact
values of the natural frequencies (derived from system (4.118) and using the
actual bending stiffnesses), it is observed that the iterative procedures converge
and lead to the actual bending stiffnesses, even if the initial estimates are greatly
different (about 50%). Next when the errors between the values used for the
natural frequencies and the exact ones are increased slightly, it is observed that it
is necessary to introduce initial estimates of the bending stiffnesses which are
nearer and nearer to the actual stiffnesses. For industrial conditions, the iterative
processes diverge or give values of the bending stiffnesses which are notably
distant from the true values, when the initial estimates are not accurate enough. It
results that iterative procedures cannot be used in industrial applications.
4.5.4.3 Evaluation of the Stiffnesses from Rayleighs
Approximation
4.5.4.3.1 Introduction
From the elements developed in the preceding subsection it becomes apparent
that for industrial conditions it is not possible to have confidence in the results for
the bending stiffnesses derived from the experimental natural frequencies of plate
vibrations by an iterative procedure. The object of this present subsection is to
consider procedures of evaluation which allow us to overcome the difficulties
associated with the iterative processes.
4.5.4.3.2 Plate Clamped on its Four Edges
In Rayleighs approximation, the natural frequencies are given by relation
(4.46). In the case of clamped opposite edges we have:

1111 2002
mmnn mmnn
C C = , (4.135)
and approximation (4.46) gives:
( )
3
2 2200 2002 2 0022 4
11 12 66 22
4 0000
2 2
12
mn mmnn mmnn mmnn
s mmnn
h
C Q C Q Q R C Q R
a C

= + + +

.
(4.136)
This relation shows that the reduced stiffnesses Q
12
and Q
66
are not separate. It
results that measuring three natural frequencies allows us to obtain the stiffnesses
Q
11
, Q
22
and Q
12
+ 2Q
66
. These stiffnesses are solutions of the linear system:
( )
4
2
1 11 2 22 3 12 66
3
12
2
s
i i i i
a
a Q a Q a Q Q
h
= + + + , (4.137)
introducing the coefficients:

2200 0022 2200
4 2
1 2 3
0000 0000 0000
1 2 3
, , 2 ,
, , ,
mmnn mmnn mmnn
i i i
mmnn mmnn mmnn
C C C
a a R a R
C C C
i i i i
= = =
=
(4.138)
where i
1
, i
2
and i
3
are three given modes, determined by the respective values
(mn)
1
, (mn)
2
,

and (mn)
3
of mn.
The results obtained are reported in Table 4.8 for different combinations of
modes. The values obtained for the stiffnesses Q
11
and Q
22
are slightly scattered.
The mean value of Q
11
is equal to 36.12 GPa with values ranging from 3.4 to 4.5
percent of the mean value. The mean value of Q
22
is equal to 7.249 GPa with
values ranging from 4.6 to 4.5 percent of the mean value. By contrast the values
of Q
12
+ 2 Q
66
are largely scattered from 3.593 GPa to 8.190 GPa.
TABLE 4.8. Reduced stiffnesses deduced from the natural frequencies measured in the
case of a CCCC plate.
f
1
f
2
f
3
i
1
, i
2
, i
3
(mn)
1
,(mn)
2
,(mn)
3
Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
+ 2Q
66

(Hz) (GPa)
192.1
192.1
192.1
382.1
382.1
192.1
559.3
382.1
382.1
382.1
382.1
410.9
410.9
382.1
699.1
559.3
410.9
559.3
699.1
559.3
699.1
759.6
759.6
759.6
1, 2, 3
1, 2, 4
1, 2, 5
2, 3, 4
2, 3, 5
1, 2, 6
4, 5, 6
2, 4, 6
11, 21, 12
11, 21, 22
11, 21, 31
21, 12, 22
21, 12, 31
11, 21, 13
22, 31, 13
21, 22, 13
37.74
34.88
36.86
35.15
36.90
36.31
35.98
35.13
7.576
6.917
7.374
7.151
7.438
7.246
7.155
7.136
3.593
8.190
4.998
7.579
4.882
5.897
7.266
7.616
Mean value (GPa)
Lower deviation (%)
Upper deviation (%)
36.12
3.4
4.5
7.249
4.6
4.5
6.253
42.5
31.0
4.5.4.3.3 Plate with Three Clamped Edges and Free along the Other Edge
In the case of three clamped edges (CCCF or CCFC configuration), the reduced
stiffnesses Q
12
and Q
66
are separate in expression (4.46) of Rayleighs appro-
ximation. It results that the reduced stiffnesses Q
11
, Q
22
, Q
12
and Q
66
can be
deduced from measurement of four different natural frequencies. The stiffnesses
are solutions of the linear system:

4
2
1 11 2 22 3 12 4 66
3
12
s
i i i i i
a
a Q a Q a Q a Q
h
= + + + , (4.139)
introducing the coefficients:

2200 0022
4
1 2
0000 0000
2200 1111
2 2
3 4
0000 0000
1 2 3 4
, ,
2 , 4 ,
, , , ,
mmnn mmnn
i i
mmnn mmnn
mmnn mmnn
i i
mmnn mmnn
C C
a a R
C C
C C
a R a R
C C
i i i i i
= =
= =
=
(4.140)
where i
1
, i
2
, i
3
and i
4
are four given modes determined by the values of mn.
modes. Again the values obtained for the stiffnesses Q
11
and Q
22
are slightly scat-
tered and even less than previously: mean value equal to 35.41 GPa for Q
11
with
values ranging from 1.1 to 1.9%, and mean value equal to 7.182 GPa for Q
22
with values ranging from 0.8 to 0.4%. The values of the stiffness Q
66
are clearly
more scattered with a mean value of 2.516 GPa and values ranging from
7 to 11.2%. Lastly the values obtained for the coupling stiffness Q
12
show a
large scattering: values ranging from 1.752 GPa to 3.833 GPa, very similar to the
case of a CCFC plate.
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
i
1
, i
2
, i
3
, i
4
mn
1
, mn
2
, mn
3
, mn
4
Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66

(Hz) (GPa)
139.5
206.3
376.6
139.5
206.3
139.5
139.5
139.5
139.5
206.3
376.6
394.6
206.3
376.6
376.6
376.6
206.3
206.3
376.6
394.6
435.4
376.6
394.6
394.6
394.6
394.6
394.6
394.6
435.4
589.6
435.4
589.6
589.6
435.4
435.4
589.6
1, 2, 3, 4
2, 3, 4, 5
3, 4, 5, 6
1, 2, 3, 5
2, 3, 4, 6
1, 3, 4, 6
1, 3, 4, 5
1, 2, 4, 5
1, 2, 4, 6
11, 21, 12, 31
21, 12, 31, 22
12, 31, 22, 32
11, 21, 12, 22
21, 12, 31, 32
11, 12, 31, 32
11, 12, 31, 22
11, 21, 31, 22
11, 21, 31, 32
35.00
35.60
35.36
36.09
35.33
35.36
35.34
35.33
35.28
7.208
7.154
7.205
7.212
7.178
7.209
7.209
7.124
7.136
3.833
1.752
3.382
3.509
2.673
3.487
3.509
2.417
2.613
2.402
2.797
2.390
2.331
2.622
2.356
2.359
2.717
2.673
Mean value (GPa)
Lower deviation (%)
Upper deviation (%)
35.41
1.1
1.9
7.182
0.8
0.4
3.019
42.0
16.2
2.516
7.0
11.2
scattering observed previously for Q
12
+ 2Q
66
when they are deduced from the
vibrations of plates with four clamped edges.
4.5.4.3.4 Plate with Two Consecutive Clamped Edges and Free along the
Other Edges
In the case where two consecutive edges are clamped and the others free, the
stiffnesses Q
11
and Q
22
are separate again in Rayleighs approximation. As
previously the reduced stiffnesses are solutions of the linear system (4.139), the
expressions (4.140) of the coefficients a
ij
being modified according to the new
boundary conditions.
modes. These results are very similar to the results deduced from the preceding
tests of the plates with three clamped edges. The values of Q
11
and Q
22
are
slightly scattered: mean value equal to 34.60 GPa for Q
11
with values ranging
from 1.4 to 0.7%, and mean value of 7.069 GPa for Q
22
ranging from 0.9 to
0.8%. As previously the values obtained for Q
12
are largely scattered ranging
from 0.308 to 3.6 GPa. The values obtained for Q
66
lead to a mean value of 2.984
GPa with values ranging from 14.3 to 91%. This high range can be associated
with the anomalous high value of 5.693 GPa obtained in the third case of Table
4.10. This high deviation can be connected with the instability introduced by the
stiffness Q
12
. However this process is not induced systematically, as it can be
observed in the sixth case of Table 4.9.
case of a CCFF plate.
f
1
f
2
f
3
f
4
i
1
, i
2
, i
3
, i
4
mn
1
,mn
2
,mn
3
,mn
4
Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66

(Hz) (GPa)
35.5
35.5
35.5
35.5
35.5
35.5
35.5
131.9
131.9
131.9
131.9
131.9
131.9
144.0
144.0
144.0
144.0
144.0
144.0
236.4
341.5
341.5
236.4
236.4
236.4
341.5
377.2
377.2
377.2
377.2
341.5
341.5
1, 2, 3, 4
1, 2, 3, 5
1, 2, 3, 6
1, 2, 4, 6
1, 2, 5, 6
1, 3, 5, 6
1, 3, 4, 5
2, 3, 4, 5
11, 21, 12, 22
11, 21, 12, 31
11, 21, 12, 13
11, 21, 22, 13
11, 21, 31, 13
11, 12, 31, 13
11, 12, 22, 31
21, 12, 22, 31
34.84
34.66
34.10
34.73
34.67
34.45
34.72
34.67
7.129
7.100
7.007
7.046
7.042
7.006
7.124
7.101
3.600
2.895
0.652
3.497
3.239
0.308
3.575
3.267
2.556
2.588
5.692
2.593
2.602
2.677
2.564
2.599
Mean value (GPa)
Lower deviation (%)
Upper deviation (%)
34.60
1.4
0.7
7.069
0.9
0.8
2.629
88.3
36.9
2.984
14.3
91
4.5.4.3.5 Plate with Four Different Configurations
Another possibility for determining the bending stiffnesses consists in consi-
dering the natural frequencies of a given mode for four different configurations of
the boundary conditions along the edges of a plate, for example CCCC, CCFC,
CCFF and CFFF configurations. The reduced stiffnesses are solutions of a linear
system similar to system (4.139). In the present case, the subscripts i are related to
the four configurations considered.
Tables 4.11 and 4.12 report the results obtained when different modes are
considered: Table 4.11 when a mode of given shape is considered and Table 4.12
when modes are considered according to increasing values of the natural fre-
quencies. Again we observe general features which are similar to the ones noticed
when the bending stiffnesses are deduced from the natural frequencies of a plate
with given boundary conditions considered in the previous subsections.
TABLE 4.11. Reduced stiffnesses deduced from the natural frequencies of a mode of
given shape (mn) for four different boundary conditions of a plate.
Mode Frequencies (Hz) Stiffnesses (GPa)
mn CCCC CCFC CCFF CFFF
Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66

11
21
12
22
192.1
382.1
410.9
559.3
139.5
206.3
376.6
435.4
35.5
131.9
144.0
236.4
18.9
119.0
38.1
155.3
34.96
35.29
35.62
37.14
8.592
9.275
7.974
8.277
2.264
2.326
1.938
0.01
2.816
2.548
2.348
2.533
Mean value (GPa)
Lower deviation (%)
Upper deviation (%)
35.75
2.2
3.9
8.529
6.5
8.7
1.630
101
42.7
2.561
8.3
10
TABLE 4.12. Reduced stiffnesses deduced from the natural frequencies of a mode of
given order (1, 2, 3 or 4) for four different boundary conditions of a plate.
Mode Frequencies (Hz) mn
Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
66

CCCC CCFC CCFF CFFF CCCC CCFC CCFF CFFF (GPa)
1 192.1 139.5 35.5 18.9 11 11 11 11 34.961 8.592 2.664 2.816
2 382.1 206.3 131.9 38.1 21 21 21 12 35.098 9.108 2.604 2.635
3 410.9 376.6 144.0 119.0 12 12 12 21 35.290 8.654 2.649 2.594
4 559.3 394.6 236.4 152.4 22 31 22 13 35.750 8.600 2.286 2.887
Mean value (GPa)
Lower deviation (%)
Upper deviation (%)
35.274
0.9
1.3
8.738
1.7
4.2
2.551
10.4
4.4
2.733
5.1
5.6
4.5.4.4 Discussion of the Results and Conclusions
4.5.4.4.1 Discussion
The results reported in the previous subsections show clearly that the use of
Rayleighs approximation improves greatly the determination of the bending
stiffnesses, since the problem of the divergence of the iterative processes is
overcome. However the results obtained show the tendency for the evaluation of
the bending stiffnesses from the natural frequencies of the flexural vibrations of a
plate to be an ill conditioned problem.
The results show a low difference between the values deduced from the natural
frequencies of vibrations and the value obtained in static tests for the longitudinal
stiffness Q
11
, and this for the different configurations of the boundary conditions.
A similar observation can be done for the values deduced for the transverse
stiffness Q
22
from the frequencies of four different modes of a plate in a given
configuration.
We have reported the high scattering of the experimental values obtained for
the coupling stiffness Q
12
from the natural frequencies, whatever the configu-
ration of the plate may be. Lastly, the evaluation of the shear stiffness Q
66
from
the natural frequencies under-estimates systematically the value measured in
static tests from 6.5 to 21 percent. This fact can be related with the instability of
the evaluation of Q
12
.
An extensive analysis of the sensibility of the bending stiffnesses to the
variation of the natural frequencies of orthotropic plates has been implemented
[15, 16]. The results obtained clearly corroborate the general features deduced
from the previous experimental analysis. The variations of the reduced stiffnesses
Q
11
and Q
22
are always of the same order as the variations of the natural fre-
quencies of the plates. For all the configurations of plates, the variations obtained
for the stiffness Q
12
show a high instability with regard to low variations of the
natural frequencies. It results that the stiffness Q
12
cannot be evaluated from the
measurement of the natural frequencies of the flexural vibrations of plates. Lastly
the variations of the stiffness Q
66
are depending on the configuration and modes.
This fact is related to the contribution of the stiffness Q
66
to the different modes.
4.5.4.4.2 Conclusions
The analysis developed and the results reported in the preceding subsections
show how Rayleighs approximation allows us to evaluate the bending stiffnesses
Q
11
and Q
22
from the natural frequencies measured in a single flexural test of a
plate with one of the configurations CCCC, CCCF or CCFF. The errors observed
in the evaluations of Q
11
and Q
22
are of the same order as the natural frequencies
errors. The process under-estimates the shear stiffness Q
66
of about 20% and does
not allow to evaluate the coupling stiffness Q
12
. At last the procedure assumes
that the bending stiffnesses are independent of the frequency.
Another way for evaluating the bending stiffnesses is suggested by the results
reported which consists in evaluating first the bending stiffnesses Q
11
and Q
22

separately from the cylindical bending modes of the CFFF configuration (Relation
(4.112)) and from the cylindrical bending modes of the CFFF configuration
(relation (4.113)), respectively. Moreover this procedure allows us to estimate the
variations of the stiffnesses as functions of the frequency. Next the shear stiffness
Q
66
can be derived from the frequency of the mode 22 in the FCFF or CFFF
configuration (relations (4.116) and (4.117)). Table 4.13 shows the values
obtained by this procedure for the stiffnesses Q
11
and Q
22
. These results show that
the values of Q
11
( 34.96 GPa) and Q
22
(7.053 GPa) obtained for low frequencies
are very close to the values derived from the static tests (Q
11

=
34.86 GPa and Q
22

= 7.070 GPa). Furthermore the values reported show an increase (about 10% in
the range 0 to 1 kHz) of the stiffnesses Q
11
and Q
22
with the frequency. Next
Table 4.14 gives the values of the stiffness Q
66
deduced from the frequencies of
the modes 22 of the CFFF and FCFF configurations, considering the values of
Q
11
and Q
22
evaluated previously for the corresponding frequencies of modes 22
(about 155 Hz). The values obtained (3.40 and 3.44 GPa) are slightly higher (of
about 7 percent) than the value measured in static tests.
Finally the results reported in this subsection show that the present
determination of stiffnesses Q
11
, Q
22
and Q
66
from the cylindrical bending modes
and from mode 22 of CFFF and FCFF configurations appears as the procedure the
best suited for deriving the bending stiffnesses from the flexural vibrations of
rectangular plates. Furthermore this procedure allows us to evaluate the variation
of the stiffnesses as a function of the frequency.
Moreover, the increase of the stiffnesses with the frequency (about 8 percent
for Q
11
and 6 percent for Q
22
in the frequency domain studied) pointed out by this
procedure shows the limits of the evaluation of the bending stiffnesses from the
natural frequencies of a single plate in a given configuration, evaluation in which
the stiffnesses are assumed to be independent of the frequency.
TABLE 4.13. Evaluation of the reduced stiffnesses Q
11
and Q
22
from the frequencies of
the cylindrical bending modes of CFFF and FCFF plates.
Mode 11 21 31 41
Frequency CFFF (Hz) 18.9 119.0 342.0 675.9
Q
11
(GPa)
34.96 35.29 37.18 37.81
Mode 11 12 13 14
Frequency FCFF (Hz) 19.1 120.5 340.9 677.2
Q
22
(GPa)
7.053 7.148 7.297 7.498
TABLE 4.14. Evaluation of the reduced shear stiffness Q
66
from the frequencies of the
modes 22 of CFFF and FCFF plates.
Configuration CFFF FCFF
Frequency 22 (Hz) 155.3 156.2
Q
66
(GPa)
3.40 3.39
4.5.5 Case of Symmetric Laminates
4.5.5.1 Materials and Results
Two types of plates have been investigated: plates made of the orthotropic
material considered in Subsection 4.5.2.1 and oriented at 30 with respect to the
length of the plates and plates made of unidirectional glass fibre-epoxy layers
arranged with the stacking sequence [30/0
2
/30] of nominal thickness equal to 2.5
mm. Table 4.15 reports the reduced stiffnesses deduced from static tests and the
bending stiffnesses obtained by relation (1.59).
The experimental investigation of the flexural vibrations of rectangular plates
were performed by the procedure reported in Subsection 4.5.2.3. An extended

TABLE 4.15. Stiffnesses of the 30 plates and [30/0
2
/30] plates measured in static tests.
0 plates
Q
11
(GPa) Q
22
(GPa) Q
12
(GPa) Q
16
(GPa) Q
26
(GPa) Q
66
(GPa)
h (mm)
22.93 9.04 6.29 8.89 3.14 8.17 2.1
D
11
(N m) D
22
(N m) D
12
(N m) D
16
(N m) D
26
(N m) D
66
(N m)

17.70 6.98 4.85 6.86 2.43 6.30
[30/0
2
/30] plates
Q
11
(GPa) Q
22
(GPa) Q
12
(GPa) Q
16
(GPa) Q
26
(GPa) Q
66
(GPa)
H (mm)
31.80 11.45 7.38 10.13 3.58 9.82 2.5
D
11
(N m) D
22
(N m) D
12
(N m) D
16
(N m) D
26
(N m) D
66
(N m)

24.42 8.79 5.67 7.78 2.75 7.54
TABLE 4.16. Values of the natural frequencies (in Hz) measured and calculated by 100-
term Ritz evaluation in the case of [30/0
2
/30] plates, and differences (in percent).
Mode 1 Mode 2
Measure Ritz Difference Measure Ritz Difference
CCCC
CCFC
CCFF
CFFF
247.3
185.2
51.0
16.4
251.09
186.47
51.31
16.10
1.53
0.69
0.61
1.83
435.9
285.4
150.2
53.3
448.70
284.23
156.66
52.28
2.94
0.41
4.30
1.91
Mode 3 Mode 4
CCCC
CCFC
CCFF
CFFF
559.5
479.2
202.7
107.6
260.78
477.24
199.26
107.32
0.23
0.41
1.70
0.26
695.5
497.5
300.7
175.9
727.39
499.13
311.58
183.14
4.59
0.33
3.62
4.12
Mode 5 Mode 6
CCCC
CCFC
CCFF
CFFF
788.2
610.1
386.6
204.1
789.34
613.22
391.10
197.80
0.14
0.51
1.16
3.09
1026.9
762.0
493.9
317.0
1028.8
757.73
503.35
318.87
0.19
0.56
1.91
0.59
experimental analysis [15, 16] was implemented in the case of plates with CCCC,
CCFF and CFFF configurations. Table 4.16 compares the experimental values of
the natural frequencies of [30/0
2
/30] plates with the values obtained by the Ritzs
method with 100 terms (M
=
N
=
10). The results reported show that the experi-
mental values match the Ritz values within 4.5 percent. The scattering of the
experimental natural frequencies is very similar to the one observed for the ortho-
tropic laminates (Section 4.5.4)
Also we investigated the contribution of the bending stiffnesses to the energy
of plate vibrations. Table 4.17 shows an example of the results obtained in the
case of [30/0
2
/30] plate in the CCFC configuration and for an aspect ratio of the

TABLE 4.17. Contributions (expressed in percent) of the stiffnesses to the strain energy of
[30/0
2
/30] plate in CCFC configuration and for a length-to-width ratio equal to 1.5.

R = 1.5
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3 Mode 4 Mode 5 Mode 6 Mode 7
D
11
2.00 16.84 31.08 2.37 9.25 29.34 36.20
D
22
78.58 30.78 16.43 85.64 52.54 14.76 23.11
D
12
0.11 6.49 6.59 0.17 5.89 7.03 6.67
D
16
1.57 7.68 13.37 1.45 0.74 17.60 1.67
D
26
6.02 7.72 7.95 3.35 5.41 7.79 6.13
D
66
11.72 30.49 24.58 7.02 26.16 23.48 26.11
plate equal to 1.5. The results obtained for the different configurations and values
of the aspect ratio are similar. The results show that the bending stiffnesses D
12
,
D
16
and D
26
have the lowest contributions, although these contributions are clearly
higher that the contribution of D
12
in the case of orthotropic plates. As in the case
of orthotropic plates the bending stiffnesses are not separate in the CCCC confi-
guration.
4.5.5.2 Evaluation of the Bending Stiffnesses from the Natural
Frequencies and Mode Shapes
In the case of a plate constituted of a symmetric laminate the material direc-
tions of which are different from the plate edges, it is no more possible to model
the flexural vibrations properly by Rayleighs approximation, because the domi-
nant term (4.43) does not fit really the actual mode shape. Thus it is necessary to
consider the Ritz method using a great number of terms in series (4.24). In this
case the homogeneous system of the vibrations is given by Equation (4.74). This
system can be expressed in the form (4.118) where the coeffients a
kl
and b
kl
are
given by the expressions:

( ) ( )
( )
2200 2002 2002 1111 2 1210 2101
12 66 16
1012 0121 3 0022 4
26 22
0000
4 2
2 , (4.141)
,
kl minj minj minj minj minj minj
minj minj minj
kl minj
a C C C C R C C R
C C R C R
b C

= + + + + +

+ + +
=

Hence the relation between the natural frequencies and the bending stiffnesses
of a symmetric plate is extended from relation (4.132), which gives:

1 11 12 13 14 15 16 11
2 21 22 23 24 25 26 22
3 31 32 33 34 35 36 12
4 41 42 43 44 45 46 16
5 51 52 53 54 55 56 26
6 61 62 63 64 65 66 66
H H H H H H D
H H H H H H D
H H H H H H D
H H H H H H D
H H H H H H D
H H H H H H D

=

. (4.142)
The eigenvalues
i
(i = 1 to 6) are related to the natural frequencies by Relation
(4.125) and the expressions of the coefficients H
ij
are extended from (4.133) as:

( )
( )
1
1
, , 1 to 6,
, 1 to .
P
i
ij jpq P
i
q
p
H A C i j
A
q p P M N
=
= =
= =
(4.143)
The vector
{ }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
, , ... , , ... , , ... ,
i i i i i
p q P
A A A A A is the vector of coefficients
A
mn
(reduced to one subscript), which determine the shape of the mode i.

185.2 Hz

286.0 Hz

480.7 Hz

497.5 Hz

610.1 Hz

762.0 Hz

FIGURE 4.11. Mode shapes and frequencies determined experimentally in the case of a
[30/0
2
/30] plate clamped along three edges.

FIGURE 4.12. Mode shapes reconstituted from the eigenvectors deduced from the
experimental mode shapes of Figure 4.11.
( ) i
q
A is the coefficient which has the maximum value. Lastly the terms C
jpq
are
obtained by extension of Relations (4.131) as:

( ) ( )
( )
2200 0022 4
1 2
2002 0220 2 1210 2101
3 4
1012 0121 3 1111 4
5 6
, ,
, 2 ,
2 , 4 ,
kl minj kl minj
kl minj minj kl minj minj
kl minj minj kl minj
C C C C R
C C C R C C C R
C C C R C C R
= =
= + = +
= + =
(4.144)
where the subscripts k and l are given by Relation (4.120).
x
z
y
x
z
y
When the coefficients H
ij
are unknown, it is necessary to use an iterative pro-
cedure (Subsection 4.5.4.2) for deriving the bending stiffnesses from the natural
frequencies. In the case of orthotropic laminates we have pointed out the tendency
of this problem to be ill conditioned. In the case of symmetric laminates, this
feature is strongly emphasized, and in practice the iterative procedure does not
converge when any set of six experimental natural frequencies is used. It results
that the only way to solve equation (4.142) is to determine the coefficients H
ij
.
These coefficients can be obtained by evaluating the shapes of the six modes into
consideration. Figure 4.11 shows the results obtained for the shapes of the first six
modes in the case of a [30/0
2
/30] plate in CCFC configuration where three edges
are clamped. These shapes are deduced from measurement performed along a
mesh of 25 points (5 points along the length and 5 points along the width of plate)
away from the clamped edges. Next the eigenvectors are derived by applying
Relation (4.24) to the points of the mesh. Figure 4.12 shows the mode shapes
reconstituted from these eigenvectors using a mesh of 28 18 points. The number
of points required depends on the complexity of the mode shapes. This number
has to be minimized considering the heaviness for deriving mode shapes expe-
rimentally. The experimental investigation we carried out shows that the mesh of
5 5 points is sufficient for the modes considered in Figures 4.11 and 4.12. The
eigenvector being obtained for each mode i, the coefficients H
ij
are calculated by
relation (4.142). Lastly the bending stiffnesses are deduced from Relation (4.141)
using the experimental natural frequencies.
The values of the reduced stiffnesses obtained by applying this procedure to the
experimental results are reported in Tables 4.18 and 4.19 in the case of 30 and
[30/0
2
/30] plates, respectively. The results, compared to the values derived from
static tests, show a good evaluation of the stiffnesses Q
11
, Q
22
and Q
66
. The values
obtained for Q
12
, Q
16
and Q
26
show a low instability of the method for evaluating
these stiffnesses, instability which is clearly less marked than for the evaluation of
Q
12
in the case of orthotropic laminates. This low instability is associated with the
contributions of the stiffnesses Q
12
, Q
16
and Q
26
which are rather low (lower than
18%), but however clearly higher than the participation of Q
12
in the case of
orthotropic plates.
TABLE 4.18. Values of the reduced stiffnesses derived from the experimental modal
analysis of orthotropic plates oriented at 30.

Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
16
Q
26
Q
66

Modes considered (GPa)
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 23.20 8.936 6.016 7.893 2.753 8.019
Static deviation (%) 1.15 1.16 4.36 11.2 12.4 1.79
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 23.26 9.141 5.660 10.11 3.548 8.475
Static tests 22.93 9.041 6.290 8.888 3.143 8.165
TABLE 16. Values of the reduced stiffnesses derived from the experimental modal
analysis of [30/0
2
/30] plates.

Q
11
Q
22
Q
12
Q
16
Q
26
Q
66

Modes considered
(GPa)
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 24.07 8.712 4.982 8.881 3.165 8.335
1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 24.86 8.890 5.101 9.099 3.162 8.146
Static tests 24.42 8.794 5.668 7.777 2.750 7.543

CHAPTER 5
Damping in Composite Materials
5.1 GENERAL COMMENTS
Damping is an important parameter for vibration control, fatigue endurance,
impact resistance, etc. Although the damping of composite materials is not very
high, it is significantly higher than that measured for most usual metallic mate-
rials. At the constituent level, the energy dissipation in fibre reinforced com-
posites is induced by different mechanisms such as the viscoelastic nature of the
matrix, the damping at the fibre-matrix interface, the damping due to defects or
damage, etc. At the laminate level, damping is strongly depending on the layer
constituent properties as well as layers orientations, interlaminar effects and stac-
king sequence.
Among all the sources of energy dissipation, the case of viscous damping is the
simplest to deal with mathematically (Chapter 2). For this reason damping forces
of a complicated nature are generally replaced by equivalent viscous damping
(Section 2.4 of Chapter 2).
Viscoelastic materials combine the capacity of an elastic type material to store
energy with the capacity to dissipate energy. So, the use of an energy approach for
evaluating the material or structure damping is widely considered. In this energy
approach, the dissipated energy is related to the strain energy stored by intro-
ducing a damping parameter.
The various forms that viscoelastic stress-strain relations can take have been
considered by Gross [18]. Further aspects have been treated by Christensen [19]
and Pipkin [20]. A form of viscoelastic stress-strain relations is that involving the
complex moduli of materials. In the case of harmonic oscillations, the stress-strain
relation can be expressed in a complex form, introducing a complex stiffness
matrix which is a function of the oscillation frequency. Thus, in the case where
the strain is a harmonic function of time, the strain field is expressed in the
complex form as:
( )
0
,
i t
t e
= (5.1)
where is the frequency of harmonic oscillations. Then, the stress field can be
expressed as:
5.2. Damping in a Unidirectional Composite as Function of the Constituents 137

0
*
( ) ( ) ,
i t
t e
= C (5.2)
introducing the complex stiffness matrix
*
( ). C The previous form can also be
inverted considering the compliance matrix
*
( ) S defined as the inverse matrix
of
*
( ). C
Thus, it results that static elastic solutions can be converted to steady state har-
monic viscoelastic solutions simply by replacing the elastic moduli by the corres-
ponding complex viscoelastic moduli, and reinterpreting the elastic fields as com-
plex harmonic viscoelastic field variables. This correspondence principle consi-
dered first in the case of homogeneous materials was extended then to hetero-
geneous materials.
The elastic-viscoelastic correspondence principle was developed by Hashin
[21, 22] in the case of composite materials. The author shows that the effective
complex moduli of viscoelastic composites can be determined on the basis of
analytical expressions for effective elastic moduli of composites. The method was
applied to particulate composites [21] and fibre composites [22]. Furthermore,
Sun et al [23] and Crane and Gillespie [24] applied the correspondence principle
to the laminate relations derived from the classical laminate theory.
5.2 DAMPING IN A UNIDIRECTIONAL COMPOSITE
AS A FUNCTION OF THE CONSTITUENTS
The elastic behaviour of a unidirectional orthotropic material is characterized
by the engineering constants , , and ,
L T LT LT
E E G measured in the material
directions ( ) , , , L T T also noted ( ) 1, 2, 3 . In the same way, the damping proper-
ties can be described by four damping coefficients. In practice, damping associa-
ted to the Poisson ratio is neglected, and the evaluations of the damping
coefficients associated to the longitudinal and transverse Youngs moduli and to
the shear modulus are generally based on an energy approach.
The use of the energy approach to evaluate the damping properties of a
structure was introduced by Ungar and Kerwin [25], considering that the struc-
tural damping can be described as a function of the constitutive elements of the
structure and of the energy stored in these elements:

1
1
n
i i
i
n
i
i
U
U
=
=
=
. (5.3)
Applying this relation to a fibre composite leads to express the damping
c
of the
composite as a function of the fibre damping
f
and matrix damping
m
according
138 Chapter 5. Damping in Composite Materials
to the expression:

f f m m
c
c
U U
U

+
= , (5.4)
where
f m c
, and U U U are the elastic energies stored in fibres, matrix and com-
posite material, respectively. Expression (5.4) is general, but in practice the appli-
cation is restricted to simple fibre-matrix arrangements and loading conditions for
which the elastic energies stored can be derived easily.
Applying Expression (5.4) to the case of a unidirectional fibre composite loa-
ded in the fibre direction leads to the expression for the longitudinal damping as:
( )
f m
f f m f
1
L
L L
E E
V V
E E
= + , (5.5)
where
f
V is the fibre volume fraction,
f
E and
m
E are the Youngs moduli of
fibres and matrix, respectively, and
L
E is the Youngs modulus of the unidi-
rectional composite. This modulus is well evaluated by the law of mixtures and
Expression (5.5) can be written as:

( ) ( )
f f
f m
m f
f f f
f m
1
1 1
L
f
V V
E E
V V V V
E E

= +
+ +
. (5.6)
In the case where the damping of fibres can be neglected, Expression (5.6) is
simply reduced to:

( )
f
m
f
f f
m
1
1
L
V
E
V V
E

+
. (5.7)
If now the unidirectional fibre composite is loaded in the transverse direction,
Expression (5.4) leads to the transverse damping which can be expressed as:
( )
f f m f
f m
1
T T
T
E E
V V
E E
= + , (5.8)
introducing the transverse Youngs modulus of composite. This modulus can be
expressed by an inverse law of mixtures, but a better evaluation can be obtained
[1, 2] using expression:

2
2
1 1
2
2 2
T
LT
L TT L
E
K G E
=
+ +
, (5.9)
where
L
K is the lateral compression modulus of the unidirectional composite and
TT
G

the transverse shear modulus. These coefficients are obtained from the
expressions established by Hashin [26, 27] and Hill [28]:
5.2. Damping in a Unidirectional Composite as Function of the Constituents 139

( )
f
m
f
1 4
f m f m m m
3 3
1 1
L
V
K K
V
k k G G k G
= +

+
+ +
, (5.10)
and by Christensen and Lo [29, 30]:

( )
( )
f
m
m m m
f
f m m m
1
2
1
2
TT
V
G G
G K G
V
G G K G

= +

+
+

+

. (5.11)
The bulk moduli
m f
( , ), k k the shear moduli
m f
( , ) G G and the lateral compres-
sion moduli
m f
( , ) K K of the matrix and fibres are expressed as functions of the
Youngs moduli and Poisson ratios of the matrix and fibres by:

( ) ( )
, , , m, f.
3 1 2 2 1 3
i i i
i i i i
i i
E E G
k G K k i

= = = + =
+
(5.12)
The Poisson ratio
LT
in the Expression (5.9) can be evaluated by the law of
mixtures.
Lastly, in the case of a longitudinal shear loading, the expression of composite
damping is similar to Expression (5.8) obtained in the case of a transverse
loading:
( )
f f m f
f m
1
LT LT
LT
G G
V V
G G
= + , (5.13)
where the longitudinal shear modulus can be evaluated [27, 28] by:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
f f m f
f f m f
1 1
1 1
LT m
G V G V
G G
G V G V
+ +
=
+ +
. (5.14)
Limited experimental results are reported in literature on the processes of com-
posite damping at the scale of fibres, matrix and fibre-matrix interface. Adams et
al. [31] found that the longitudinal damping of unidirectional carbon-fibre com-
posites and glass-fibre composites fell rapidly with increasing the fibre volume
fraction. Both composites have essentially the same damping for a given volume
fraction. It was found by Adams [32] that expression (5.7) considerably under-
estimates the experimental values of the longitudinal damping. Several factors
were thought to contribute to the discrepancy: fibre misalignment, imperfections
in the materials (matrix cracks and fibre-matrix debonding), effect of fibre-matrix
interface. Fibre interaction and fibre-matrix interphase were considered in [32-35],
in the case of discontinuous fibres. Authors estimate the strain energies stored in
fibres and matrix using a finite element analysis. Then, composite damping was
derived from expression (5.4). More recently, Yim [36], and Yim and Gillepsie
[37] have considered the evaluation of the damping parameters in the case of
unidirectional carbon-fibre epoxy composites. According to the results obtained
by Adams [31], Yim [36] introduced a curve fitting parameter in Relation (5.7)
and expressed the longitudinal damping as:

( )
f
m
f
f f
m
1
1
L
V
E
V V
E
=

+

. (5.15)
In fact, the curve fitting parameter is obtained by Yim considering the only fibre
fraction equal to 0.65. In the same way, parameters were introduced in Expression
(5.8) for the transverse damping and in Expression (5.13) for the longitudinal
shear damping.
5.3 BENDING VIBRATIONS OF DAMPED
LAMINATE BEAMS
5.3.1 Damping Modelling using Viscous Friction
In the case of a viscous damping, the damping force is proportional to the velo-
city. Thus, the differential equation of motion for a damped beam is deduced from
Equation (3.13) and is written as:

2 4
0 0 0
2 4
( , ),
s s s
c k q x t
t
t x

+ + =

w w w
(5.16)
introducing the coefficient of viscous damping c
s
by unit area. Then, Equation
(5.16) can be rewritten in the following form:

2 4
2 4 0 0 0
0
2 4
( , ),
s
s
c
a p x t
t
t x

+ + =

w w w
(5.17)
introducing the angular frequency (3.15) of the undamped beam and where the
reduced load ( , ) p x t is defined in Equation (3.98).
5.3.2 Motion Equation in Normal Coordinates
As in the case of undamped beam (Section 3.5.1 of Chapter 3), the motion
equation (5.17) can be transformed in an equation in normal coordinates by
introducing the transverse displacement expressed by Equation (3.93). We obtain:

2
2 , 1, 2, ... ,
i i i i i i i
p i + + = =

, (5.18)
introducing the modal damping coefficient
i
, related to the coefficient of viscous
damping by:
2 .
s
i i
s
c

= (5.19)
Each of Equations (5.18) is uncoupled from all the others, and the response
i
(t)
5.3. Damping Vibrations of Damped Laminate Beams 141
of each mode i can be determined in the same manner as for one-degree system
with viscous damping (Section 2.3. of Chapter 2). Then, the analysis can be per-
formed by the same processing as that applied in Section 3.5 of Chapter 3 to the
case of undamped beams.
5.3.3 Forced Harmonic Vibrations
In the case of a beam of length a, submitted to a harmonic load:

m
( , ) ( )cos q x t q x t = , (5.20)
the component of the reduced load for the mode i is given by:

m
( ) ( ) cos ,
i i
p t p x t = (5.21)
with

m m
0
1
.
a
i i
s
p q X dx
=

(5.22)
Equation (5.18) of motion in normal coordinates becomes:

2
m
2 cos , 1,2,..., .
i i i i i i i
p t i + + = =

(5.23)
Considering the results obtained in the case of a system with one degree of
freedom (Section 2.3), the steady-state response for mode i is given by;
( )
m
2
( ) ( ) cos sin ,
i
i i i i
i
p
t K a t b t
= + (5.24)
with

2
2
1 , 2 ,
i i i
i i
a b

= = (5.25)

2
2
2
2
1
( ) .
1 2
i
i
i
i
K

=

+

(5.26)
Then, the transverse displacement is deduced from (3.93), which gives:
( )
m
0
2
1
( , ) ( ) ( ) cos sin .
i
i i i i
i i
p
x t K X x a t b t
=
= +
w (5.27)
According to the results obtained in Section 2.3.4.2, the equation of the har-
monic motion can be expressed in the frequency domain in the complex form:
( ) ( ) ( ) 1,2,...,
i i i
H P i = = (5.28)
where
i
() and P
i
() are the complex amplitudes associated to the time
functions
i
(t) and p
i
(t), respectively, and introducing the transfer function:

2
1
( ) ( ),
i ri
i
H H
= (5.29)
with

2
2
1
( ) .
1 2
ri
i
i
i
H
i
=

+

(5.30)
H
ri
is the reduced transfer function. The time response
i
(t) is then deduced from
Equation (5.28) and expressed in the form (5.27) with
( ) ( ) ,
i ri
K H = (5.31)
and
( ) ( ) Re , Im .
i ri i ri
a H b H = =

(5.32)
5.3.4 Damping Modelling using Complex Stiffness
As considered in the case of one degree system (Subsection 2.3.4.4), the energy
dissipation in the case of harmonic vibrations can be accounted for by introducing
the complex stiffness per unit area:
( )
*
1 ,
s s
k k i = + (5.33)
where is the structural damping coefficient or the loss factor introduced in
(2.117). It results that motion equation (5.16) can be transposed in complex form
using the procedure considered in Section 3.5.1. This procedure leads to:

4
2
4
0 0
4
4
0
1
d d
d ( ),
a a
i
s i i j s i j
a
i
s i j s j
i
d X
X X x i k X x
dx
d X
k X x P
dx

+ =

(5.34)
introducing the complex amplitudes
i
(), X
i
(), X
j
(), and P
j
() of
i
(t), x
i
(t),
x
j
(t) and p
j
(t), respectively. Considering the orthogonality and normality relations,
Equation (5.34) can be rewritten as:

( )
2 2 2
( ) ( ), 1,2,..., ,
i i i i i
i P i

+ = =

(5.35)
introducing the loss factor
i
of each mode. Equations (5.35) constitute the motion
equation in normal coordinates. These equations are uncoupled. They can be
written in form (5.28) with:

2
2
1
( ) .
1
ri
i
i
H
i
=

+

(5.36)
5.3. Damping Vibrations of Damped Laminate Beams 143
Finally, the transverse displacement can be expressed in form (5.27), with

2
2
1 , ,
i i i
i
a b
= = (5.37)
and

2
2
2
2
1
( ) .
1
i
i
i
K
=

+

(5.38)
5.3.5 Beam Response to a Concentrated Loading
In the case of a load concentrated at point x
=
x
1
of a beam, the exerted loading
can be written as:

1 1 1
( , ) ( , ) ( ) ( ), q x t q x t x x q t = = (5.39)
where
1
( ) x x is the Dirac function localized at point x
1
. According to Equation
(3.97), the modal component of the reduced load is:

1 1
0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) d ,
a
i i
p t p t X x x x x =
(5.40)
which yields:

1 1
( ) ( ) ( ),
i i
p t X x p t = (5.41)
with

1 1
1
( ) ( ).
s
p t q t
= (5.42)
In the case of an impact, the reduced load can be expressed as:

1 1
( ) ( ), p t p t = (5.43)
where p
1
is constant and (t) is the impulse Dirac function localized at time t
=
0.
This function can be expanded in Fourier transform as:

( ) d .
i t
t e
(5.44).
Thus, the impact loading generates the whole frequency domain, and for every
frequency the motion equation in normal coordinates is written in form (5.23)
with:

m 1 1
( ).
i i
p p X x = (5.45)
Equation (5.24) can also be written in form (5.28) where the transfer function is
expressed by (5.30) in the case of the damping modelling using viscous friction or
by (5.36) in the case of modelling using complex stiffness. Thus, it results that the
transverse displacement can be written as:

0 1 1
2
1
1
( , ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( cos sin ),
i i i i i
i i
x t p X x X x K a t b t
=
= +
w (5.46)
where a
i
, b
i
and K
i
are given by (5.25) and (5.26) in the case of the damping mo-
delling using viscous friction and by (5.37) and (5.38) in the case of the damping
modelling using complex stiffness.
5.4 EVALUATION OF DAMPING PROPERTIES
OF ORTHOTROPIC BEAMS AS FUNCTIONS
OF MATERIAL ORIENTATION
5.4.1 Energy Analysis of Beam Damping
5.4.1.1 Introduction
The prediction for damping properties of orthotropic beams as a function of
material orientation was developed by Adams and Bacon [38] and Ni and Adams
[39]. These analyses also consider cross-ply laminates and angle ply laminates, as
well as more general types of symmetric laminates. The damping concept of
Adams and Bacon was also applied by Adams and Maheri [40] to the invest-
tigation of angle ply laminates made of unidirectional glass fibre or carbon layers.
More recently the analysis of Adams and Bacon was applied by Yim [36] and
Yim and J ang [41] to different types of laminates, then extended by Yim and
Gillespie [37] including the transverse shear effect in the case of 0 and 90
unidirectional laminates.
5.4.1.2 Adams-Bacon Approach
For an orthotropic material the strain-stress relationship in material axes (L, T,
T') =(1, 2, 3) is given (1.15) by:

1 11 12 1
2 12 22 2
6 66 6
0
0 ,
0 0
S S
S S
S

=

(5.47)
where the components S
ij
are the compliance constants related [1, 2] to the engi-
neering moduli E
L
, E
T
, G
LT
and
LT
by the following expressions:

11 12 22 66
1 1 1
, , , .
LT
L L T LT
S S S S
E E E G
= = = = (5.48)
5.4. Evaluation of Damping Properties of Orthotropic Beams 145
Adams and Bacon [38] consider that the strain energy stored in a volume
element V can be separated into three components associated respectively to the
stresses
1
,
2
and
6
expressed in the material axes as:

11 22 66
, U U U U = + + (5.49)
with
( )
11 1 1 1 11 1 12 2
1 1
,
2 2
U V S S V = = + (5.50)
( )
22 2 2 2 12 1 22 2
1 1
,
2 2
U V S S V = = + (5.51)

2
66 6 6 6 66
1 1
.
2 2
U V S V = = (5.52)
Thus, Adams and Bacon consider that the energy U
11
is the strain energy stored
in tension-compression in the longitudinal direction, U
22
is the strain energy
stored in tension-compression in the transverse direction and U
66
is the strain
energy stored in in-plane shear. Then, the strain energy dissipation in the longi-
tudinal direction is written as:
( )
11 11 11
, U U = (5.53)
introducing the longitudinal specific damping capacity
11
measured in the case
of traction-compression tests of 0 materials and assuming the damping is inde-
pendent of the applied stress
1
. Expressions (5.50) and (5.53) yield:
( ) ( )
11 11 1 11 1 12 2
1
.
2
U S S V = + (5.54)
Similarly, the strain energy dissipation in the transverse direction is expressed
as:
( ) ( )
22 22 2 12 1 22 2
1
,
2
U S S V = + (5.55)
introducing the transverse specific damping capacity
22
. And the strain energy
dissipation in shear deformation is given by:
( )
2
66 66 6 66
1
,
2
U S V = (5.56)
introducing the in-plane shear damping specific capacity
66
.
Hence, the total energy dissipated in the element can be written as:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
11 22 66
. U U U U = + + (5.57)
This expression can be extended to the whole volume of the laminate to derive the
total energy dissipation:
( ),
V
U U =
(5.58)
and the specific damping capacity of the laminate is then:
,
U
U

= (5.59)
with

V
U U =
(5.60)
The stresses
1 2 6
, and , expressed in the material directions are related
(Chapter 5 of Refs. 1 and 2) to the stresses , and ,
xx yy xy
in the beam
directions by the relation:

2 2
1
2 2
2
2 2
6
cos sin 2sin cos
sin cos 2sin cos
sin cos sin cos cos sin
xx
yy
xy

=

, (5.61)
where is the orientation of the orthotropic material with respect to the beam
directions.
In the case of free flexure of beam along the x direction, the stresses
yy
and
xy
are zero, and the stresses in the material directions are:

2
1
2
2
6
cos ,
sin ,
sin cos .
xx
xx
xx

=
=
=
(5.62)
The energy dissipated in an element of unit volume is given by:

( )
( )
2 2 2 2
11 11 12
2 2 2 2 2
22 12 22 66 66
1
cos sin cos
2
cos sin sin cos sin .
xx
U S S
S S S

= +
+ + +

(5.63)
The strain energy stored in the element is:

2
11
1 1
,
2 2
xx xx xx
U S = = (5.64)
where

4 4 2 2
11
1 1 1 1
cos sin 2 cos sin ,
LT
x L T LT L
S
E E E G E

= = + +

(5.65)
introducing the Young's modulus measured in the x direction (Chapter 11 of Refs.
1 and 2). Thus, Relations (5.63) to (5.65) lead to the expression of the specific
damping capacity in the x direction:
( )
4 4 2 2 66 11 22
11 22
cos sin cos sin .
LT
x x
L T LT L
E
E E G E

= + + +

(5.66)
5.4.1.3 Ni-Adams Analysis
In this section the analysis of Ni-Adams [39] is developed in the particular case
of the bending of a beam constituted of an orthotropic or unidirectional material.
The beam of length a and width b is caused to vibrate along its length (the x
direction). In the analysis, only the principal bending moment M
x
is applied along
the x direction, the other moments being zero: M
y

=
M
xy

=
0, according to the
assumptions of the classical laminate theory. Thus curvatures are expressed from
Equation (3.3) as:

1
11
1
12
1
16
,
,
.
x x
y x
xy x
D M
D M
D M
=
=
=
(5.67)
where the
1
ij
D
coefficients are the flexural compliance matrix components, derived

as the elements of the inverse matrix [D
ij
] expressed in the beam axes. The curva-
ture
x
is due to bending along the x direction, the curvature
y
is due to the
Poisson coupling and the curvature
xy
results from the bending-twisting cou-
pling. In the case of beam bending, the strain field (1.50) is reduced to:

,
,
.
x xx
y yy
xy xy
z
z
z

=
=
=
(5.68)
The stresses in the material, referred to the plate directions, are deduced from
Equation (1.53):

11 12 16
12 22 26
16 26 66
.
xx x
xy y
yy xy
Q Q Q
z Q Q Q
Q Q Q

=

(5.69)
The reduced stiffness
ij
Q are referred to the plate axes x and y, and are expressed
as functions of the material orientation by the expression reported in Table 1.1.
Considering Equations (5.67) to (5.69) leads to:

( )
( )
( )
1 1 1
11 11 12 12 16 16
1 1 1
12 11 22 12 26 16
1 1 1
16 11 26 12 66 16
,
,
.
xx x
yy x
xy x
z Q D Q D Q D M
z Q D Q D Q D M
z Q D Q D Q D M

= + +
= + +
= + +
(5.70)
Then, the stresses expressed in the material directions are deduced from Equation
(5.61).
As previously, Ni and Adams consider that, in the case of free bending beam,
the stresses
yy
and
xy
can be neglected. Thus, the stresses in material directions
are given by:

( )
( )
( )
1 1 1 2
1 11 11 12 12 16 16
1 1 1 2
2 11 11 12 12 16 16
1 1 1
6 11 11 12 12 16 16
cos ,
sin ,
sin cos .
x
x
x
z Q D Q D Q D M
z Q D Q D Q D M
z Q D Q D Q D M

= + +
= + +
= + +
(5.71)
The strains in the material directions can be expressed as functions of the
strains in the beam directions considering the strain transformations (Chapter 6 of
Refs. 1 and 2):

2 2
1
2 2
2
2 2
6
cos sin sin cos
sin cos sin cos ,
2sin cos 2sin cos cos sin
xx
yy
xy

=

(5.72)
Considering that
yy
is much smaller than
xx
and ,
xy
the strain
yy
can be ne-
glected, and the strains in the material directions are given by:

( )
( )
( )
( )
1 2 1
1 11 16
1 2 1
2 11 16
1 1 2 2
6 11 16
cos sin cos ,
sin sin cos ,
2 sin cos cos sin .
x
x
x
z D D M
z D D M
z D D M

= +
=

=

(5.73)
As in the Adams-Bacon approach, the energy dissipation is separated into three
components associated with the stress components
1
,
2
and
6
expressed in the
material directions. Thus, the energy dissipation can be expressed as:

11 22 66
, U U U U = + + (5.74)
with

/2
11 11 1 1
0 0
1
2 d d ,
2
a h
x z
U b x z
= =
=

(5.75)

/ 2
22 22 2 2
0 0
1
2 d d ,
2
a h
x z
U b x z
= =
=

(5.76)

/2
66 66 6 6
0 0
1
2 d d .
2
a h
x z
U b x z
= =
=

(5.77)
These expressions lead to:

( )
( )

1 1 1 2
11 11 11 11 12 12 16 16
1 2 1 2
11 16
0
1
cos
2
cos sin cos d ,
a
x
U I Q D Q D Q D
D D M x

= + +
+

(5.78)

( )
( )

1 1 1 2
22 22 11 11 12 12 16 16
1 2 1 2
11 16
0
1
sin
2
sin sin cos d ,
a
x
U I Q D Q D Q D
D D M x

= + +

(5.79)

( )
( )

1 1 1
66 66 11 11 12 12 16 16
1 1 2 2 2
11 16
0
1
sin cos
2
2 sin cos cos sin d ,
a
x
U I Q D Q D Q D
D D M x

= + +

(5.80)
introducing the quadratic moment I of the cross-section of the beam with respect
to the (x, y) plane:

3
,
12
b h
I = (5.81)
where h is the beam thickness.
The total strain energy of the beam can be expressed [1, 2] as:

( )

/2
0 /2
1
d d .
2
a b
x x y y xy xy
x y b
U M M M x y
= =
= + +

(5.82)
The moments M
y
and M
xy
are neglected and the total strain energy can be ex-
pressed as:

1 2
11
0
d .
2
a
x
x
b
U D M x
=
=

(5.83)
Then, the specific damping capacity
fx
for the beam bending along the x-
direction is given by:

11 22 66
.
fx
U U U
U
+ +
= (5.84)
In the case of a beam constituted of the same orthotropic or unidirectional
material, the stiffness constants D
ij
of the beam are related to the reduced stiffness
constants
ij
Q of the material by the expression:

3
,
12
ij ij
h
D Q = (5.85)
and the compliance components
1
ij
D
are given by:

1 1
3
12
,
ij ij
D Q
h

= (5.86)
where
1
ij
Q
are the components of the inverse matrix

[ ]
1
ij
Q

of the reduced
stiffness matrix
[ ]
.
ij
Q
5.4.1.4 General Formulation of Damping
Expressions obtained by the analysis of Adams-Bacon (5.66), then by the
analysis of Ni-Adams (5.84) show that the specific damping capacity evaluated in
the direction can be expressed in the general form:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
11 11 22 22 66 66
. a a a = + + (5.87)
Functions a
ij
( ) differ according to the analysis which is considered. In the case
of Adams-Bacon approach, functions a
ij
( ) are expressed as:

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2 2
11 11 12
11
2 2 2
22 12 22
11
2 2
66 66
11
1
cos sin cos ,
1
cos sin sin ,
1
sin cos .
a S S
S
a S S
S
a S
S

= +
= +
=

(5.88)
In the case of the analysis of Ni-Adams, functions a
ij
( ) are given by:

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1 1
11 11 11 12 12 16 16
1
11
1 2 1 2
11 16
1 1 1
22 11 11 12 12 16 16
1
11
1 2 1 2
11 16
1 1 1
66 11 11 12 12 16 16
1
11
1
11 1
1
cos sin cos cos ,
1
sin sin cos sin ,
1
2 sin cos
a Q Q Q Q Q Q
Q
Q Q
a Q Q Q Q Q Q
Q
Q Q
a Q Q Q Q Q Q
Q
Q Q
= + +
+
= + +

= + +

( )
1 2 2
6
cos sin sin cos .

(5.89)
5.4.2 Complex Moduli
The correspondence principle (Section 5.1) can be applied to the effective
bending modulus of a beam expressed by relation (3.12). In complex form this
bending modulus is expressed as:

1 3
11
*
*
12
,
fx
E
h D

= (5.90)
where
1
11
*
D

is expressed as function of the complex moduli of the laminated
material. Relation (5.90) allows us to evaluate the loss factor
fx
E
associated to
the bending modulus as:

( )
*
1 .
fx
fx fx E
E E i = + (5.91)
5.5. Evaluation of the Plate Damping as Function of Material Directions 151
This complex modulus has been also considered by Yim and J ang [41].
Previous relations correspond to the case of the free flexure of laminate beam
where M
x
is the only applied moment, curvatures being expressed by (5.66).
Adams and Bacon [38] also consider the case of a pure flexure for which the
twisting would be constrained to zero
xy
=0. Considering the curvature-moment
relations [1, 2] this pure flexure would be obtained when the twisting moment
would be equal to:

1
16
66
*
,
xy x
D
M M
D
= (5.92)
and the curvature-moment relations yield:

( )
2
1
16
1
11
1
66
.
x x
D
D M
D

=

(5.93)
This expression is substituted for expression (5.67) of
x
obtained in the case of
free flexure and expression (5.90) of the effective bending modulus becomes:

( )
2
1
16
1 1
11 66
1
.
1
fpx fx
E E
D
D D
(5.94)
In fact, the scheme of pure flexure is theoretic, since there exists a bending-
twisting coupling for off-axis materials. Moreover .
fpx fx
E E However this
scheme was considered by Yim and J ang [41] and applied to the damping of beam
flexure introducing the complex bending modulus:

( )
2
1
16
1 1
11 66
* *
*
* *
1
.
1
fpx fx
E E
D
D D
(5.95)
5.5 EVALUATION OF THE PLATE DAMPING
AS A FUNCTION OF MATERIAL DIRECTIONS
5.5.1 Orthotropic Plates
5.5.1.1 Formulation
The energy approach considered in the previous section for the damping of
beams can also be applied for evaluating the damping properties of plates. The
energy approach is based on the evaluation of the strain energy, which can be
derived by finite element analysis in the case of a complex structure or by using
the Ritz method in the case of the analysis of rectangular plates. This analysis has
been developed in [42, 43] and is considered hereafter.
In the Ritz method (Section 4.2), the transverse displacement is expressed
(4.24) in the form of a double series of the coordinates x and y, where the coeffi-
cients A
mn
are determined by considering the stationarity conditions (4.25) of the
total potential energy.
The strain energy U
d
can be expressed as a function of the strain energies
related to the material directions as:

d 1 2 6
, U U U U = + + (5.96)
with

1 1 1

2 2 2

6 6 6
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d ,
2
U x y z
U x y z
U x y z

=
=
=
(5.97)
where the triple integrations are extended over the volume of the plate.
Considering the case of a plate constituted of a single layer of unidirectional or
orthotropic material, the strains
1
,
2
and
6
are related to the strains
xx
,
yy
and
xy
in the beam directions according to the strain transformations. The strain
transformations are obtained inverting Expression (5.72):

2 2
1
2 2
2
2 2
6
cos sin sin cos
sin cos sin cos ,
2sin cos 2sin cos cos sin
xx
yy
xy

=

(5.98)
Next the stresses
1
,
2
and
6
can be evaluated considering the elasticity
relations of plates:

1 11 1 12 2
2 12 1 22 2
6 66 6
,
,
.
Q Q
Q Q
Q

= +
= +
=
(5.99)
It results that the strain energy U
1
, stored in tension-compression in the fibre
direction, can be written as:

1 11 12
, U U U = + (5.100)
with

2
11 11 1

12 12 1 2
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d .
2
U Q x y z
U Q x y z

=
=
(5.101)
Expression (5.100) separates the energy U
11
stored in the fibre direction and the
coupling energy U
12
induced by the Poissons effect. They are given by

(
)
2 4 2 4 2 2 2
11 11
2 2 3
3
1
cos sin sin cos
2
2 sin cos 2 sin cos
2 sin cos d d d ,
xx yy xy
xx yy xx xy
yy xy
U Q
x y z

= + +
+ +
+
(5.102)

( ) ( )
( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
12 12
4 4 2 2
2 2
1
sin cos sin cos sin cos
2
sin cos sin cos sin cos
cos sin sin cos d d d . (5.103)
xx yy xy
xx yy xx xy
yy xy
U Q
x y z

= +
+ + +

In the case of bending vibrations of plates, the strains are deduced from Equations
(5.68), which leads to the relations with the transverse displacement:

2
0
2
2
0
2
2
0
,
,
2 .
xx
yy
xy
z
x
z
y
z
x y
=

w
w
w
(5.104)
Then, the strain energies U
11
and U
12
are expressed as functions of the transverse
displacement introducing expressions (5.104) in Equations (5.102) and (5.103),
respectively. Next, considering the Ritz method, the transverse displacement is
introduced in the form (4.24) and the expressions of the energies are integrated
over the plate volume. Calculation leads to a formulation similar to the one deve-
loped in Section 4.2 of Chapter 4. Considering this formulation leads to the follo-
wing correspondences:

( )
( )
( )
2 2200 2 0022 4 2 1111 2
2002 0220 2
1210 2101
1012 0121 3
, , 4 ,
1
2 ,
2
2 ,
2 ,
xx minj yy minj xy minj
xx yy minj minj
xx xy minj minj
yy xy minj minj
C C R C R
C C R
C C R
C C R

+
+
+
(5.105)
where the coefficients
pqrs
minj
C are given by Equation (4.39).
It results that the strain energies U
11
and U
12
can be written in the form:

( )
11 11 11
2
1 1 1 1
1
,
2
M N M N
mn ij
m n i j
U A A D f
Ra

= = = =
=

(5.106)
with
( )
( )
2200 4 0022 4 4 1111 2002 2 2 2
11
2101 3 0121 3 3
cos sin 2 2 sin cos
minj minj minj minj
minj minj
f C C R C C R
C R C R

= + + +
+ +
(5.107)

3
11 11
,
12
h
D Q = (5.108)
and

( )
12 12 12
2
1 1 1 1
1
,
2
M N M N
mn ij
m n i j
U A A D f
Ra

= = = =
=

(5.109)
with
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2200 0022 4 1111 2 2 2 2002 2 4 4
12
2101 0121 3 2 2
4 sin cos cos sin
2 sin cos sin cos , (5.110)
minj minj minj minj
minj minj
f C C R C R C R
C R C R

= + + +
+

3
12 12
.
12
h
D Q = (5.111)
These expressions introduced the length-to-width ratio of the plate (R =a/b).
In the same way, the energy U
2
stored in tension-compression in the direction
transverse to the fibre direction is obtained as:

2 21 22
, U U U = + (5.112)
with

21 12
, U U = (5.113)
and

( )
22 22 22
2
1 1 1 1
1
,
2
M N M N
mn ij
m n i j
U A A D f
Ra

= = = =
=

(5.114)
with

( )
( )
2200 4 0022 4 4 1111 2002 2 2 2
22
2101 3 0121 3 3
sin cos 2 2 sin cos
4 sin cos 4 sin cos , (5.115)
minj minj minj minj
minj minj
f C C R C C R
C R C R

= + + +

3
22 22
.
12
h
D Q = (5.116)
Lastly, the strain energy U
66
stored in in-plane shear can be written as:

( )
66 66 66
2
1 1 1 1
1
,
2
M N M N
mn ij
m n i j
U A A D f
Ra

= = = =
=

(5.117)
with

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2200 0022 4 2002 2 2 2
66
2
1111 2 2 2 0121 3 2101 2 2
4 2 sin cos (5.118)
4 cos sin 8 cos sin sin cos ,
minj minj minj
minj minj minj
f C C R C R
C R C R C R

= +
+ +


3
66 66
.
12
h
D Q = (5.119)
Then, the energy dissipated by damping in the material is written in the form

11 11 12 12 22 22 66 66
2 , U U U U U = + + + (5.120)
introducing the damping coefficients
11
,
12
,
22
and
66
associated to the strain
energies, respectively. The strain energy U
12
is generally negative, due to the
coupling between
1
and
2
, and the corresponding dissipated energy must be
taken positive. In fact, this energy can be neglected with regard to the other
energies. Next, the damping
x
in the x direction of the plate along its length is
evaluated by the relation
.
x
U
U

= (5.121)
5.5.1.2 Procedure
In the Ritz method, the functions X
m
(x) and Y
n
(y) introduced in expression
(4.24) of the transverse displacement can be chosen [1, 2] as polynomials or as
beam functions which give the characteristics shapes of the natural vibrations of
beams (Section 3.4). The beam functions satisfy orthogonality relations which
make zero many of the integrals (4.33) and (4.34).
Functions X
m
(x) and Y
n
(y) depend on the boundary conditions imposed along
the plate edges (Sections 4.2 and 4.3). Integrals (4.33) and (4.34) can be next
calculated by an analytical development or by a numerical process and stored.
Then, the values of the integrals allow us to establish the system (4.40) of homo-
geneous equations for the undamped flexural vibrations of the plates. This system
can be put in the form (4.118) or (4.121) with two indices and this system is
solved as an eigenvalue and eigenvector problem where the eigenvectors
determine the vibration modes, whence the coefficients A
mn
for the transverse
displacement (4.24) corresponding to the different modes. Next, the different
strain energies are derived, for a given mode, by reporting the values of the coef-
ficients A
mn
in the energy expressions (5.106), (5.109), (5.114) and (5.117). Hence
the laminate damping is derived from Relation (5.121).
5.5.2 Laminated Plates
The Ritz method used in the previous section for analyzing the damping pro-
perties of orthotropic plates can be also applied to arbitrary laminated plates [43].
In the present section we consider the case of a laminated plate constituted of n
orthotropic layers (Figure 1.6 of Chapter 1). Each layer is referred to by the z
coordinates of its lower face
1 k
h

and upper face .
k
h Layer can also be charac-
terized by introducing the thickness e
k
and the z coordinate z
k
of the middle plane
of the layer. Layer orientation is defined by the angle
k
of layer axes with the

directions (x, y) of the plate. For a laminate, the strain energy relation (5.96) con-
sidered for a single orthotropic layer can be written in the axes of each layer as:

d 1 2 6
k k k k
U U U U = + + , (5.122)
and the total energy of laminate is given by:

( ) d 1 2 6
1
n
k k k
k
U U U U
=
= + +
. (5.123)
In the case of the vibrations of a rectangular plate of length a and width b, the
strain energies are expressed by:

1
1 1 1
0 0
d d d ,
k
k
a b h
k
x y z h
U x y z
= = =
=

(5.124)

1
2 2 2
0 0
d d d ,
k
k
a b h
k
x y z h
U x y z
= = =
=

(5.125)

1
6 6 6
0 0
d d d .
k
k
a b h
k
x y z h
U x y z
= = =
=

(5.126)
As in the previous subsection, the strain energy can be written in the form:

d
1
,
n
k
pq
k pq
U U
=
=
(5.127)
with

1
0 0
1
d d d ,
2
11, 12, 22, 66.
k
k
a b h
k k k k
pq pq p q
x y z h
U Q x y z
pq

= = =
=
=

(5.128)
By considering the Ritz method, the transposition of the results obtained previously
in the case of a single layer leads to:
( )

1
2
2
1 1 1 1
1
d
2
k
k
h M N M N
k k
pq mn ij pq k pq
h
m n i j
U A A f Q z z
Ra

= = = =
=

. (5.129)
Hence:

2
1 1 1 1
1
( ),
2
M N M N
k k k
pq mn ij pq pq
m n i j
U A A D f
Ra

= = = =
=

(5.130)
with

( )
3
3 3 2
1
1
.
3 12
k k k k
pq k k pq k k pq
e
D h h Q e z Q

= = +

(5.131)
Then, the total energy dissipated by damping in the laminated plate is expressed
as:

( ) 11 11 12 12 22 22 66 66
1
2 ,
n
k k k k k k k k
k
U U U U U
=
= + + +
(5.132)
introducing the specific damping coefficient
k
pq
of each layer. Next, the damping
x
in the x direction of the plate along its length is evaluated by relation:

x
U
U

= , (5.133)
where the dissipated energy is given by relation (5.132) and the total strain energy
by relation (5.123).
The functions ( )
k
pq
f of each layer are simply derived from the functions
( )
pq
f expressed previously in the case of a single layer of orthotropic material
as:
( ) ( )
k k
pq pq k
f f = + , (5.134)
where functions ( )
pq
f are given by (5.107), (5.110), (5.115) and (5.118).
5.5.3 Conclusion
The process for evaluating the laminate damping from the dissipated energy
has been implemented by using the Ritz method. This procedure can also be
carried out using a vibration analysis by the finite element method (Chapters 8
and 9). In this case it is necessary to have access to the strain and stress fields for
each vibration mode. Next, the energies and the loss damping are obtained in the
same way as for the Ritz method by considering the stored energies and the
dissipated energies.
The interest of the Ritz method lies in the fact that the process can be easily
implemented with usual tools. However, the method is restricted to the analysis of
rectangular plates. In contrast, the finite element analysis can be applied to the
case of a laminated structure of complex shape.
CHAPTER 6
Experimental Investigation and Discussion
on the Damping Properties of Laminates

6.1 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
IN LITERATURE
6.1.1 Experimental Processes for Evaluating Damping
The first equipment for measuring the damping of composite materials was
developed by Adams et al. [31] and Adams and Bacon [44]. Flexural damping of
beams was evaluated over a frequency range of 100 to 800 Hz. Symmetric free-
free flexural modes of vibrations were excited by a coil/electromagnet drive trans-
ducer, the coil being fixed to the midpoint of the beam. A coil/magnet transducer
was also used for measuring the central amplitude of the beam. The signal of the
input transducer was tuned to the fundamental natural frequency of the beam, and
damping was evaluated from the current input into the driving coil and the voltage
induced in the pick-up coil. Forced flexural vibration technique was also used by
Gibson et al [45, 46] to test E-glass/epoxy specimens having different fibre aspect
ratios.
The impulse method was initially developed by Suarez et al [47], Suarez and
Gibson [48] and Crane and Gillespie [49]. The test specimen to characterize was
supported as a flat cantilever beam in a clamping block. Impulsive excitation was
applied using an electromagnetic hammer and the transverse displacement of the
beam was measured versus time by means of non-contact eddy current probe
positioned near the tip of the beam. Then, Fourier transform was performed to
obtain the frequency response function. Curve fitting to Fourier transform was
used by Suarez et al [47] to yield the complex modulus, when damping was
evaluated by Crane and Gillespie [49] from the loss factor determined by the half-
power bandwidth method.
The evaluation of damping from the logarithmic decrement of the free vibra-
tions of cantilever beams was considered by Hadi and Ashton [50] using the
6.1. Experimental Investigation in Literature 159
experimental process developed by Wray et al [51]. In this process, the specimen
was clamped at one end and an initial displacement was achieved by striking the
free end with a controlled striker mechanism. Next, displacement of the free end
versus time was detected using a capacitance transducer and damping was de-
duced from the logarithmic decrement obtained from the decaying voltage-time
signal of the transducer.
The evaluation of damping from flexural vibrations of plates was considered
by Sol et al [8] and De Visscher [52] using a procedure which estimates the
complex bending stiffness of plates. This procedure was used by De Santis et al
[53] for characterizing the dynamic behaviour of shape memory alloy fibre rein-
forced epoxide. However the fundamental concepts of the procedure have not
been developed extensively in the papers of the authors. Schematically, the proce-
dure is implemented in two steps. In the first step, the real parts of the plate
stiffnesses are determined from vibration data obtained in the case of flexural
vibration of a free rectangular plate suspended vertically by two thin threads. In a
second step, the stiffness loss factors are determined from measurements of the
free vibration responses after cutoff of an acoustic excitation: i) at the first natural
frequency of two free-free beam samples oriented in the longitudinal and
transverse directions of the orthotropic materials under consideration, and ii) at
the first three natural frequencies of a free plate. The logarithmic decrements are
deduced from these responses and the stiffness loss factors of the materials are
derived from these experimental decrements according to relations [8, 52] esta-
blished by the authors, considering the energy dissipation of the beams and plates.
6.1.2 Experimental Results
The effect of aerodynamic damping in the case of flexural beam vibrations was
considered by Baker et al [54], Adams and Bacon [44] and Crane and Gillespie
[49]. Air damping is due to both air viscosity and inertia effects, and increases
with the increase in the amplitude of vibrations. Adams and Bacon found that the
effect of air damping was significant for specimens of low damping as usual
materials when vibration amplitude is increased. The results obtained by Crane
and Gillespie shown that no significant variation of loss factor was obtained for
low amplitude in the case of composite materials, air damping staying within the
experimental accuracy of the testing procedure. So it can be considered that the
measured loss factor is from material damping for low amplitude of composite
beam vibrations.
The first significant experimental results obtained on the evaluation of the
damping of unidirectional composite materials were derived by Adams and Bacon
[38] and Ni and Adams [39]. The specimens were made from pre-impregnated
unidirectional fibres: E-glass fibres in DX 210 epoxy matrix and surface treated
graphite fibres (HMS) in the same epoxy matrix. The longitudinal and transverse
properties were determined from free-free flexural modes of beam vibrations,
when the shear properties were derived from torsional tests. Next, the effect of
fibre orientation was investigated. The results obtained by Adams and Bacon [38]
160 Chapter 6. Experimental Investigation and Discussion on Damping Properties of Laminates
and Ni and Adams [39] for the damping are very similar. The main difference is
that the damping maximum has moved to about 25 fibre orientation for carbon
epoxy composites and 60 fibre orientation (with a maximum little marked) for
glass epoxy composites [39], compared to 35 and no maximum, respectively,
according to Adams and Bacon [38].
Glass and carbon fibre reinforced epoxy matrix were also investigated by
Adams and Maheri [40]. All the tests were carried out in air and at room tempe-
rature, and the damping was evaluated as function of fibre orientation and beam
aspect ratio. In the case of unidirectional materials, the experimental results show
that damping is maximum for about 75 fibre orientation, again with a maximum
little marked.
Damping properties of unidirectional glass fibre epoxy composites were
studied by Hadi and Ashton [50] with various fibre orientations (0, 30, 45, 60
and 90) and for each fibre orientation at three fibre volume fractions (0.35, 0.45
and 0.60). The experimental results show that damping increases as fibre volume
decreases at each fibre orientation and damping maximum is observed for 30
orientation.
6.2 DAMPING ANALYSIS OF UNIDIRECTIONAL
GLASS AND KEVLAR FIBRE COMPOSITES
6.2.1 Introduction
An extended experimental investigation of damping properties of glass and
Kevlar fibre composites has been developed in [42, 43]. In this investigation the
damping properties of unidirectional materials are deduced from the experimental
analysis of bending vibrations of beams. We report in this section the essential
results.
6.2.2 Materials
Laminates were prepared by hand lay-up process from epoxy resin with
hardener and unidirectional fabrics of weights 300 gm
2
for E-glass fibres and 400
gm
2
for Kevlar fibres. Plates of 450 mm length and 300 mm width were cured at
room temperature with pressure using vacuum moulding process, and then post-
cured in an oven. Plates had a nominal thickness of 2.5 mm with a volume frac-
tion of fibres equal to 0.40.
The engineering constants of E-glass laminates referred to the fibre direction
were measured in static tests:
29.9 GPa, 5.85 GPa, 2.45 GPa, 0.24,
L T LT LT
E E G = = = = (6.1)
as mean values of 10 tests for each constant. Then the values of the reduced
6.2. Damping Analysis of Unidirectional Glass and Kevlar Fibre Composites 161
stiffnesses are derived as:

11 12 16
22 26 66
30.24 GPa, 1.42 GPa, 0,
5.92 GPa, 0, 2.45 GPa.
Q Q Q
Q Q Q
= = =
= = =
(6.2)
Similarly, the engineering constants of Kevlar laminates measured in static tests
were obtained:
50.70 GPa, 4.50 GPa, 2.10 GPa, 0.29,
L T LT LT
E E G = = = = (6.3)
which leads to the values of the reduced stiffnesses:

11 12 16
22 26 66
51.08 GPa, 1.31 GPa, 0,
4.53 GPa, 0, 2.10 GPa.
Q Q Q
Q Q Q
= = =
= = =
(6.4)
Beam specimens were cut from the laminates and damping properties were
measured for different orientations of fibres: 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 and 90.
6.2.3 Experimental Equipment
The equipment used for damping measurement is shown in Figure 6.1. The test
specimen is supported horizontally as a cantilever beam in a clamping block. An
impulse hammer is used to induce the excitation of the flexural vibrations of the
beam. A force transducer positioned on the hammer allows us to obtain the
excitation signal as a function of the time. The width of the impulse and hence the

FIGURE 6.1. Experimental equipment for damping analysis.
Signal conditioner
Dynamic analyser
Laser vibrometer
Impact hammer
Beam
Clamping block
frequency domain is controlled by the stiffness of the head of the hammer. The
beam response is detected by using a laser vibrometer which measures the
velocity of the transverse displacement of a point near the free end of the beam.
Next, the excitation and the response signals are digitalized and processed by a
dynamic analyzer of signals. This analyzer associated with a PC computer per-
forms the acquisition of signals, controls the acquisition conditions (sensibility,
frequency range, trigger conditions, etc.), and next performs the analysis of the
signals acquired (Fourier transform, frequency response, mode shapes, etc.).
Then, the signals and the associated processings can be saved for post-
processings. The system allows the simultaneous acquisition of two signals with a
maximum sampling frequency of 50 kHz with a resolution of 13 bits for each
channel.
6.2.4 Analysis of the Experimental Results
6.2.4.1 Determination of the Constitutive Damping Parameters
Impulse excitation of the flexural vibrations of beam was induced (Figure 6.2)
at point x
1
near the clamping block and the beam response was detected at point x
near the free end of the beam. Figure 6.3 gives an example of the Fourier trans-
form of the beam response to an impulse input. This response shows peaks which
correspond to the natural frequencies of the bending vibrations of the beam. Expe-
rimental analysis was performed on beams of different lengths 160, 180 and 200
mm so as to have a variation of the values of the peak frequencies.
The transverse response to an impact loading is given by Expression (5.46). In
fact, the laser vibrometer measures the velocity of the transverse displacement and
the beam response detected by the vibrometer is proportional to:

0
0 1 1
2
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( sin cos ).
i i i i i
i
i
p X x X x K a t b t
t
= = +
w
w (6.5)
The Fourier transform gives the complex amplitude as function of the frequency
expressed by:

2 2
0 1 1
2
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ).
i i i i i
i
i
p X x X x a b K
=
= +
W (6.6)

FIGURE 6.2. Impact and measuring points on the cantilever beams.
x
x
l
x
1
Measuring Impact point
Frequency (Hz)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70

FIGURE 6.3. Typical frequency response to an impulse of a unidirectional glass compo-
site beam.
So, the experimental analysis was implemented by fitting the experimental res-
ponses with relation (6.6), considering either the viscous friction model (Equations
(5.25) and (5.26)) or the complex stiffness model (Equations (5.37) and (5.38)).
This fitting was obtained by a least square method using the optimisation toolbox
of Matlab, which allows us to derive the values of the natural frequencies f
i
, and
the modal damping coefficient
i
(case of damping using viscous friction model-
ling) or the loss factor
i
(case of damping using the complex stiffness model).
This method can be applied for notable damping of materials.
According to Relations (3.15) and (3.19) of Chapter 3, each natural frequency
of the undamped beam is related to the stiffness by unit area by relation:

4
2 2
4
4 .
i s
i
s
k
f
a
= (6.7)
This relation allows us to evaluate the stiffness k
s
for each natural frequency of
beams in the case of low damping.
6.2.4.2 Plate Damping Measurement
Rectangular plates with two adjacent edges clamped with the other two free
and plates with one edge clamped and the others free were tested to determine the
damping characteristics for the first modes of flexural vibrations. As in the case of
beams, the excitation of vibrations was induced by the impulse hammer and the
plate response was detected by using the laser vibrometer. The damping para-
meters were derived from the Fourier transform of the plate response. Vibration
excitation and response detection were carried out at different points of the plates
so as to generate and detect all the modes.
6.2.5 Choice of the Frequency Range for the
Experimental Investigation
Performances of the acquisition system are associated to the maximum sam-
pling frequency and to the maximum number of samples which can be stored. We
noted (Section 6.2.3) that the maximum sampling frequency is equal to 50 kHz
with a resolution of 13 bits. The domain of the experimental analysis extending
until frequencies of 1000 to 1500 Hz, the analysis is not limited for the high
frequencies. However, the sample number which can be acquired during the
acquisition of a time response with calculation in real time of the Fourier trans-
form is limited to 8192. A sample number which can be extended up to 1.5 10
6

is possible in the case of the storage of the time signal only. Next, the Fourier
transform can be calculated off line.
Before the signal acquisition, the operator chooses the value of the number n
s

of samples which will be stored and the value f
2
of the frequency range. This value
determines the sampling frequency used by the system: f
s

=
2f
2
and the frequency
resolution r
f
is determined by the number n
f
of points for which the Fourier
transform is calculated:

2
.
f
f
f
r
n
= (6.8)
In the case of low damping of the structure under consideration, the 3 dB
bandwidth near the modal frequency f
i
of the structure is given by:
,
i
i
f
f
= (6.9)
where
i
is the loss factor of mode i. If n
p
is the number of points within the band-
width needed for accurate evaluation of the modal response, the resolution neces-
sary near the frequency f
i
is:

1
.
fi i i
p p
f
r f
n n
= = (6.10)
According to Equation (6.8), the maximum resolution of the analyzer is

2
max
max
,
f
f
f
r
n
= (6.11)
where n
f max
is the maximum number of points for which the Fourier transform
can be calculated.
For obtaining the needed resolution (6.10), it is necessary that r
f max
r
fi
, which
yields:

1
,
i
f f (6.12)
with

1 2
max
1
.
p
f i
n
f f
n
= (6.13)
The frequency bandwidth which can be analyzed is then limited to the interval
[f
1
, f
2
].
The frequency f
1
must be strictly lower than the frequency f
2
. Thus, it results
that the loss factors which can be evaluated for a given number n
f max
of samples is
such as:

max
> .
p
i
f
n
n
(6.14)
For a sample number equal to 8192 and considering that 10 samples within the
3 dB bandwidth is necessary, only loss factors higher than 1.22 10
3
can be mea-
sured, when loss factors of 2 10
6
can be measured in the case of a sample
number equal to 500 10
3
. Moreover, for a loss factor equal to 2 10
3
, relation
(5.146) leads to f
1

=
0.61f
2
when the Fourier transform is calculated with 8192
samples and f
1

=
0.01f
2
when it is calculated with 500 10
3

samples. Tables 6.1
and 6.2 show the bandwidths which can be analyzed in the case of a loss factor
equal to 2 10
3
and for the two sample numbers 8192 and 500 10
3
. The values
reported in these tables show the need to perform damping measurements by
recording first time signals using a high sample number, then calculating Fourier
transform off line.
This subsection reports the experimental results deduced from the analysis of
unidirectional glass fibre and Kevlar fibre beam. As reported previously, the

TABLE 6.1. Frequency bandwidth as function of the frequency range, in the case of a
sample number equal to 8192.
f
2
(Hz) f
1
(Hz) - f
2
(Hz)
33
99
297
891
1782
20 - 33
60.2 - 99
18.2 - 297
543.5 - 891
1087 - 1782
TABLE 6.2. Frequency bandwidth as function of the frequency range, in the case of a
sample number equal to 500 10
3
.
f
2
(Hz) f
1
(Hz) - f
2
(Hz)
33
297
1782
0.33 - 33
3 - 297
17.8 - 1782
Frequency (Hz)
0 100 200 300 400 500
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
= 0
= 15
= 30
= 45
= 60
= 90
= 75
experimental investigation of damping was performed on beams of different
lengths: 160, 180 and 200 mm so as to have a variation of the values of the peak
frequencies. Beams had a nominal width of 20 mm and a nominal thickness of 2.4
mm.
6.2.6.2 Stiffness
Measurement of the natural frequencies of beams leads to the estimation of the
bending modulus E
fx
of beams according to Relation (6.7) associated with Rela-
tions (3.12). The experimental results obtained for the variation of the modulus
with the frequency and for the different orientations of fibres are given in Figure
6.4 for glass fibre composites and in Figure 6.5 for Kevlar fibre composites. For a
given fibre orientation, it is observed a light increase (about 5 to 8 %) of the
bending modulus with the frequency within the domain under consideration.
The variation of the bending modulus with the fibre orientation is then given in
Figures 6.6 and 6.7 for glass fibre composites and Kevlar fibre composites,
respectively, for a frequency of 100 Hz. These experimental results are compared
with the analytical results deduced from Relation (3.12). A good agreement is
observed.

FIGURE 6.4. Experimental results obtained for the bending modulus E
fx
as a function of
the frequency for different fibre orientations, in the case of glass fibre composites.

FIGURE 6.5. Experimental results obtained for the bending modulus E
fx
as a function of
the frequency for different fibre orientations, in the case of Kevlar fibre composites.

FIGURE 6.6. Variation of the bending modulus E
fx
as a function of fibre orientation for a
frequency equal to 100 Hz, in the case of glass fibre composites.
Frequency (Hz)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
= 0
= 15
= 30
= 45
= 60
= 75
= 90
Fibre orientation ()
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Experimental results
Analytical curve

FIGURE 6.7. Variation of the bending modulus E
fx
as a function of fibre orientation for a
frequency equal to 100 Hz, in the case of Kevlar fibre composites.
6.2.6.3 Damping
Fitting the experimental responses of beams with the analytical responses
(Subsection 6.2.4.1) leads to the evaluation of the modal damping coefficient
i

or the loss factor
i
, associated to each mode i.
Figures 6.8 and 6.9 show the experimental results obtained in the case of glass
fibre composites and Kevlar fibre composites. The results are reported for the first
three bending modes and for the different lengths of the beams. The experimental
results show that damping is maximum at a fibre orientation of about 60 for the
glass fibre composites, when a maximum for about 30 fibre orientation is obser-
ved in the case of the Kevlar composites.
For a given fibre orientation, it is observed that damping increases when the
frequency is increased. The values of the damping increase when the frequency is
increased from 50 Hz to 600 Hz are reported in Table 6.3 for the glass fibre
composites and the Kevlar fibre composites. The table shows that the damping
increase is fairly the same (from 21 to 27 %) for the different fibre orientations in

TABLE 6.3. Damping increase (%) in the frequency range [50, 600 Hz].
Fibre orientation () 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Glass fibre composites 21 24 26 23 26 23 27
Kevlar fibre composites 5.4 10.2 16.5 17 18.3 18 11.6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Analytical curve

FIGURE 6.8. Experimental results obtained for the damping as a function of the frequency
for different fibre orientations, in the case of glass fibre composites.

FIGURE 6.9. Experimental results obtained for the damping as a function of the frequency
for different fibre orientations, in the case of Kevlar fibre composites.
Frequency (Hz)
0 200 400 600 800
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
= 0
= 15
= 30
= 45
= 75
= 90
= 60
Frequency (Hz)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
= 60
= 75
= 45
= 90
= 30
= 15
= 0
the case of the glass fibre composites, when the increase depends on the fibre
orientation in the case of the Kevlar fibre composites with values varying from
about 5 to 18 %.
6.3 COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
AND MODELS FOR UNIDIRECTIONAL BEAM
DAMPING
6.3.1 Models of Adams-Bacon and Ni-Adams
The models are based on an energy analysis and lead to the evaluation (5.87) of
the specific damping coefficient measured in the direction as a function of the
damping coefficients
11
in the 0 direction,
22
in the 90 direction and
66
the
damping coefficient associated to in-plane shear. It is usual to consider the results
obtained for the loss factor related to by the relation = 2. Thus, the
formulation (5.87) is simply transposed by considering the loss factors
11
,
12
and
66
. The values of these coefficients can be derived from the experimental
results by considering the results obtained for fibre orientations of 0 and 90, and
for an intermediate orientation of 45, for example. The analytical curve giving
the damping () as a function of the fibre orientation is then derived using Equa-
tion (5.87).
6.3.1.2 Glass Fibre Composites
The results deduced from the Adams-Bacon and Ni-Adams models are com-
pared with the experimental results at frequency 50 Hz in Figure 6.10. The curve
derived from the Adams-Bacon model is obtained with

11 22 66
0.40%, 1.24%, 1.48%. = = = (6.15)
The one deduced from the Ni-Adams model is obtained with

11 22 66
0.40%, 1.24%, 1.72%. = = = (6.16)
In Figure 6.10, it is observed a rather good agreement between the results deduced
from the two models and the experimental results. However, the values of the
shear loss factor deduced from the two models are fairly different.
6.3.1.3 Kevlar Fibre Composites
The same analysis was then applied to Kevlar fibre composites. The results
deduced from the two models are compared with the experimental results in
Figure 6.11. Fitting the results deduced from the two models with the experi-
mental results was obtained with

11 22 66
1.60%, 2.90%, 3.14%, = = = (6.17)
in the case of the Adams-Bacon model, and with
6.3. Comparison of Experimental Results and Models for Beam Damping 171
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
Adams-Bacon analysis
Ni-Adams analysis
Complex stiffness modulus
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Adams-Bacon analysis
Ni-Adams analysis
Complex stiffness model

FIGURE 6.10. Comparison between the experimental damping results and the results
derived from Adams-Bacon, Ni-Adams and complex stiffness models, in the case of glass
fibre composites.

FIGURE 6.11. Comparison between the experimental damping results and the results
derived from Adams-Bacon, Ni-Adams and complex stiffness models, in the case of
Kevlar fibre composites.

11 22 66
1.60%, 2.90%, 3.53%, = = = (6.18)
in the case of the Ni-Adams model.
In Figure 6.11, it is observed that, if the two models describe the overall varia-
tion of damping as function of the orientation of fibres measured in experiments,
there is a notable deviation for fibre orientations from about 10 to 35.
6.3.2 Complex Stiffness Model
The damping evaluation using the complex modulus of the beams was consi-
dered in Subsection 5.4.2. The damping is evaluated by Relation (5.91), where the
complex bending modulus is expressed (5.90) as a function of the element
1
11
*
D
of
the complex inverse matrix of
*
ij
D

. According to the elastic-viscoelastic corres-
pondence principle, the complex bending-twisting matrix
*
ij
D

is obtained as:

3
* *
,
12
ij ij
h
D Q

=

(6.19)
where the complex reduced stiffnesses
*
ij
Q are converted from the relations of
Table 1.1 giving the reduced stiffnesses
ij
Q with reference to the fibre orientation
as functions of the reduced stiffnesses
ij
Q referred to the material directions. Thus,
the complex reduced stiffnesses in the material directions are expressed as:

11 12
22 66
* * *
* *
* *
2 2
* *
* *
*
* * *
*
2
*
*
, ,
1 1
, ,
1
L TL L
T T
LT LT
L L
T
LT
T
LT
L
E E
Q Q
E E
E E
E
Q Q G
E
E
= =

= =
(6.20)
introducing the engineering moduli in the complex form:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
* *
* *
1 , 1 ,
1 , 1 .
L L L T T T
LT LT LT LT LT
LT
E E i E E i
G G i i

= + = +
= + = +
(6.21)
When the fibre orientation is equal to 0, the effective bending modulus can be
identified with the longitudinal modulus E
L
of the material. Hence, the
longitudinal loss factor can be identified with the damping
0
measured for the 0
fibre orientation. In the same way, the transverse loss factor can be identified with
the loss factor
90
measured for the 90 fibre orientation.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
f = 50 Hz
f = 300 Hz
f = 600 Hz
f = 50 Hz
f = 300 Hz
f = 600 Hz
Ritz analysis
The results obtained by the complex stiffness model are reported in Figures
6.10 and 6.11 in the case of glass fibre composites and Kevlar fibre composites,
respectively. The results were obtained by considering that the damping asso-
ciated to the Poisson's ratio is zero and fitting the shear loss factor
LT
so that the
complex stiffness model gives the value of the loss factor measured for the 45
fibre orientation. The comparison between the results obtained shows that the
experimental results are not well described by the complex stiffness model for
fibre orientations ranging from about 10 to 45. Besides, the use of the complex
modulus approach leads to problems associated with the consistency of the
complex moduli [55].
6.3.3 Using the Ritz Method
6.3.3.1 Damping Parameters
The analysis using the Ritz method (Section 5.5) was applied to the expe-
rimental results obtained for the bending of beams. The beams were considered in
the form of plates with one edge clamped and with the others free. Damping was
evaluated by the Ritz method (5.121) considering the beam functions introduced
previously in Section 4.2 and 4.3 of Chapter 4. Thus, the present evaluation of the
beam damping takes account of the effect of the beam width. The results deduced
from the Ritz method are reported in Figures 6.12 and 6.13 in the case of glass
fibre composites and Kevlar fibre composites, respectively. A good agreement is
obtained with the experimental results. The values of the loss factors considered

FIGURE 6.12. Comparison of the experimental results and the results deduced from the
Ritzs method for damping as a function of fibre orientation, in the case of glass fibre
composites.

FIGURE 6.13. Comparison of the experimental results and the results deduced from the
Ritzs method for damping as a function of fibre orientation, in the case of Kevlar fibre
composites.
for modelling are reported in Tables 6.4 and 6.5 for the frequencies 50, 300 and
600 Hz. These results show that the shear damping evaluated by using the Ritz
method is fairly higher that the values of the shear loss factor deduced from the
Adams-Bacon analysis or from the Ni-Adams analysis which do not consider the
width of the beam.
TABLE 6.4. Loss factors derived from the Ritz method in the case of unidirectional glass
fibre laminates.
f (Hz)
11
(%)
12

22
(%)
66
(%)
50 0.35 0 1.30 1.80
300 0.40 0 1.50 2.00
600 0.45 0 1.65 2.22
TABLE 6.5. Loss factors derived from the Ritz method in the case of unidirectional Kevlar
fibre laminates.
f (Hz)
11
(%)
12

22
(%)
66
(%)
50 1.50 0 2.50 3.80
300 1.63 0 2.60 4.10
600 1.69 0 2.78 4.50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
f = 50 Hz
f = 300 Hz
f = 600 Hz
f = 50 Hz
f = 300 Hz
f = 600 Hz
6.3.3.2 Influence of the Width of the Beams
The influence of the beam width can be analyzed by the Ritz method. Figures
6.14 show the results obtained for the loss factor of the first mode of beams with a
nominal length of 200 mm and for different length-to-width ratio of the beam:
100, 20, 10, 7 and 5, in the case of glass fibre composites (Figure 6.14a) and
Kevlar fibre composites (Figure 6.14b). These figures show that the results reach
a limit for high values of the length-to-width ratio of the beams. Furthermore, the
results deduced from the Ni-Adams analysis, considering the values of damping
derived from the experimental results using the Ritz method in the case of beams
with a length to width ratio equal to 10 (Tables 6.4 and 6.5), are compared in
Figures 6.15a (glass fibre composites) and 6.15b (Kevlar fibre composites) with
the results derived from the Ritz method in the case of a length-to-width ratio of
the beams equal to 100. The results are rather similar. This shows that the Ni-
Adams analysis can be applied to the evaluation of damping properties of beams
with high values of the length-to-width ratio. In fact, in order to minimize the
edge effects especially for off-axis materials it is difficult to implement an expe-
rimental analysis with a high value of the length-to-width ratio of the beams. A
ratio about 10 which leads to a beam width of 20 mm for a length of 200 mm
appears to be a good compromise. In this case it is necessary to analyse the
experimental results with a modelling which takes the width of the beams into
account.
6.3.3.3 Damping According to Modes of Beam Vibrations
The Ni-Adams analysis is established using the beam theory which considers
the case of bending along the x axis of beams and assumes that the transverse
displacement of beams is a function of the x coordinate only:
w
0
= w
0
(x). (6.22)
According to this theory, only the bending modes of beams are described and the
damping of unidirectional beams will all the more high as the beam deformation
will induce bending in the direction transverse to fibres and in-plane shearing for
intermediate orientations of fibres. The Ni-Adams analysis does not take account
of the effects of beam twisting which can induce notable twisting deformation of
beams for which the transverse displacement is not anymore independent of the y
coordinate.
Figures 6.16 show the variations of beam damping deduced from the Ritz
method for the first four modes of unidirectional beams in the case of beam length
equal to 180 mm and a length-to-width ratio equal to 10: glass fibre beams (Figure
6.16a) and Kevlar fibre beams (Figure 6.16b). For the damping evaluation of
beams we have considered that the loss factors of the materials depend on the
frequency according to the results obtained in Subsection 6.3.3.1. The natural
frequencies and modes of the beams were first derived using the Ritz method.
Next, the damping evaluation of laminated beams was derived according to the
modelling developed in Section 5.5 of Chapter 5 and considering that the damping
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
R =100
R =20
R =10
R =7
R =5

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 6.14. Unidirectional beam damping obtained with different values of the length-
to-width ratio R : a) in the case of glass fibre composites and b) in the case of Kevlar fibre
composites.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
R =100
R =20
R =10
R =7
R =5

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 6.15. Comparison of the results deduced from the Ni-Adams analysis and the
Ritz method in the case of a length-to-width ratio of 100: a) glass fibre beams and b)
Kevlar fibre beams.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
Ni-Adams analysis
Ritz analysis
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
Ni-Adams analysis
Ritz analysis

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 6.16. Variation of the damping of unidirectional beams of length equal to 180
mm, derived from the Ritz method for the first four modes: a) glass fibre beams and b)
Kevlar fibre beams.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
Ritz analysis
Experimental
bending modes
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
1.4
1.8
2.2
2.6
3.0
3.4
3.8
4.2
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
Ritz analysis
Experimental
bending modes
6.4. Damping of Laminated Beams 179
factors
11
,
22
and
66
increased linearly in the frequency range [50, 600 Hz]
according to the values reported in Tables 6.4 and 6.5. The results for the first two
modes are similar, differing by the increase of the damping with the frequency.
In the case of the third mode (Figure 6.16), it is observed a high beam damping
for fibre orientations of 0 and 10 with a value which is fairly near of the shear
damping. The shapes of the modes 1 to 4 for a fibre orientation of 0 are given in
Figure 6.17. The results show that the shapes of modes 1, 2 and 4 satisfy the
assumption (6.22), whereas an important twisting of the beam is observed for
mode 3 inducing a notable in-plane shear deformation. Finally, the beam damping
results from the respective contributions of the energies induced in bending along
the x direction of the beam, bending along the transverse y direction and beam
twisting. These energies are taken into account by the damping analysis based on
the Ritz method.
Figure 6.18 reports the mode shapes deduced in the case of 30 fibre
orientation showing the participation of the different deformation modes. In this
case, it is observed that beam twisting of the mode 4 is associated to a lower
damping of the beam. These results show that beam twisting induces an increase
of damping for fibre orientations near the material directions: 0 direction for
mode 3 and 90 direction for mode 4 (Figures 6.16 and 6.17), resulting from the
increase of in-plane shear deformation of materials. In contrast, the beam twisting
results in a decrease of damping for intermediate orientations (mode 4, Figures
6.16 and 6.18) associated to the decrease of in-plane shear deformation. Similar
results are observed in the case of unidirectional Kevlar composites.
The variations of beam damping deduced from the Ritz method are compared
in Figure 6.16 with the experimental results obtained for the first three bending
modes of beams. These bending modes were obtained by exciting the beams by an
impulse applied on the beam axis so as to induce vibration modes without beam
twisting. The damping evaluation by the Ritz method agrees fairly well with the
experimental results when only the bending modes of the beams are considered.
6.4 DAMPING OF LAMINATED BEAMS
Laminated beams with three different stacking sequences were analyzed:
[0/90/0/90]
s
cross-ply laminates, [0/90/45/45]
s
laminates and [///]
s
angle-
ply laminates with varying from 0 to 90. The laminates were prepared from 8
plies of the unidirectional materials studied in the previous section. The nominal
thickness of the laminates was 2.4 mm and the analysis was implemented in the
case of beams 200 mm long and 20 mm width.
Figures 6.19 and 6.20 show the results obtained for the damping in the case of
glass fibre laminates and Kevlar fibre laminates, respectively. Figures report the
results deduced for the damping by the Ritz method for the first four modes and
the experimental damping measured for the first mode. The evaluation of laminate
damping by the Ritz method takes account of the variation of the loss factors
11
,
22
and
66
with frequency (Tables 6.4 and 6.5). For the cross-ply laminates
(Figures 6.19a and 6.20a) and [0/90/45/45]
s
laminates (Figures 6.19b and 6.20b),

FIGURE 6.17. Free flexural modes of a unidirectional glass fibre beam for 0 fibre
orientation.

FIGURE 6.18. Free flexural modes of a unidirectional glass fibre beam for 30 fibre
orientation.
the material damping is derived as function of laminate orientation. For the
[///]
s
angle ply laminates (figures 6.19c and 6.20c), damping is reported as
function of the ply orientation . The damping deduced from the Ritz method was
evaluated by applying the results of Section 5.5.2 to the different laminates.
mode 1 mode 2
mode 3 mode 4
mode 1 mode 2
mode 3 mode 4
6.4. Damping of Laminated Beams 181

FIGURE 6.19. Damping variation as a function of laminate orientation for beams of differ-
rent glass fibre laminates: a) [0/90/0/90]
s
cross-ply laminates, b) [0/90/45/45]
s
laminates
and c) [///]
s
angle ply laminates.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
(c)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
(b)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
(a)

FIGURE 6.20. Damping variation as a function of laminate orientation for beams of differ-
rent Kevlar fibre laminates: a) [0/90/0/90]
s
cross-ply laminates, b) [0/90/45/45]
s

laminates and c) [///]
s
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
(c)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
(b)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
(a)
6.5. Damping of Laminated Plates 183
The in-plane behaviour of the [0/90/0/90]
s
cross-ply laminates is the same in
the 0 and 90 directions, when the external 0 layers of the stacking sequence
leads to a slight increase of the bending properties in the 0 direction. Thus, com-
pared to the damping of unidirectional composites (Figures 6.12 and 6.13), the
stacking sequence [0/90/0/90]
s
leads to a more symmetric variation of damping as
function of the orientation with damping characteristics which are slightly higher
in the 90 direction. Near 45 orientations damping of the [0/90/0/90]
s
laminates
is clearly reduced (about 1.2 % for glass fibre laminates and 2.6 % for Kevlar
fibre laminates, for the first two modes) compared to the damping of the uni-
directional laminates (about 1.4 % and 3.0 %, respectively). This reduction results
from the in-plane shear deformation which is constrained by the [0/90] stacking
sequence. For the third mode it is observed a high damping for directions near 0
and 90 associated to the effects of beam twisting as in the case of the unidi-
rectional laminates. For the fourth mode the beam twisting leads to a decrease of
the beam damping. The use of the [90/0/90/0]
s
stacking sequence would lead to a
damping behaviour where the 0 and 90 directions would be inverted.
For [0/90/45/45]
s
laminates (Figures 6.19b and 6.20b), the damping beha-
viour is practically symmetric as a function of the fibre orientation with an in-
plane shear constrain effect which is more important than in the case of cross-ply
laminates, leading to a reduction of the damping near 45 orientation, for modes 1
and 2: loss factor of about 0.98 % for glass fibre laminates and 2.2 % for Kevlar
fibre laminates in the case of mode 1.
In the case of the [///]
s
angle ply laminates and for the first three modes
(Figures 6.19c and 6.20c), the damping for ply angles higher than 60 is
practically the same as damping observed for the unidirectional beams with fibre
orientation equal to . For lower values of ply angle, it is observed a reduction of
laminate damping comparatively to the unidirectional composites, associated to
the in-plane constrain effect induced by the [///]
s
sequence. For mode 4 the
damping reduction of angle ply laminates is observed for all the ply orientations,
except for orientations near 0 and 90 where angle ply laminates are similar to
unidirectional laminates.
6.5 DAMPING OF LAMINATED PLATES
6.5.1 Damping investigation
The damping of rectangular laminated plates with different edge conditions can
be evaluated using the Ritz method. The results obtained in the case of glass fibre
plates and in the case of Kevlar fibre plates are very similar and differ by the
levels of the damping of plate vibrations. Figures 6.21 and 6.22 show the results
derived for the damping by the Ritz analysis for the first four modes in the case of
rectangular plates of glass fibre laminates with two edge conditions: one clamped
edge and the other edges free (Figure 6.21) and two adjacent edges clamped and
the other two free (Figure 6.22). The plates were clamped along the width and

FIGURE 6.21. Damping variation as a function of laminate orientation for rectangular
plates with one edge clamped and the other edges free, in the case of different glass fibre
laminates: a) unidirectional laminates, b) [0/90/0/90]
s
cross-ply laminates, c)
[0/90/45/45]
s
laminates and d) [///]
s
the investigation was performed on plates 200 mm wide and 300 mm long with a
nominal thickness of 2.4 mm. The experimental results obtained are also reported
for the first mode and show a good agreement with the results derived from the
Ritz analysis.
6.5.2. Plates with One Edge Clamped and the Other
Edges Free
The mode shapes of the unidirectional plates with one clamped edge and the
other edges free are rather similar for the different orientations of fibres. Figure
6.23 shows an example obtained for the shapes of the first four modes of uni-
directional plates in the case of 15 fibre orientation.
Modes 1 and 3 correspond to plate bending in the x and y directions of plates.
So the damping variation of plates corresponding to these modes (Figure 6.21a)
are comparable to the damping variation observed in the case of the first and
second modes of the unidirectional beams considered in Subsection 6.3.3 (Figure
6.16a). The difference between the results is induced by the effects of the length-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
(a)
(c) (d)
(b)

FIGURE 6.22. Damping variation as a function of laminate orientation for rectangular
plates with one edge clamped and the other edges free, in the case of different Kevlar
fibre laminates: a) unidirectional laminates, b) [0/90/0/90]
s
cross-ply laminates, c)
[0/90/45/45]
s
laminates and d) [///]
s

FIGURE 6.23 Flexural mode shapes of unidirectional plate with one edge clamped and the
others free for 45 fibre orientation.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 1
Ritz analysis
(b) (a)
(c) (d)
mode 1 mode 2
mode 3 mode 4
to-width ratio: 10 in the case of the beams and 1.5 in the case of the plates. The
influence of the in-plane shear is lower for fibre orientations near 45 in the case
of the plates.
For modes 2 and 4, it is observed (Figure 6.23) an important twisting of plates
which leads to similar effects as the ones observed in the case of unidirectional
beams: plate twisting induces an increase of damping for fibre orientations near
the material directions and a decrease of damping for intermediate orientations
(Figure 6.21a).
For [0/90/0/90]
s
and [0/90/45/45]
s
plates the shape modes are similar to the
ones observed in the case of unidirectional plates (Figure 6.23) and it is observed
(Figures 6.21b and 6.21c) a more symmetric variation of damping as function of
the fibre orientation. Lastly, damping variation of [///]
s
angle ply plates
(Figure 6.21d) is practically the same as the variation obtained in the case of
unidirectional plates (Figure 6.21a).
6.5.3 Plates with Two Edges Clamped and the Other
Edges Free
Figures 6.24 give examples of the mode shapes of unidirectional plates with
two adjacent edges clamped for three fibre orientations: 0, 30 and 60. The
mode shapes combine bending vibrations along the two free edges and the figures
show an evolution of the mode shapes with fibre orientation.
For mode 1 it is observed (Figure 6.22a) a rather high damping induced by the
plate twisting for fibre orientation near 0 (Figure 6.24a) and next the damping
decreases regularly when the fibre orientation increases. The mode shape of the
mode 2 is rather similar for the different fibre orientations resulting in a low varia-
tion of damping. For mode 3 plate damping is nearly constant for fibre orient-
tations from 0 to 40 and next plate damping is clearly increased up to 90 fibre
orientation. Lastly, the shapes of mode 4 (Figures 6.24) show an important
twisting of the plates for 0 and 30 (Figures 6.24a and 6.24b), inducing a high
damping of the plates for fibre orientations from 0 to 40. Then, the damping
decreases according to a mode shape with low plate twisting (Figure 6.24b).
The shape modes of [0/90/0/90]
s
and [0/90/45/45]
s
plates with two adjacent
edges clamped are very similar to the ones obtained in the case of the unidi-
rectional plates. As it was observed previously for beams and plates, Figures
6.22b and 6.22c show a more symmetric variation of damping with fibre orient-
tation. Also, the damping variation of angle ply laminates (Figure 6.22d) is rather
similar to the variation observed in the case of unidirectional plates.

FIGURE 6.24. Flexural mode shapes of unidirectional plate with two adjacent edges
clamped and the others free for three fibre orientation: a) 0 orientation, b) 30 orientation
and c) 60 orientation.
mode 1 mode 2
mode 3 mode 4
mode 1 mode 2
mode 3 mode 4
mode 1 mode 2
mode 3 mode 4
(a)
(b)
(c)
6.6 LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE DAMPING
OF UNIDIRECTIONAL FIBRE COMPOSITES
6.6.1 Introduction
Longitudinal and transverse damping of unidirectional composites as functions
of the constituent properties has been considered in Section 5.2 of Chapter 5. This
section develops an analysis of the longitudinal and transverse damping based on
the experimental results obtained by Adams, Bacon and Ni [38, 39] in the case of
glass fibre and carbon fibre composites and the experimental results reported in
the previous sections in the case of glass fibre and Kevlar fibre composites. The
experimental results obtained for the engineering constants and damping pro-
perties of matrices, fibres and composites are reported in Tables 6.6. and 6.7.
TABLE 6.6. Unidirectional glass and carbon fibre composites investigated by Adams,
Bacon and Ni [38, 39].
Materials
V
f
E
L

(GPa)
E
T

(GPa)
G
LT

(GPa)
LT

L

(%)
T

(%)
LT
(%)
Matrix DX 210 3.21 3.21 1.20 0.338 1.04 1.04 1.06
Carbon fibres 345 15
Glass fibres 73 73 0.22
Carbon fibre/DX
210 composites
0.50 172.7 7.20 3.76 0.29 0.072 0.67 1.12
Glass fibre/DX 210
composites
0.50 37.78 10.90 4.91 0.32 0.138 0.804 1.10
TABLE 6.7. Unidirectional glass and Kevlar fibre composites investigated in the previous
sections.
Materials
V
f
E
L

(GPa)
E
T

(GPa)
G
LT

(GPa)
LT

11
,
L

(%)
22
,
T

(%)
66
,
LT
(%)
Matrix SR 1500 2.80 2.80 1.08 0.33 1.57 1.57
Glass fibres 73 73 30 0.22
Kevlar fibres 135 12 0.37
Glass fibre/SR
1500 composites
0.39 29.9 5.85 2.45 0.26 0.35 1.30 1.80
Kevlar fibre/SR
1500 composites
0.37 50.7 4.50 2.10 0.33 1.50 2.50 3.80
6.6. Longitudinal and Transverse Damping of Unidirectional Fibre Composites 189
6.6.2 Longitudinal Damping
In the case of unidirectional composites with polymer matrix and glass or
carbon fibres, the participation of fibres to longitudinal composite damping is
generally neglected in the literature, expressing the composite damping by expres-
sion (5.7). This assumption results from a negligible value of the damping mea-
sured on glass and carbon in bulk form. However, the experimental results
obtained on the damping properties (Tables 6.6 and 6.7) show that expression
(5.7) considerably underestimates the experimental values of the longitudinal
damping. The effect of the fibre-matrix interface was considered by Vantomme
[56] introducing a three-phase model: the matrix, the fibre and the interphase
between fibres and matrix. The results obtained show that, in the case of a low
stiffness interphase, the introduction of the interphase material does not affect the
longitudinal damping of composite appreciably. Very few papers on the damping
of Kevlar-fibre composites are reported in the literature [57-59]. However, in
contrast to carbon or glass fibre composites, it is considered that Kevlar fibres
contribute to the longitudinal damping of composites.
In fact, the experimental results obtained for all the types of unidirectional
composites (Tables 6.6 and 6.7, for examples) lead to consider that the results
obtained for the longitudinal damping can be described simply by introducing a
damping parameter
fL
, associated to the longitudinal motion of the fibres in a
viscoelastic matrix and no more associated to the effective damping of the bulk
material. In this way, expression (5.5) can be simply rewritten as
( )
f m
f f m f
1
L L
L L
E E
V V
E E
= + . (6.23)
The value of the longitudinal
fL
cannot be measured. This value can only be
estimated from the experimental results obtained from the longitudinal damping
of composites, considering Expression (6.23). Table 6.8 reports the results
obtained in the case of the composites considered in Tables 6.6 and 6.7. In Table

TABLE 6.8. Longitudinal damping of fibres and respective contributions, deduced from
expression (6.23), in the case of composites materials considered in Tables 6.6 and 6.7.
Materials
11
,
L

(%)
fL

(%)
Matrix contribution
(%)
Fibre contribution
(%)
Glass fibre/DX 210
composites
0.138 0.12 26 74
Carbon fibre/DX 210
composites
0.072 0.062 13.5 86.5
Glass fibre/SR 1500
composites
0.35 0.17 26 74
Kevlar fibre/SR 1500
composites
1.50 1.65 3.4 96.6
6.8, also are reported the respective contributions of matrix and fibres to the
effective damping of composites. The results obtained show that the participation
of the matrix to the damping is rather low for all the composites considered, that is
in contrast with considerations in literature which neglect the fibre contribution. In
the case of Kevlar fibre composites, composite damping is induced essentially by
the longitudinal damping of fibres.
Further to the preceding results, it is interesting to consider how the damping of
unidirectional composites is changed as a function of fibre fraction. The influence
of the volume fraction of fibres was studied experimentally by Adams et al. [31]
in the case of glass-fibre and carbon-fibre composites with a polyester matrix.
Figure 6.25 shows the experimental results for the longitudinal Youngs modulus
deduced from bending tests. These experimental values are less than that predic-
ted by the law of mixtures for the longitudinal tensile modulus. The authors
attribute this fact to the lower longitudinal compressive modulus than the tensile
modulus of the composites. The experimental results of Figure 6.25 can be
described using a law of mixtures with lower value of the fibre modulus than the
actual one:
f
E = 61 GPa for the glass-fibre composites and
f
E = 345 GPa for the
carbon-fibre composites. The variation of the specific damping capacity
L

( 2
L L
= ) with fibre volume fraction is reported in Figure 6.26 for glass and
carbon fibre composites. The experimental values seem to lead to a damping
somewhat independent of the fibre type. In Figure 6.26, damping evaluated by
Equation (6.25) is reported by considering a specific damping capacity of fibres:
fL
= 1.2 % (
fL
= 0.19 %) for the glass-fibre composites and
fL
= 1.6 % (
fL
=
0.25 %) for the carbon-fibre composites. These results lead to a good evaluation
of the variation of composite damping with fibre volume fraction for glass-fibre
composites when they are significantly distant from the experimental results for
carbon-fibre composites. For high longitudinal modulus of fibres, Expression
(6.23) leads to a composite damping which results essentially from fibre damping
since low values of the fibre fraction. Effects of the fibre-matrix interaction,
depending on the fibre fraction, could be introduced in Expression (6.23) and
would lead to a better description of damping of carbon-fibre composites.
6.6.3 Transverse Damping
6.6.3.1 Formulation
The description of the transverse damping by expression (5.8), which is based
on the evaluation of the energies dissipated in matrix and fibres, leads to a contri-
bution of fibre damping which is negligible. Moreover for glass-fibre composites,
expression (5.8) gives a composite damping which is clearly higher than the
experimental results and this expression cannot be considered to evaluate the
transverse composite damping.
A new model for evaluating the transverse damping has been developed in
[60]. This model introduces local damping coefficients of the composite consti-
tuents and considers that the transverse damping coefficient
fT
of fibres is

FIGURE 6.25. Variation of the longitudinal Youngs modulus with fibre volume fraction:
a) in the case of unidirectional glass-fibre composites and b) in the case of unidirectional
carbon-fibre composites, from Ni and Adams [31].
Fibre volume fraction V
f
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
L
o
n
g
i
t
u
d
i
n
a
l

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
L

(
G
P
a
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
experiment
Law of mixtures
E
f
=61 GPa
(a)
f
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
L
o
n
g
i
t
u
d
i
n
a
l

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
L

(
G
P
a
)
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
experiment
Law of mixtures
E
f
=345 GPa
(b)

FIGURE 6.26. Variation of the longitudinal specific damping capacity with fibre volume
fraction for unidirectional glass-fibre and carbon-fibre composites [31].
associated to the transverse motion of fibres in the viscoelastic matrix. From this
model [60], the transverse specific damping capacity is expressed as:

m f T T T
= + , (6.24)
with
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
2 m
m m f f f f
2
m f
f
9 3
1 1 1
4 2
T T T
T f
E E E E
V V V V V
E E
E

= + +

, (6.25)
( ) ( )
2
3 2 f
f f f f f f
2
f m
m
3 3
1 1
2 4
T T T
T T f
E E E E
V V V V V
E E
E

= + +

. (6.26)
where
m T
and
f T
are the transverse contributions of matrix and fibre, respec-
tively. These contributions are expressed as functions of the specific damping
capacity of matrix
m
and the transverse damping capacity of fibre
fT
by
Equations (6.25) and (6.26), respectively.
6.6.3.2 Application
1. Glass fibre composites
The application of expressions (6.25) and (6.26) to the case of the unidirec-
tional glass fibre composites considered in Table 6.7 leads to:

m m f f
0.501 , 6.20 .
T T T
= = (6.27)
Considering the matrix damping of Table 6.7:
m m
2 1.57 % = = , the
f
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
L
o
n
g
i
t
u
d
i
n
a
l

d
a
m
p
i
n
g

L

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
glass-fibre composites
carbon-fibre composites
experiment
experiment
modelling
modelling
transverse damping of the composites is given by:

f
0.782 6.20
T T
= + . (6.28)
The transverse damping measured on the composites (Table 6.7) is 1.30 %
T
= .
Hence, the preceding relation shows that matrix takes part in the transverse
damping for about 60 %. Moreover, the relation leads to an evaluation of
transverse damping induced by fibres equal to:

f f
0.083 %, 0.52 %
T T
= = . (6.29)
This damping is about 2 times lower than the fibre damping evaluated in the
longitudinal direction (Table 6.8).
2. Kevlar fibre composites
Although the transverse behaviour of composites with Kevlar fibres is not well
understood, we applied the preceding analysis to Kevlar composites (Table 6.7).
The application of Expressions (6.25) and (6.26) leads to:

m m f f
0.413 , 8.43 .
T T T
= = (6.30)
So, the transverse damping is expressed as:

f
0.649 8.43
T T
= + . (6.31)
The damping measured in the case of Kevlar composites is 2.50 %
T
= (Table
6.7). It results that matrix takes part in the transverse damping for about 26 %.
Then, relation (6.26) leads to the evaluation of the transverse damping induced by
fibres

f f
0.22 %, 1.38 %
T T
= = . (6.32)
This damping is about 7.5 times lower than the fibre damping evaluated in
fibre direction (Table 6.8).
3 Variation of transverse damping with fibre volume fraction
The variation of the transverse damping with fibre volume fraction was
approached by Ni and Adams [61] in the case of the unidirectional glass-fibre
composites. However, the analysis is limited since only two fibre volume
fractions are considered: V
f

=
0.50 and V
f

=
0.78 and the results considered are
not very consistent. So, an experimental analysis have been implemented in the
case of the glass fibre composites considered previously, for three fibre volume
fractions: V
f

=
0.20, V
f

=
0.39 and V
f

=
0.59. The experimental results obtained
for the transverse modulus and the transverse damping are reported in Figures
6.27 and 6.28, respectively.
The transverse modulus as a function of the fibre volume fraction can be
evaluated considering Expression (5.9). The results obtained are reported in
Figure 6.27 which shows a good fitting with the experimental results.
Next, the transverse damping capacity of composites was evaluated using
expression (6.24). A good fitting was obtained by taking a transverse damping of
fibres:
f
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
T
r
a
n
s
v
e
r
s
e

d
a
m
p
i
n
g

T

(
%
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Modelling
f
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6
T
r
a
n
s
v
e
r
s
e

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
T

(
G
P
a
)
0
10
Modelling

f f
0.49 %, 0.078 %
T T
= = . (6.33)
The results obtained are reported in Figure 6.28.
The micromechanics model used to evaluate the transverse composite damping
is based on a transverse damping of fibres which is considered as constant with
the fibre fraction. A more extended experimental analysis as a function of fibre
volume fraction would be necessary to derive complementary elements on this
hypothesis.

FIGURE 6.27. Variation of the transverse modulus with fibre volume fraction for
unidirectional glass-fibre composites.

FIGURE 6.28. Variation of the transverse specific damping capacity with fibre volume
fraction for unidirectional glass-fibre composites.
6.7. Temperature Effect on the Damping Properties of Unidirectional Composites 195
6.7 TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON THE DAMPING
PROPERTIES OF UNIDIRECTIONAL COMPOSITES
6.7.1 Introduction
Few papers have been considered in literature about the temperature effect.
Maheri et al. [62] compared the effect of the temperature on the stiffness and the
damping of two composites with thermoplastic matrices and two composites with
thermosetting matrices reinforced by carbon fibres. The properties were derived
from the flexural vibrations of free-free beams, for temperatures going from 200
C to 300 C, depending on the glass transition temperature of the materials. Only
fibre orientations equal to 0 and 90 were considered. The experimental results
obtained show that the dynamic properties are appreciably kept near to the
temperature of glass transition, where damping increases sharply in a low interval
of temperature.
Works on the effect of temperature, were also achieved recently by Benchek-
chou et al. [63], and Gibson [64], then by Zhang et al. [65]. The results obtained
confirm the experimental analysis of Maheri et al. [62].
Melo and Radford [66] studied the evaluation of time and temperature on the
viscoelastic properties of unidirectional reinforced laminates and cross-ply lami-
nates with carbon fibres.
Recently, works have been implemented by Sefrani and Berthelot [67] to study
the temperature effect on damping and bending modulus, for temperatures higher
than room temperature, of glass fibre composites with low glass transition tempe-
rature of the matrix. Some of the results are reported in this section.
6.7.2 Materials and Experiment
The experimental study was achieved in the case of glass fibre composites con-
sidered in Sections 6.2 and 6.3.
To analyze the temperature effect, tests were carried out over a range of tempe-
rature from room temperature using a regulated oven. The beam specimen was
placed in a clamping block inside the oven and the excitation of the flexural
vibrations of the specimen beam was induced by using a light carbon rod fixed to
the output of a vibration electromagnetic exciter. The beam response was detected
across a glass window by using a laser vibrometer and the analysis was imple-
mented by the procedure developed in Section 6.2.4.
Figure 6.29 reports the frequency response of the specimen beams obtained for
three different temperatures in the case of 30 fibre orientation. These responses
show peaks which correspond to the natural frequencies of the flexural vibrations
of the beams. For temperature (25 C) near room temperature the material
damping is low and the frequency peaks are clearly separated. In this case the
damping can be deduced from the half-power bandwidth. The frequency
bandwidth increases when the test temperature is increased. For high temperature
the damping is important and the frequency response of a given peak has an
Frequency (HZ)
0 50 100 150 200
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
d
B
)
-200
-180
-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
25 C
50 C
70 C
Temperature (C)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

d
a
m
p
i
n
g

(
%
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Temperature (C)
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5

FIGURE 6.29. Temperature influence on the frequency responses of unidirectional glass
fibre composites, for 30 fibre orientation.

influence on the nearest peaks. So, for the analysis of the frequency response it is
necessary to analyze the beam response with the procedure considered in Section
6.2.4.
6.7.3. Experimental results
6.7.3.1. Matrix Properties
Figure 6.30 reports the experimental results deduced from the flexural vibra-
tions of matrix beams, as function of the temperature. A damping peak is obser-
ved for the glass transition temperature around 80C, when the stiffness of the
matrix decreases in the range of the temperatures considered.

FIGURE 6.30. Variations of the bending modulus and damping of the matrix with
temperature.
6.7.3.2 Composite Properties
The experimental results obtained for the variations in the frequency of the
bending modulus and damping of the glass fibre composites are given for differ-
rent temperatures in Figures 6.31 to 6.33, for three fibre orientations: 0 (Figure
6.31), 45 (Figure 6.32) and 90 (Figure 6.33). For a given fibre orientation and a
given temperature, it is observed an increase of the bending modulus and an
increase of damping with frequency within the domain under consideration.
The variation of the bending modulus with temperature is then given in Figures
6.34 to 6.36, for a frequency of 100 Hz and for the three fibre directions. From the
present results it is observed a significant shift in the value of the temperature of
the damping peak with respect to fibre orientation: 100C for 0 fibre orientation,
90C for 45 orientation and 80C for 90 orientation. So it seems that the value
of glass transition temperature of composites depends on fibre orientation. This
phenomenon was observed by Maheri et al. [62] in the case of PEEK composites.
Furthermore, in polymers shear damping is greater than damping in tension-
compression and polymer damping depends on the fractions of tension-com-
pression energy and shear energy. So in a composite, the structural configuration
that generates the maximum fraction of total strain energy due to shear will
produce the greatest damping. It results that the shift in the damping peak with
changing fibre orientation may be due to the change in strain energy distribution.
The E-glass fibres keep their mechanical characteristics up to temperatures of
the order of 200C. For 0 fibre direction the bending modulus deduced from the
bending vibrations of beams is identical to the longitudinal modulus of the
unidirectional materials. This modulus can be evaluated using the law of
mixtures. The results obtained are reported in figure 6.34 until 90C considering
the variation of the matrix modulus with temperature reported in figure 6.30. In
fact the participation of the matrix to the longitudinal modulus is very low. The
results obtained in the range of temperatures considered are very similar to the
experimental results. Then, when the temperature is increased, it is observed a
sharp decrease of the bending modulus around 90-100C up to temperatures about
120C. In this range of temperatures the law of mixture is no more verified,
indicating that the matrix transfers only partially the mechanical loading to the
fibres. Next, for temperatures higher than 120C, it is observed a stabilisation of
the bending modulus.
For 90 fibre direction the bending modulus of beams gives the transverse
modulus of the unidirectional materials. This modulus can be evaluated using the
procedure considered in [1, 2]. The results obtained are reported in figure 6.36.
The results are similar to the experimental results in the range of temperatures
considered.
The variation of the bending modulus of the beams with fibre orientation can
be derived from Expression (3.12) and relations reported in Table 1.1 of Chapter
1. The results obtained for a frequency of 100 Hz are reported in Figure 6.36 and
show a good estimation of the experimental results.

FIGURE 6.31. Experimental results obtained a) for the bending modulus and b) for the
damping, as functions of the frequency and for different temperatures, in the case of glass
fibre composites with 0 fibre orientation.
Frequency (Hz)
0 100 200 300 400 500
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
25 C
50 C
70 C
90 C
100 C
120 C
130 C
150 C
110 C
Frequency (Hz)
0 100 200 300 400 500
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
25 C
50 C
70 C
90 C
100 C
110 C
120 C
130 C
150 C
(a)
(b)
Frequency (Hz)
0 100 200 300
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
50 C
70 C
90 C
100 C
25 C
Frequency (Hz)
0 100 200 300
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
25 C
50 C
70 C
90 C
100 C

(a)
(b)
0 100 200 300 400
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
25 C
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
Frequency (Hz)
50 C
70 C
90 C
100 C
Frequency (Hz)
0 100 200 300 400
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
25 C
50 C
70 C
90 C
100 C

(a)
(b)
Temperature (C)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Experience
Law of mixtures
Temperature (C)
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

d
a
m
p
i
n
g

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Temperature (C)
20 40 60 80 100 120
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Temperature (C)
20 40 60 80 100 120
S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

d
a
m
p
i
n
g

(
%
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Temperature (C)
20 40 60 80 100 120
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

E
f
x

(
G
P
a
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Experience
Evaluation [1, 2]
Temperature (C)
20 40 60 80 100 120
S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

d
a
m
p
i
n
g

(
%
)
0
10
20
30
40
50

FIGURE 6.34. Variations of the stiffness and damping of the glass fibre composites as
functions of the temperature, for a frequency of 100 Hz and for 0 fibre orientation.



FIGURE 6.37. Damping evaluation as a function of fibre orientation deduced from model-
ling using the Ritz method, for a frequency of 100 Hz, and different temperatures.
6.7.3.3 Damping Evaluation Based on the Ritz Method
The Ritz method was applied to the experimental results obtained for the
bending of beams at different temperatures. The beams were considered in the
form of plates with one edge clamped and the others free. Thus, the present eva-
luation of the beam damping takes account of the effect of the beam width. Figure
6.37 gives the results obtained for different temperatures and shows that the expe-
rimental results are fairly well described using the Ritz method. The values used
for the loss factors
11 22
, and
66
are reported in Table 6.9 as functions of
temperature.
TABLE 6.9. Loss factors
11 22
, and
66
of glass fibres laminates as functions of tempe-
rature.
Temperature (C) 25 50 60 70 90 100
( )
11
% 0.35 0.60 1.50 2.00 4.50 6.30
( )
22
% 1.30 5.00 20.5 35.0 45.0 23.0
( )
66
% 1.80 6.50 25.0 45.0 60.0 30.0

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

d
a
m
p
i
n
g

(
%
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
90 C
70 C
100 C
60 C
50 C
25 C
experience
modelling
experience
modelling
25 C
50 C
60 C
experience
modelling
experience
modelling
experience
modelling
experience
modelling
70 C
90 C
100 C
CHAPTER 7
Damping Analysis of Laminates
with Interleaved Viscoelastic Layers
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Constrained damping layers in isotropic metallic materials have been investi-
gated in literature and the results obtained show that the layers provide significant
higher damping than the initial materials. In the same way, inserting viscoelastic
layers in laminates improves significantly the damped dynamic properties of the
laminates. Moreover, the interlaminar damping concept is highly compatible with
the fabrication processes of laminated structures.
Limited analytical and experimental papers on the analysis of composite
damping with viscoelastic layers have been reported in literature [68-73]. Sara-
vanos and Pereira [68] develop a discrete-layer laminate theory for analysing the
damping of composite laminates with interlaminar damping layers. Experimen-
tally measured and predicted dynamic responses of graphite epoxy plates with co-
cured damping layers are compared to illustrate the accuracy of the theory. Liao et
al. [69] analyse the vibration-damping behaviour of unidirectional and symmetric
angle-ply laminates as well as their interleaved counterparts with a layer of PEAA
(polyethylene-co-acrylic acid) at the mid-plane. The introduction of the PEAA
layer significantly improves the damping capability of laminates. The experi-
mental results are compared with the results obtained by extending to laminate
materials the evaluation of damping performances derived by Liao and Hsu [70]
in the case of conventional constrained-layer configuration: two isotropic outer
layers and a thin viscoelastic interlayer. Shen [71] proposes a hybrid damping
design which consists of a viscoelastic layer sandwiched between piezoelectric
constraining cover sheets. The active damping component produces significant
and adjustable damping, when the passive component increases gain. A first order
shear deformation theory is used by Cupial and Niziol [72] to evaluate the natural
frequencies and loss factors of a rectangular three-layered plate with a viscoelastic
core layer and laminated faces. Simplified forms are discussed in the case of
symmetric plate and for orthotropic faces. Comparison is made between the
present shear deformation theory and simplified models. More recently the
204 Chapter 7. Damping Analysis of Laminates with Interleaved Viscoelastic Layers

damping behaviour of a 0 laminated sandwich composite beam inserted with a
viscoelastic layer was investigated by Yim et al. [73]. It is shown that the Ni-
Adams theory [39] for evaluating the damping of laminate beams can be extended
to evaluate the damping characteristics of laminated sandwich composite beams.
Results show the capability of laminated sandwich composites with embedded
viscoelastic layer to significantly enhance laminate damping.
A finite element for predicting modal damping of thick composite and
sandwich beams was developed by Plagianakos and Saravanos [74]. Previous
linear layerwise formulations [75, 76] provided the basis for developing a
discrete-layer higher order theory satisfying compatibility in interlaminar shear
stress and modal damping was calculated by modal strain energy dissipation
method. The effect of ply orientation of composite beams with interply visco-
elastic damping layers was investigated. Experimental investigation of modal
damping illustrated the accuracy of the developed formulation.
The purpose of this chapter is to extend the analysis of laminate damping deve-
loped in Section 5.5 of Chapter 5 to the case of the damping analysis of laminated
plates with viscoelastic layers. Modelling was developed in [77] and experimental
investigation was implemented in [78].
7.2 DAMPING MODELLING OF ORTHOTROPIC
LAMINATES WITH INTERLEAVED
VISCOELASTIC LAYERS
7.2.1 Laminate Configurations
Two types of laminates with viscoelastic layers were considered: laminates
with a single viscoelastic layer of thickness e
0
interleaved in the middle plane of
laminates (Figure 7.1) and laminates with two viscoelastic layers of thickness e
0

interleaved away from the middle plane (Figure 7.2). The layers of the initial
laminates are constituted of unidirectional or orthotropic materials with material
directions making an angle with the x direction oriented along the length of
plates under consideration. The total thickness of the unidirectional or orthotropic
layers is e and the interlaminar layers are assumed to have an isotropic behaviour.
This section develops an analysis of damping of rectangular plates.
7.2.2 In-plane Damping with Interleaved Viscoelastic
Layers
7.2.2.1 Case of a Single Interlaminar Viscoelastic Layer
The laminate is constituted of a unidirectional or orthotropic material of thick-
ness e in which a single viscoelastic layer of thickness e
0
is interleaved (Figure
7.1). Material directions make an angle with the plate directions.
7.2. Damping Modelling of Orthotropic Laminates with Interleaved Viscoelastic Layers 205

FIGURE 7.1. Laminate with a single viscoelastic layer.

FIGURE 7.2. Laminate with two interleaved viscoelastic layers.
According to the results established in Section 5.5 of Chapter 5, the total strain
energy stored in the laminate with the viscoelastic layers can be expressed as

11 12 22 66
2 U U U U U = + + + , (7.1)
with

ort v
, 11, 12, 22, 66.
pq pq pq
U U U pq = + = (7.2)
The energies U
11
and U
22
are the strain energies stored in tension-compression in
the material directions, U
12
is the coupling energy induced by the Poissons effect,
viscoelastic layer 2
3
1 orthotropic layer
orthotropic layer
2 h
2 e
2 e
0
e
3
1 orthotropic layer
orthotropic layer
2 2
2
e
d =
0
e
0
e
1 1
2
e
d =
middle plane
0 0
2
e
h e

= +

1 1 0
2
e
h e

= +

2 1
2
e
h =
3 2
2
e
h =
4 2 0
2
e
h e = +
5 0
2
e
h e = +
5 orthotropic layer
z

and U
66
is the strain energy stored in in-plane shear. Each energy is separated as
the strain energy
ort
pq
U stored in the orthotropic layers and the strain energy
v
pq
U
stored in the viscoelastic layer. Applying the results obtained in Section 5.5, the
energy stored in the orthotropic layers 1 and 3 (Figure 7.1) can be written as:
( )
3 3 3
ort 1 3 0 0
2
1 1 1 1
1
1 ,
12
2
11, 12, 22, 66.

M N M N
pq pq pq mn ij pq pq
m n i j
e e e
U U U A A f Q
e e
Ra
pq
= = = =

= + = +

=
(7.3)

where a is the length and R the length-to-width ratio of the plate,
1
pq
U and
3
pq
U
are the strain energies stored in layers 1 and 3, Q
pq
are the reduced stiffness
constants of the materials and f
pq
() are functions of the material directions
introduced in Section 5.5.
In the same way, the strain energy stored in the viscoelastic layer is given by:

( )
3
v 2 v v 0
v
2
1 1 1 1
1
,
12
2
11, 12, 22, 66,
M N M N
pq pq mn ij pq pq
m n i j
e
U U A A f Q
Ra
pq
= = = =
= =
=
(7.4)
where the reduced stiffness constants
v
pq
Q are expressed as:

( )
2 2
v
2 2
0
1 1
0 ,
1 1
0 0
2 1
pq
E E
E E
Q
E

=

+

(7.5)
by introducing the Youngs modulus E and the Poisson ratio of the viscoelastic
layer. This layer being considered as isotropic, the results are independent of the
direction. Thus the function ( )
v
v pq
f can be deduced by considering an
orientation equal to zero, which leads:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
v 2200 v 2002 2
11 v 12 v
v 0022 4 v 1111 2
22 v 66 v
, ,
, 4 ,
minj minj
minj minj
f C f C R
f C R f C R

= =
= =
(7.6)
In the case of a viscoelastic layer with a low thickness, Expression (7.3) shows
that the in-plane strain energy stored in the interleaved laminate is practically the
same as the strain energy stored in the material without the viscoelastic layer.

The energy dissipated by viscous damping is then expressed by:

( )
ort ort v v
, 11, 12, 22, 66,
pq pq pq pq
pq
U U U pq = + =
(7.7)
introducing the specific damping coefficients
ort
pq
of the orthotropic material
considered and the coefficients
v
pq
of the viscoelastic layer. The damping
coefficients
ort
pq
are the in-plane damping coefficients of the orthotropic layer
considered in Chapters 5 and 6. They will be simply noted
pq
. The damping of
the viscoelastic layer is related essentially to the Youngs modulus and it can be
written:

v v v v
11 22 66 v 12
, 0. = (7.8)
Next, the damping of laminated plate with a single viscoelastic layer is
evaluated by:

U
U

= . (7.9)
7.2.2.2 Case of Two Interlaminar Viscoelastic Layers
This subsection considers the case of a unidirectional or orthotropic material of
thickness e in which two viscoelastic layers of thicknesses e
0
are interleaved in
the initial material (Figure 7.2). So as to obtain a general analysis, the viscoelastic
layers are considered to be interleaved at distances d
1
and d
2
from the middle
plane, respectively. These distances will be expressed as:

1 1 2 2
, .
2 2
e e
d d = = (7.10)
As previously, the strain energy stored in the laminate with the two interleaved
viscoelastic layers can be expressed by Relations (7.1) and (7.2) where
ort
pq
U is the
strain energy stored in the orthotropic layers and
v
pq
U is the strain energy stored
in the two viscoelastic layers. The strain energy stored in the orthotropic layers 1,
3 and 5 (Figure 7.2) can be expressed as:

( )
ort 1 3 5 ort
2
1 1 1 1
1
,
2
11, 12, 22, 66,
M N M N
pq pq pq pq mn ij pq pq
m n i j
U U U U A A f D
Ra
pq
= = = =
= + + =
=
(7.11)
with

3 3 3 3
ort 3 3 0 0 0
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 2 2 .
24
pq pq
e e e e
D Q
e e e

= + + + + +

(7.12)

The strain energy stored in the two viscoelastic layers 2 and 4 (Figure 7.2) can be
written as:
( )
v v v
v
2
1 1 1 1
1
, 11, 12, 22, 66,
2
M N M N
pq mn ij pq pq
m n i j
U A A f D pq
Ra

= = = =
= =
(7.13)
with
( )
3 3
3
3
v v 0 0
1 2 1 2
2 2 ,
24
pq pq
e e e
D Q
e e

= + + + +

(7.14)
where the functions ( )
v
v pq
f are given by Expressions (7.6). In the particular
case of two viscoelastic layers which are interleaved at the same distance from the
middle plane:

1 2
2
e
d d = = , (7.15)
and the bending stiffness induced by the viscoelastic layers are simply written as:

3 3
v 3 v 0
2
12
pq pq
e e
D Q
e

= +

. (7.16)
7.2.3 Considering the Transverse Shear Effects in the
Case of a Single Interlaminar Viscoelastic Layer
Applying the previous results obtained for the in-plane damping shows that the
analysis does not describe the experimental results obtained for damping in the
case where one or two viscoelastic layers are interleaved. Indeed the in-plane
energy stored in the viscoelastic layers is too low. This observation shows that the
energy dissipation is induced by another process, which leads to consider the
transverse shear effects induced in the viscoelastic layers.
The classical laminate theory which is considered in the previous analyses does
not take account of the transverse shear effects induced in laminates. However,
the classical laminate theory allows us to evaluate the transverse shear stresses in
layers and the analysis developed in the following subsections is based on this
concept.
7.2.3.2 Transverse Shear Stresses in Layers
We consider again the case of a laminate constituted of a unidirectional or
orthotropic layer of thickness e in which a viscoelastic layer of thickness e
0
is
interleaved (Figure 7.1). The total thickness of the laminate is:

0
h e e = + . (7.17)

The in-plane stresses in the orthotropic layers are given by the relations:

ort
11 12 16
12 22 26
16 26 66
,
xx xx
yy yy
xy xy
Q Q Q
Q Q Q
Q Q Q

=

(7.18)
where the elements
ij
Q are the reduced stiffness constants of the materials expres-
sed in the (x, y) directions of the plate, which are deduced from the reduced
stiffness constants Q
ij
in the material directions, according to the relations
reported in Table 1.1 of Chapter 1. In the same way, the in-plane stresses in the
viscoelastic layer are written as:

v v
v
11 12
v v
12 22
v
66
0
0 ,
0 0
xx xx
yy yy
xy xy
Q Q
Q Q
Q

=

(7.19)
where the reduced stiffness constants are given by Relation (7.5).
The in-plane strains are expressed as functions of the transverse displacement
by the following relations:

2 2 2
0 0 0
2 2
, , 2 .
xx yy xy
z z z
x y
x y

= = =

w w w
(7.20)
Thus, the in-plane stresses in the orthotropic layers are written as:

2 2 2
ort 0 0 0
11 12 16
2 2
2 ,
xx
z Q Q Q
x y
x y

= + +

w w w
(7.21)

2 2 2
ort 0 0 0
12 22 26
2 2
2 ,
yy
z Q Q Q
x y
x y

= + +

w w w
(7.22)

2 2 2
ort 0 0 0
16 26 66
2 2
2 ,
xy
z Q Q Q
x y
x y

= + +

w w w
(7.23)
and the in-plane stresses in the viscoelastic layer are:

2 2
v v v 0 0
11 12
2 2
,
xx
z Q Q
x y

= +

w w
(7.24)

2 2
v v v 0 0
12 22
2 2
,
yy
z Q Q
x y

= +

w w
(7.25)

2
v v 0
66
2 .
xy
z Q
x y

=

w
(7.26)

The classical laminate theory neglects the transverse shear effects. However,
the transverse shear stresses in the laminate layers can be derived from the
fundamental equations of motion which can be evaluated, neglecting the inertia
terms, by using the fundamental equations:
0, ort, v,
i
i i
xy
xx xz
i
x y z

+ + = =

(7.27)
0, ort, v.
i i i
xy yy yz
i
x y z

+ + = =

(7.28)
1. xz-shear
The first equation (7.27) leads to:
ort, v,
i
i i
xy
xz xx
i
z x y

= =

(7.29)
which yields for the unidirectional or orthotropic layers:
( )
ort
ort
, ,
xz
xz
A x y z
z

=
(7.30)
with
( )
3 3 3 3
ort 0 0 0 0
11 12 66 16 26
3 2 2 3
2 3 .
xz
A Q Q Q Q Q
x x y x y y

= + + + +

w w w w
(7.31)
Integrating Relation (7.30), the transverse shear stress in the unidirectional or
orthotropic layers is written as:
( )
ort ort 2
ort
1
, .
2
xz xz
A x y z C = + (7.32)
Similarly, the transverse shear in the viscoelastic layer is given by:
( )
v v 2
v
1
, .
2
xz xz
A x y z C = + (7.33)
with

( )
3 3
v v v v 0 0
11 12 66
3 2
2 .
xz
A Q Q Q
x x y

= + +

w w
(7.34)
The constants
ort
C and
v
C in each layer are determined by considering the
continuity of the transverse shear stress at the interfaces between the viscoelastic
layer and the orthotropic layers and that the transverse shear stress vanishes on the
lower and upper faces of the laminate:

v ort 0 0
2 2
xz xz
e e

=

, (7.35)

ort
0
2
xz
h

=

. (7.36)
These conditions lead to:
( )
2
ort ort 2
1
, ,
2 4
xz xz
h
A x y z

=

(7.37)
( ) ( )
( )
2
v v 2 ort 2 2 0
0
1 1
, , .
2 4 8
xz xz xz
e
A x y z A x y h e

=

(7.38)
2. yz-shear
Equation (7.28) leads to:
, ort, v.
i i i
yz yy xy
i
z y x

= =

(7.39)
Compared to the xz-shear, the x coordinate is changed for y and the y coordinate is
changed for x. Similarly, the subscript 1 of the reduced stiffness constants is
changed for 2 and the subscript 2 for 1.
7.2.3.3 Strain Energy Stored in xz-Transverse Shear
The strain energy stored in xz-transverse shear by volume unit can be evaluated
by the relation:

2
1
, ort, v,
2
i
i xz
xz
i
xz
u i
G
= = (7.40)
in which
i
xz
G is the xz-transverse shear modulus of the layers.
1. Unidirectional or orthotropic layers
According to Relations (7.37) and (7.40), the transverse shear strain energy is
expressed as:
( )
2
2
ort ort 2 2
1 1
, ,
2 4 4
xz xz
xz
h
u A x y z
G

=

(7.41)
where
xz
G is the xz-transverse shear modulus in the direction, expressed as a
function of the transverse moduli
LT
G and
TT
G

in the material directions:

2 2
1 1 1
cos sin .
xz LT TT
G G G

= + (7.42)
The laminates considered are symmetric and the total strain energy stored in
the unidirectional or orthotropic layers is given by:

0
2 ort ort
0 0
2
2 d d d .
h
a b
xz xz
e
x y z
U u x y z
= = =
=

(7.43)

Combining Relations (7.41) and (7.43) leads to the expression of the total strain
energy which can be written in the form:
( )

5 5 3
ort ort 2
0 0
1 15
1 , d d ,
240 4 10 3 2
a b
h h h
xz xz
x y xz
h r r r
U A x y x y
G
= =

= +

(7.44)
where the ratio

0
h
e
r
h
= (7.45)
has been introduced and the coefficient ( )
ort 2
,
xz
A x y is expressed as:

( ) ( )
( )
( )
2 2 2
3 3 3
2 ort 2 2 2 0 0 0
11 12 66 16
3 2 2
2
3 3 3 3 3
2 0 0 0 0 0
26 11 12 66 11 16
3 3 2 3 2
3 3
0 0
11 26 12 66 16
3 3
, 2 9
2 2 6
2 6 2
xz
A x y Q Q Q Q
x x y x y
Q Q Q Q Q Q
y x x y x x y
Q Q Q Q Q
x y

= + + +

+ + + +

+ + +

w w w
w w w w w
w w
( )
3 3
0 0
2 2
3 3 3 3
0 0 0 0
12 66 26 16 26
2 3 2 3
2 2 6 . (7.46)
x y x y
Q Q Q Q Q
x y y x y y

+ + +

w w
w w w w

Finally, considering Relations (7.44) and (7.46), the total strain energy stored in
the unidirectional or orthotropic layers can be written as:
( ) ( )
5 5 3
ort ort
4
1 1 1 1
1 15
1 ,
240 4 10 3 2
M N M N
h h h
xz mn ij xz
xz
m n i j
h r r r
U A A F
G Ra

= = = =

= +

(7.47)
ort
xz
F is expressed as:

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 ort 2 3300 1122 4 2 2211 2 2 0033 6
11 12 66 16 26
3102 2 3201 3003 3
11 12 66 11 16 11 26
1221 3 10
12 66 16 12 66 26
2 9
2 2 6 2
6 2 2 2
xz minj minj minj minj
minj minj minj
minj minj
F Q C Q Q C R Q C R Q C R
Q Q Q C R Q Q C R Q Q C R
Q Q Q C R Q Q Q C
= + + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +

23 5
2013 4
16 26
6 .
minj
R
Q Q C R +
(7.48)
The coefficients
pqrs
minj
C have been introduced in Section 5.5 of Chapter 5 using
the Ritz method, for p, q, r, s
=
0, 1 and 2, to evaluate the integrals of the form:

2 2
0 0
0 0
d d
a b
p q r s
x y
x y
x y x y = =

w w
. (7.49)

The formulation can be extended to the present analysis for p, q, r, s equal to 3.
Thus, the coefficients
pqrs
minj
C are expressed as:
,
pqrs pq rs
nj minj mi
C I J = (7.50)
introducing the dimensionless integrals:

1
0
, 1, 2 . . . ,
d d
d ,
, 0 ,1, 2, 3,
d d
p q
pq m i
mi
p q
m i M
X X
I u
p q
u u
=
=
=
(7.51)

1
0
d , 1, 2 . . . ,
d
d ,
, 0, 1, 2, 3,
d d
s
r
j
rs n
nj
r s
Y n j N
Y
J v
r s
v v
=
=
=
(7.52)
where X(x) and Y(y) are the functions introduced in Expression (4.24) of Chapter
4 which gives the transverse displacement at point (x, y) of the laminated plate.
The integrals
pq
mi
I and
rs
nj
J are calculated using the reduced coordinates u
=
x/a
and v
=
y/b, where a and b are the length and the width of the plate, respectively.
2. Viscoelastic layer
The transverse shear strain energy stored by volume unit in the viscoelastic
layer is given by:

2
v
1
,
2
xz
xz
u
G
= (7.53)
where G is the shear modulus of the viscoelastic layer:

( )
v
66
.
2 1
E
G Q
= =
+
(7.54)
Introducing Expression (7.38) of the transverse shear stress, the transverse shear
strain energy can be rewritten as:
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
v v 2 ort 2 2 0
0
1 1 1
, , .
2 4 4 4
xz xz xz
e
u A x y z A x y h e
G

=

(7.55)
The total strain energy stored in the viscoelastic layer is then obtained by the
relation:

0
2 v v
0 0 0
2 d d d
e
a b
xz xz
x y z
U u x y z
= = =
=

, (7.56)
which leads to :

( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )

5
v v 2 0
0 0
5
2
2 ort 2
0 0
5
2 3 v ort
0 0
1
, d d
4 60
1 , d d
32
1 , , d d .
24
a b
xz xz
x y
a b
h h xz
x y
a b
h h xz xz
x y
e
U A x y x y
G
h
r r A x y x y
h
r r A x y A x y x y
= =
= =
= =

(7.57)
The coefficient ( )
ort 2
,
xz
A x y is expressed by (7.46) and the two other coefficients
are given by

( )
( )
( )
2 2
3 3
2
v2 v2 v v 0 0
12 66
11
3 2
3 3
v v 0 0
12 12 66
3 2
, 2
2 2 ,
xz
v
A x y Q Q Q
x x y
Q Q Q
x x y

= + +

+ +

w w
w w
(7.58)
and

( ) ( )
( )
( )
v ort
2
3 3 3
v v 0 0 0
11 11 11 12 66
3 3 2
3 3 3 3
v v 0 0 0 0
11 16 11 26
3 2 3 3
3 3
v v 0 0
12 66 11 12
2 3
, ,
2
3 (7.59)
2
xz xz
A x y A x y
Q Q Q Q Q
x x x y
Q Q Q Q
x x y x y
Q Q Q Q
x y x
=

+ +

+ + +

+ + +

w w w
w w w w
w w
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
3
v v 0
66 12 66
2
3 3 3 3
v v v v 0 0 0 0
12 66 16 12 66 26
2 2 2 3
2 2
3 2 2 .
Q Q Q
x y
Q Q Q Q Q Q
x y x y x y y

+ +

+ + + +

w
w w w w

As considered previously, the integrals in Expression (7.57) can be evaluated
considering the Ritz method, and the expression of the total shear strain energy
stored in the viscoelastic layer can be expressed in the form:

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
5
2
v 5 v 2 v
1 2
4
1 1 1 1
3
2 v
3
1
1
60 32
4
1 ,
24
M N M N
h h
xz mn ij xz h xz
m n i j
h
h xz
r r
U h A A F r F
GRa
r
r F

= = = =
= +
(7.60)
where the functions
v
xzi
F are given by:
( )
( ) ( )
2
v2 v v v v v v 3300 1122 4 3102 2
1
11 12 66 11 12 66
2 2 2 ,
xz minj minj minj
F Q C Q Q C R Q Q Q C R = + + + + (7.61)

( ) ( )
v ort
2
,
xz xz
F F = (7.62)
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )

v v v v v 3300 3102 2
3 11 12 66 11
11 11 12 66
v v v v 3201 3003 3 1122 4
16 26 12 66
11 11 12 66
v v v v 1221 3 1023 5
16 26
12 66 12 66
2 2
3 2 2
3 2 2 .
xz minj minj
minj minj minj
minj minj
F Q Q C Q Q Q Q Q Q C R
Q Q C R Q Q C R Q Q Q Q C R
Q Q Q C R Q Q Q C R

= + + + +

+ + + + +
+ + + + (7.63)

7.2.3.4 Strain Energy Stored in yz-Transverse Shear
Compared to the xz-transverse shear (previous subsection), the x coordinate is
changed for y coordinate, the y coordinate is changed for x coordinate and the
directions 1 and 2 are interchanged.
7.2.3.5 Laminate Damping with a Single Interleaved Viscoelastic
Layer Including the Transverse Shear Effects
The total strain energy stored in the laminate with a viscoelastic layer can be
written as:

ort v ort ort v v
p p
.
xz yz xz yz
U U U U U U U = + + + + + (7.64)
The strain energy
ort
p
U is the in-plane strain energy stored in the orthotropic
layers deduced from expression (7.3). This energy can be written as:

ort ort ort ort ort
p 11 12 22 66
2 . U U U U U = + + + (7.65)
The in-plane strain energy
v
p
U stored in the viscoelastic layer is deduced from
Expression (7.4). The strain energies stored in transverse shear have been evalua-
ted in the preceding subsections.
The specific damping coefficient () of the laminate can thus be evaluated by
the relation:

p p s s
v ort v ort
( ) = + + + , (7.66)
where

( )
p ort ort ort ort
11 11 12 12 22 22 66 66 ort
1
2 U U U U
U
= + + + , (7.67)

p
p v
v v
U
U
= , (7.68)

( )
s ort ort ort ort
ort
1
,
xz xz yz yz
U U
U
= + (7.69)

v v
s
v v
.
xz yz
U U
U

+
= (7.70)

These expressions introduce the specific damping coefficients
ort
xz
and
ort
yz

characterising the transverse shear energy dissipated in the unidirectional or
orthotropic layers. For unidirectional materials these coefficients can be assi-
milated with the in-plane shear coefficient:

ort ort
66 xz yz
= = . (7.71)
7.2.4 Considering the Transverse Shear Effects in the
Case of Two Interlaminar Viscoelastic Layer
7.2.4.1 Case of a Symmetric Laminate
We consider the case of a unidirectional or orthotropic material in which two
viscoelastic layers are interleaved at a distance d from the middle plane (Figure
7.3). The thicknesses of the viscoelastic layers are e
0
and the total thickness of the
orthotropic layers is e. Moreover, it will be noted:
( )
0
0 1 0
, 2 , 2 ,
2 2 2
e
e e e e
d h e e d d e r
e

= = + = + = + = +

(7.72)
introducing the thickness ratio:

0
2
e
e
r
e
= . (7.73)

FIGURE 7.3. Laminate with two viscoelastic layers interleaved at the same distance from
the middle plane.
z
3
1 orthotropic layer
orthotropic layer
2
e
d =
0
e
0
e
2
e
d =
middle
plane
5 orthotropic layer
1
d
1
d
2
h

2
h


Thus, the laminate is symmetric and constituted for the upper part by a unidi-
rectional or orthotropic layer for 0 z d , a viscoelastic layer for
1
d z d and
a unidirectional or orthotropic layer for
1
2 d z h .
7.2.4.2. Transverse Shear Stresses in the (x, z) Plane
The transverse shear stresses in the (x, z) plane are expressed again by Expres-
sions (7.32) and (7.33) in the unidirectional or orthotropic layers and the visco-
elastic layers, respectively. These stresses have to satisfy the vanishing conditions
on the laminate faces and the continuity conditions at the interfaces between the
viscoelastic layers and the orthotropic layers:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
ort
ort v
v ort
1 1
0,
2
,
.
xz
xz xz
xz xz
h
d d
d d

=

=
=
(7.74)
Applied to the upper half of the laminate, these conditions lead to:
upper unidirectional or orthotropic layer,
1
2 d z h :
( )
2
ort ort 2
1
, ,
2 4
xz xz
h
A x y z

=

(7.75)
viscoelastic layer,
1
d z d :
( )
( )
( )
2
v v 2 2 ort 2
1 1
1 1
, , ,
2 2 4
xz xz xz
h
A x y z d A x y d

=

(7.76)
lower unidirectional or orthotropic layer, 0 z d :
( ) ( ) [ ]
2
ort ort 2 v
0
1 1
, 1 2 1 .
2 4 2 2
e
xz xz e xz
e r
A x y z r A ee

= + +

(7.77)
7.2.4.3. Transverse Shear Energies in the (x, z) Plane
1. Energy stored in the upper and lower orthotropic layers
The total strain energy stored in the orthotropic layers by transverse shear
effects in the (x, z) plane is given by:

1
2 ort ort
1
0 0
2 d d d ,
h
a b
xz xz
x y z d
U u x y z
= = =
=

(7.78)
where
ort
xz
u is the strain energy stored in the volume unit of the layers:

ort 2
ort
,
2
xz
xz
xz
u
G
= (7.79)
the transverse shear stress being expressed by Relation (7.75). Thus, the strain
energy stored in the upper and lower layers is given by:

5 5 3
ort ort 2 1 1 1
1
0 0
1
1 60 d d ,
240 5 6 16
a b
d d d
xz xz
x y xz
h r r r
U A x y
G
= =

= +

(7.80)
in which the following ratio is introduced:

1 0
1
1
.
2 1
e
d
e
d d e r
r
h h r
+ +
= = =
+
(7.81)
Using the Ritz method, the strain energy (7.80) is written as:
( )
5 5 3
ort ort 1 1 1
1
4
1 1 1 1
1
1 60 ,
240 5 6 16
M N M N
d d d
xz mn ij xz
xz
m n i j
h r r r
U A A F
G Ra

= = = =

= +

(7.82)
ort
xz
F was introduced in (7.48).
2. Energy stored in the viscoelastic layers
The total strain energy stored in the viscoelastic layers by transverse shear
effects in the (x, z) plane is expressed as:

1
v v
0 0
2 d d d ,
a b d
xz xz
x y z d
U u x y z
= = =
=

(7.83)
in which
v
xz
u is the strain energy stored in the volume unit of the viscoelastic
layers:

v2
v
,
2
xz
xz
u
G
= (7.84)
the transverse shear stress being expressed by Relation (7.76). Hence, the strain
energy (7.83) is given by:

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
5
v 5 5 3 v 2
1 1 1 1
0 0
2
2 3 v ort 1
1 1 1
0 0

2
2 ort 2
1 1 1
0 0
1 8 15 2
1 ,
4 15 8 3
1 3
1 4 1 1 , ,
3 2 3
1
1 4 1 ,
16
a b
xz d xz
x y
a b
d d xz xz
x y
a b
d d xz
x y
h
U r r r r A x y dx dy
G
r
r r r A x y A x y dx dy
r r r A x y dx dy
= =
= =
= =

= +

+

,

(7.85)
where

1
1
.
e
d
r
d r
= =
+
(7.86)
Considering the Ritz method, the strain energy (7.85) can be expressed as:

( )
{
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )}
v 5 5 5 3 v
1 1 1 1 1
4
1 1 1 1
3
2 3 v 1
1 1 1 3
2
2 ort
1 1 1
1 8 15 2
1
15 8 3
4
1 3
1 4 1
3 2 3
1 1 , (7.87)
M N M N
xz mn ij d xz
m n i j
d d xz
d d xz
U h A A r r r r F
GRa
r
r r r F
r r r F
= = = =

= +

+

+

where the functions ( )
v
1 xz
F and ( )
v
3 xz
F have been introduced in (7.61) and
(7.63), respectively.
3. Energy stored in the middle unidirectional or orthotropic layer
The evaluation of the total strain energy stored in the middle orthotropic layer
by transverse shear effects in the (x, z) plane leads to:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) ( )
5
ort 5
2
4 2
1 1 1 1
ort
4
2 2
4 v v
3 1
1 10 1
1 1 1
160 3
4
1
5 1 1
3 1 1 1 .
24 2 8 2
M N M N
xz mn ij e
xz
m n i j
e xz
e e e e
e xz xz
U e A A r
G Ra
r F
r r r r
r F F

= = = =

= +
+ +

+ + + + +

(7.88)
7.2.4.4. Transverse Shear Energies in the (y, z) Plane
The transverse shear energies stored by shear effects in the (y, z) plane are
transposed from Expressions (7.78) to (7.88) by changing the functions
xz
F for
the functions
yz
F deduced from Relations (7.61) and (7.63) by introducing the
correspondence of Subsection 7.2.3.4.
7.2.4.5. Laminate Damping with Two Interleaved Viscoelastic
Layers Including the Transverse Shear Effects
The total strain energy stored in the laminate with two interleaved viscoelastic
layers can be written as:

ort v ort ort v v ort ort
p p 1 1 2 2
.
xz yz xz yz xz yz
U U U U U U U U U = + + + + + + + (7.89)

The strain energy
ort
p
U is the in-plane strain energy stored in the orthotropic
layers expressed in Subsection 7.2.2.2. This energy can be written in the form
(7.65) introducing the energies:

ort 1 3 5
, 11, 12, 22, 66,
pq pq pq pq
U U U U pq = + + = (7.90)
given by Relation (7.11). The in-plane strain energy
v
p
U stored in the viscoelastic
layers is given by Relation (7.13). The strain energies stored in transverse shear
have been evaluated in the preceding subsections.
The specific damping coefficient of the laminate can thus be evaluated by
Expression (7.66) introducing the coefficients:

( )
p ort ort ort ort
11 11 12 12 22 22 66 66 ort
1
2 U U U U
U
= + + + (7.91)

p
p v
v v
U
U
= , (7.92)

( ) ( )
s ort ort ort ort ort ort
ort 1 2 1 2
1
,
xz xz xz yz yz yz
U U U U
U

= + + +

(7.93)

v v
s
v v
.
xz yz
U U
U

+
= (7.94)
As previously in the case of a single interleaved viscoelastic layer, the coefficients
ort
xz
and
ort
yz
can be assimilated with the in-plane shear damping coefficient of
materials (Equation (7.71)).
7.2.5 Application to Angle-Ply Laminates
The previous modelling considered in the case of unidirectional or orthotropic
laminates can also be applied to evaluate the damping properties of
[ ]
angle-
ply laminates with interleaved viscoelastic layers. The reduced stiffness constants
of and layers are related by the expressions:

11 11 12 12 16 16
22 22 26 26 66 66
, , ,
, , ,
Q Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q Q

+ + +
+ + +
= = =
= = =
(7.95)
where
ij
Q
+
are the reduced stiffness constants of layers expressed in the beam
directions (Table 1.1 of Chapter 1). Compared to the orthotropic laminates, only
the stiffness constants
16
Q and
26
Q are changed. Thus, the in-plane stresses in the
layers are deduced from Expressions (7.21) to (7.25) by changing
16
Q and
26
Q by
16
Q and
26
Q , respectively. Then, the transverse shear stresses in the
laminate layers are derived from Equations (7.27) and (7.28). The integration of
the stresses through the thickness of the laminate layers introduces constants

which are determined by considering the vanishing conditions of the transverse
shear stresses on the laminate faces and the continuity conditions at the interfaces
between the viscoelastic layers and the orthotropic layers as well as between
layers and layers. Next the evaluation of the different strain energies and the
laminate damping are derived following the procedure previously implemented in
the case of orthotropic layers. The in-plane energies and damping are expressed
following the results reported in Section 5.5.2 of Chapter 5. The final results for
the damping depend on the type of angle-ply laminates.
More generally, the modelling can be applied to an arbitrary laminate.
7.2.6 Laminates with External Viscoelastic Layers
Increase of the damping capacity of composite laminates can be achieved by
the application of damping layers to the surfaces of the laminates after fabrication
(Figure 7.4). In this case the laminate damping can be derived by considering the
in-plane energies as evaluated in Subsection 7.2.2. The damping of laminates with
two external viscoelastic layers of thicknesses
0
2 e is given by expressions (7.9)
and the strain energies are modified according the following relations:
strain energy stored in the orthotropic layers:

( )
3
ort
2
1 1 1 1
1
,
12
2
11, 12, 22, 66,
M N M N
pq mn ij pq pq
m n i j
e
U A A f Q
Ra
pq
= = = =
=
=
(7.96)

FIGURE 7.4. Laminate with two external viscoelastic layers.
viscoelastic layer
orthotropic layer
e
0
2 e
0
2 e
middle plane
viscoelastic layer
z

strain energy stored in the viscoelastic layers:

( )
3 3
v v v 0
v
2
1 1 1 1
1
1 1 ,
12
2
11, 12, 22, 66.
M N M N
pq mn ij pq pq
m n i j
e
e
U A A f Q
e
Ra
pq
= = = =

= +

=
(7.97)
The functions
pq
f are expressed in Section 5.5 of Chapter 5 and the functions
v
pq
f are given by Expressions (7.6).
7.2.7 Choice of the Basis Functions of the Ritz Method
The solution to the governing equations of a problem of structural mechanics
has to satisfy the boundary conditions which are separated in two classes: the
essential and natural boundary conditions. The essential boundary conditions, also
called geometric boundary conditions, correspond to prescribed displacements
and rotations. The natural boundary conditions are also called the force boundary
conditions and correspond to prescribed forces and moments.
The effect of the natural boundary conditions is included as a potential in the
expression of the total potential energy (the functional) of the system under consi-
deration. Hence the natural boundary conditions are implicitly contained in the
functional, whereas the essential boundary conditions are stated separately. From
this important consideration, it results that, in the Ritz method, the trial functions
only need to satisfy the essential boundary conditions and not the natural boun-
dary conditions. The reason for this relaxed requirement on the trial functions is
that the stationarity conditions of the total potential energy minimizes the
violation of the internal equilibrium requirements induced by the approximation
(4.24) considered for the transverse displacement, and thus minimizes the
violation of the natural boundary conditions. Actually, it can be expected that in
most cases the approximate solution will be more accurate if the trial functions
also satisfy the natural boundary conditions. However, it is observed that it is
more effective in some cases to use rather a larger number of functions that only
satisfy the essential boundary conditions.
The analysis of the damping which includes the transverse shear effects of the
viscoelastic layers, considered in this section, was applied to the experimental
results reported in the next section. First, the beam functions (Section 3.4 of
Chapter 3), which satisfy the essential and natural boundary conditions, were used
as trial functions of the transverse displacement. Considering the results deduced
from this analysis leads to questioning on the conditioning of these trial functions.
A more extended analysis has shown that the evaluation of the integrals of these
beam functions was confronted to singularity problems when some of the
integrals I
i3
(i = 0, 1, 2, 3) were calculated. So, this fact leads us to consider
polynomials which are a simple and convenient way to construct the trial
functions. Thus, we introduced polynomials of the form:
along the length of beams or plates in the x direction (clamped end-free end
or clamped edge-free edge):
7.3. Experimental Investigation of Unidirectional Laminates with Viscoelastic Layers 223

1
( ) , , 1,
i
i
x
X u u u i
a
+
= = (7.98)
along the width of beams or plates in the y direction (free edges):

( )
1
1
, , 1.
2
j
j
y
Y j
b

= =

v v v (7.99)
These functions satisfy the essential boundary conditions of beams or plates. They
do not satisfy the natural boundary conditions.
The analysis of damping including the transverse shear effects and considering
the previous polynomials shows however a tendency to be ill conditioned when
the number of functions used for the transverse displacement is increased. A
complete study would need to implement an extensive analysis of the condi-
tioning problem. The results reported hereafter in the next sections were obtained
by considering 16 terms (M
=
N
=
4) in the transverse displacement series
(Equation (4.24)).
7.3 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF DAMPING
OF UNIDIRECTIONAL LAMINATES WITH
INTERLEAVED VISCOELASTIC LAYERS
7.3.1 Materials
The materials investigated are the unidirectional glass fibre composites, consi-
dered in Section 6.2 of Chapter 6, in which a single or two viscoelatic layers were
interleaved. The volume fraction of fibres is equal to 0.40 and the nominal
thickness e of the unidirectional layers is 2.4 mm. The engineering constants and
the modal loss factors (related to the specific damping coefficients by relation:
2 = ) referred to the material directions were evaluated in Section 6.2 and are
reported in Table 7.1. The viscoelastic layers are constituted of Neoprene based
layers of nominal thickness e
0

=
0.2 mm. Three types of laminates have been
investigated: a laminate with a single viscoelastic layer of thickness e
0
interleaved
in the middle plane (Figure 7.1), a laminate with a single viscoelastic layer of
thickness 2e
0
in the middle plane and a laminate with two viscoelastic layers of

TABLE 7.1. Properties of the glass fibre composites without viscoelastic layers.
E
L

(GPa)
E
T

(GPa)
G
LT

(GPa)
LT

11
,
L

(%)
22
,
T

(%)
66
,
LT

(%)
29.9 5.85 2.45 0.24 0.40 1.50 2.00

thickness e
0
interleaved at the distance e/2 from the middle plane (Figue 7.2).
Plates were hand laid up and cured at room temperature with a pressure of 70 kPa
using vacuum moulding process.
In the case of a single interleaved viscoelastic layer, the nominal thickness of
the laminates is 2.6 mm with a weight of 3.7 kgm
2
. Interleaving two viscoelastic
layers leads to a laminate thickness of 2.8 mm with a weight of 3.85 kgm
2
. Alu-
minium spacers of the same thicknesses as the viscoelastic layers were added in
the root section between the unidirectional layers. Beam specimens were next cut
from the plates and the damping properties were measured for different orient-
tations of the fibres.
The material damping was deduced from impulse tests using the experimental
procedure described in Section 6.2 of Chapter 6. The experimental evaluation of
damping was performed on beams 20 mm wide of different lengths: 160, 180 and
200 mm, so as to have a variation of the values of the natural frequencies of the
beams. Only the first two modes were considered. Figures 7.5, 7.6 and 7.7 report
the experimental results obtained for the beam damping as function of the fibre
orientation for the three beam lengths (Figures 7.5a, 7.6a and 7.7a) and the beam
damping as function of the frequency for the different fibre orientations (Figures
7.5b, 7.6b and 7.7b). The results are given in the case of laminates with a single
viscoelastic layer of thickness e
0

=
0.2 mm (Figure 7.5), laminates with a single
viscoelastic layer of thickness e
0

=
0.4 mm (Figure 7.6) and laminates with two
viscoelastic layers of thicknesses e
0

=
0.2 mm (Figure 7.7). The experimental
results obtained for the unidirectional materials without viscoelastic layers are
also reported (Figures 7.5a, 7.6a and 7.7a). The experimental results show that the
damping of laminates increases significantly upon interleaving a single or two
viscoelastic layers. The fibre orientation dependence of damping appears some-
what similar to that of the laminates without viscoelastic layers, but with a
damping maximum which is moved from 60 fibre orientation to 30 fibre orient-
tation when viscoelastic layers are interleaved. Moreover in contrast to the non-
interleaved laminates, damping increases significantly with frequency depending
on the vibration mode. In the case of a single viscoelastic layer interleaved in the
middle plane, the laminate damping is increased all the more since the viscoelastic
layer is thick. The damping of laminate with two interleaved viscoelastic layers of
thicknesses e
0
is lower (about 1.6 time) than the one measured in the case of
laminate with a single viscoelastic layer of thickness 2e
0
, when the damping is
fairly similar to the damping of laminate with a single layer of thickness e
0
. This
results from the fact that the energy is essentially dissipated by transverse shear of
the viscoelastic layers and the associated energy is maximum in the middle plane
of laminates.

FIGURE 7.5. Experimental results obtained in the case of glass fibre composites with a
single viscoelastic layer of thickness 0.2 mm interleaved in the middle plane and for three
lengths of the test specimens: a) laminate damping as function of the fibre orientation and
b) laminate damping as function of the frequency.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
without viscoelastic layer
l =160 mm
l =180 mm
l =200 mm

Frequency (Hz)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
1
2
3
4
5
6
= 0
2nd mode
= 15
= 30
= 45
= 60
= 75
= 90
= 0
= 15
= 30
= 45
= 60
= 75
= 90
1st mode
(a)
(b)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)

0
2
4
6
8
10
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
l =160 mm
l =180 mm
l =200 mm

Frequency (Hz)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
= 0
2nd mode
= 15
= 30
= 45
= 60
= 75
= 90
= 0
= 15
= 30
= 45
= 60
= 75
= 90
1st mode
(a)
(b)

FIGURE 7.6. Experimental results obtained in the case of glass fibre composites with a
single viscoelastic layer of thickness 0.4 mm interleaved in the middle plane and for three
lengths of the test specimens: a) laminate damping as function of the fibre orientation and
b) laminate damping as function of the frequency.

FIGURE 7.7. Experimental results obtained in the case of glass fibre composites with two
viscoelastic layer of thickness 0.2 mm interleaved away from the middle plane and for
three lengths of the test specimens: a) laminate damping as function of the fibre
orientation and b) laminate damping as function of the frequency.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
l =160 mm
l =180 mm
l =200 mm

Frequency (Hz)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
= 0
2nd mode
= 15
= 30
= 45
= 60
= 75
= 90
= 0
= 15
= 30
= 45
= 60
= 75
= 90
1st mode
(a)
(b)

Frequency (Hz)
10 100 1000
Y
o
u
n
g
'
s

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
M
P
a
)
35
40
60
50
50 500
70
80
7.3.3 Analysis of the Experimental Results
7.3.3.1 Dynamic Properties of the Viscoelastic Layers
In the case of laminates with interleaved viscoelastic layers, the laminate
damping is evaluated by the modelling developed in Section 7.2. This evaluation
needs to obtain the values of the Youngs modulus and the loss factors of the
viscoelastic layers. These characteristics depend on the frequency and are gene-
rally derived according to the standard ASTM E 756 [79]. Following this
standard, the damping characteristics of the viscoelastic material were evaluated
from the flexural vibrations of a clamped-free beam 10 mm wide and constituted
of two aluminium beams with a layer of the viscoelastic material interleaved
between the aluminium beams. An aluminium spacer was added in the root
section between the two aluminium beams of the test specimens. The roots were
machined as part of the aluminium beams to obtain a root section 40 mm long and
10 mm high and then the root section was closely clamped in a rigid fixture. The
free length and the thicknesses of the aluminium beams were selected so as to
measure the damping characteristics on the frequency range [50, 600 Hz] consi-
dered in the case of the experimental analysis of interleaved laminates (Subsection
7.3.2). Thus, the beam dimensions used were a free length varying from 200 to
300 mm, a thickness of the viscoelastic layer of 0.2 mm and thicknesses of
aluminium beams of 1 mm. The Youngs modulus of the viscoelastic layer was
deduced from the natural frequencies of the test specimens and the loss factor was
evaluated by applying the results of the modelling considered in Section 7.2 to the
case of the aluminium-viscoelastic layer laminates.
Figures 7.8 and 7.9 report the experimental results obtained, using logarithmic
scales for the Youngs modulus and for the frequency. In the frequency range

FIGURE 7.8. Frequency dependence of the Youngs modulus of the viscoelastic layers.

Frequency (Hz)
10 100 1000
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34

FIGURE 7.9. Frequency dependence of the loss factor of the viscoelastic layers.
studied, it is observed linear variations for the logarithm of the Youngs modulus
and for the loss factor of the viscoelastic material. The results of Figures 7.8 and
7.9 lead to:

v v
log 0.106log 1.52, (MPa), E f E = + (7.100)
for the variation of the Youngs modulus of the viscoelastic layer with the
frequency, and:

v v
39.4 5.56log , (%) f = , (7.101)
for the loss factor of the viscoelastic material.
7.3.3.2 Damping of the Glass Fibre Laminates with Interleaved
Viscoelastic Layers
The loss factor of the glass fibre laminates with interleaved viscoelastic layers
was derived from the modelling (Section 7.2) and the results obtained are com-
pared with the experimental results in Figures 7.10, 7.11 and 7.12, for the first two
modes of the test specimens:
in the case of a single interleaved viscoelastic layer 0.2 mm thick, for the
different free lengths of the test specimens l
=
160 mm (Figure 7.10a), l
=
180 mm
(Figure 7.10b) and l
=
200 mm (Figure 7.10c);
in the case of a single interleaved viscoelastic layer 0.4 mm thick, for the
=
=
180 mm
=
200 mm (Figure 7.11c);
in the case of two interleaved viscoelastic layers 0.2 mm thick, for the
=
=
180 mm
=
200 mm (Figure 7.12c).

FIGURE 7.10. Comparison between the experimental results and the results deduced from
the modelling, in the case of a single viscoelastic layer 0.2 mm thick, for test specimen
lengths of : a) l = 160 mm, b) l = 180 mm, c) l = 200 mm.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment
(a)
(b)
(c)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment
(a)
(b)
(c)

the modelling, in the case of a single viscoelastic layer 0.4 mm thick, for test specimen

the modelling, in the case of two viscoelastic layers 0.2 mm thick, for test specimen

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment
(b)
(c)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment
(a)
7.4. Analysis of the Experimental Results Obtained in the Case of Angle-Ply Laminates 233

It is observed that the results deduced from the modelling describe fairly well
the experimental damping variation obtained as a function of the fibre orientation.
Furthermore the modelling results corroborate that damping of laminates with two
viscoelastic layers of thicknesses e
0
introduced at the quarters of the thickness of
laminates (Figure 7.12) is equal to the damping of laminates with a single visco-
elastic layer of thickness e
0
interleaved in the middle plane (Figure 7.10).
7.4 ANALYSIS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
OBTAINED IN THE CASE OF ANGLE-PLY
LAMINATES
The experimental analysis of the effects of a viscoelastic layer was also carried
out by Liao et al. [69] in the case of carbon fibre composites. The results are
compared in this section with the results deduced from the modelling.
The laminates studied by Liao et al. are angle-ply laminates stacked into []
3s

lay-ups, the layer orientations varying from 0 to 90 in 15 intervals. The nomi-
nal thickness of the laminates was 1.50 mm with a density equal to 1560 kg/m
3
.
The properties of the unidirectional layers measured by the authors are reported in
Table 7.2. The longitudinal Youngs modulus E
L
, the longitudinal loss factor
L
,
the transverse Youngs modulus E
T
and the transverse loss factor
T
were deduced
from flexural vibration tests of the unidirectional layers with fibre orientations of
0 and 90, respectively. The longitudinal shear modulus G
LT
and the loss factor
LT
were derived from the low frequency (1 Hz) torsional response of a unidi-
rectional 0 laminate.
The laminates with a viscoelastic layer were fabricated interleaving a layer
0.10 mm in thickness of PEAA (copolymer of ethylene and acrylic acid). The
properties of this material were studied by Liao et al. [70], establishing the master
curves of the shear modulus and loss factor as functions of the frequency.
The damping properties of the interleaved laminates were derived from
flexural vibration testing of cantilever beams. The effective beam length was 180
mm with a width equal to 10 mm. The experimental results obtained for the loss
factor of the laminates are shown in figure 7.13. The results obtained for the first
three modes are reported for the specimens with ply angle of 0 and 15, when
results from all resonance modes below 1600 Hz are reported except those of the
first mode for the other orientations.
Figure 7.14 compares the experimental results obtained by Liao et al. in the
case of angle-ply laminates without viscoelastic layers with the results deduced
from the modelling considered in Section 5.5.2 of Chapter 5. The best fitting

TABLE 7.2. Properties measured on the unidirectional layers of carbon fibre composites
(Liao et al. (69)).
E
L

(GPa)
E
T

(GPa)
G
LT

(GPa)
LT

11
,
L

(%)
22
,
T

(%)
66
,
LT

(%)
110 8.6 6.0 0.28 0.14 0.66 0.80

FIGURE 7.13. Loss factors measured by Liao et al. (69) as function of the layer direction
: a) in the case of angle-ply []
3s
carbon fibre laminates, b) with a single interleaved
viscoelastic layer.
between modelling and experimental results is obtained with

11 22 66
0.18 %, 0.52%, 0.85%.
L T LT
= = = = = = (7.102)
These values are fairly similar to the ones obtained by Liao et al. (Table 7.2). It is
observed that the damping of carbon fibre laminates is notably lower than
damping of glass fibre laminates.

Frequency (Hz)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
(a)
Frequency (Hz)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
(b)
7.4. Analysis of the Experimental Results Obtained in the Case of Angle-Ply Laminates 235

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment
The modelling considered previously to evaluate the damping of unidirectional
laminates with interleaved viscoelastic layers can be extended to the case of
angle-ply laminates (Section 7.2.5). The experimental results and the results
derived from modelling are compared in Figure 7.15. Modelling results were
established considering the frequency dependences of the Youngs modulus and
loss factor of the viscoelastic layers obtained by Liao et al. [70]. The good agree-
ment between the results of Figure 7.15 confirms the ability for the modelling to
evaluate the damping properties of interleaved angle-ply laminates.

FIGURE 7.14. Comparison of the results deduced from the Ritzs method with the experi-
mental results obtained by Liao et al., without viscoelastic layer.

FIGURE 7.15. Comparison of the results deduced from the Ritzs method with the experi-
mental results obtained by Liao et al., with an interleaved viscoelastic layer.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
e
0
=0
e
0
=0.1 mm
e
0
=0.4 mm
e
0
=0.2 mm
e
0
=0.6 mm
e
0
=0.8 mm
e
0
=1 mm
7.5 DISCUSSION
First, this section presents some results deduced from the modelling in the case
of cantilever beams considered previously in Section 7.3 when a viscoelastic layer
is interleaved in the middle plane. The free length of the beams is 200 mm and the
width 20 mm. The characteristics of the unidirectional layers are kept constant:
total thickness of 2.4 mm, mechanical and damping properties defined in Table
7.1, and the effects of the properties of the viscoelastic layer are investigated.
The variations of the first modal damping are plotted in Figure 7.16 as functions
of the fibre orientation for different values of the thickness e
0
of the viscoelastic
layer. Figure 7.17 reports the variations of the modal damping and the natural
frequency of the beams with the ratio of the thickness of the viscoelastic layer to
the total thickness e of the unidirectional layers, using a logarithmic scale for the
thickness ratio. For all fibre orientations the modal damping increases with the
thickness of the viscoelastic layer, but the highest increase is observed for fibre
orientations about 40. This results from the fact that laminates induce higher
interlaminar shear stresses in the interleaved layer for these fibre orientations.
Also, it is observed a higher increase of damping for fibre orientations near 0
than for fibre orientations near 90, which results from higher stiffness of the
unidirectional layers for near 0 orientations. Moreover, it is observed that the
natural frequency is not changed much for low thicknesses of the viscoelastic
layer. Thus, it seems that an optimum viscoelastic layer thickness exists such that
viscoelastic layers with less or equal thickness induce significant damping with
negligible or low effects on the structure properties.

FIGURE 7.16. Damping of unidirectional laminates with a viscoelastic layer interleaved in
middle plane as function of fibre orientation, for different values of the thickness of the
viscoelastic layer.
7.5. Discussion 237

FIGURE 7.17. Effect of viscoelastic layer thickness on damping and natural frequency of
laminates for fibre orientations equal to 0, 40 and 90.
Figure 7.18 presents the variation of the modal damping for the first two modes
in the case of laminates with a viscoelastic layer of thickness 0.2 mm, for a
Youngs modulus of the layer E
v

=
50 MPa and for four values of the layer
damping:
v

=
0.10, 0.20, 0.30 and 0.40. In the same way, Figure 7.19 shows the
results obtained in the case of a viscoelastic layer with a given damping:
v

=
0.30
and for different values of the Youngs modulus E
v

=
30, 75, 100 and 150 MPa.
Col 1 vs Col 2
Col 1 vs Col 3
Col 1 vs Col 4
Thickness ratio e
0
/e
0.001 0.01 0.1
N
a
t
u
r
a
l

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y

(
H
z
)
20
40
60
80
0.5
=0
=40
=90
Thickness ratio e
0
/e
0.001 0.01 0.1
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0.5
=0
=40
=90

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1st mode
2nd mode
v
=0.10
v
=0.40
v
=0.20
v
=0.30
v
=0.10
v
=0.20
v
=0.30
v
=0.40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
2
4
6
8
1st mode
2nd mode
E
v
=30 MPa
E
v
=75 MPa
E
v
=100 MPa
E
v
=150 MPa
E
v
=150 MPa
E
v
=75 MPa
E
v
=100 MPa
E
v
=30 MPa
The results obtained show that the damping of the interleaved laminate increases
when the damping of the viscoelastic layer increases or when the Youngs
modulus of the layer decreases. Thus the ratio
v
/E
v
allows us to characterise the
resulting laminate damping for a given thickness of the interleaved viscoelastic
layer.

FIGURE 7.18. Laminate damping as function of the fibre orientation in the case of a
viscoelastic layer interleaved in middle plane for a Youngs modulus of the layer equal to
50 MPa and for different values of the damping layer.

FIGURE 7.19. Laminate damping as function of the fibre orientation in the case of a
viscoelastic layer interleaved in middle plane for a loss factor of the layer equal to 0.30
and for different values of the Youngs modulus.
7.5. Discussion 239

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
1st mode
2nd mode
e
0
/2 =0.2 mm
e
0
/2 =0.6 mm
e
0
/2 =0.4 mm
e
0
/2 =0.8 mm
e
0
/2 =1 mm
Increase of the damping capacity of composite laminates also can be achieved
by the application of external damping layers to the surfaces of the laminates after
fabrication. The damping of laminates with two external viscoelastic layers of
thicknesses
0
2 e was derived in Section 7.2.6. Figure 7.20 shows the results
deduced from the modelling in the case of viscoelastic layers with a Youngs
modulus
v
50 MPa E = and a loss factor of the layers
v
0.30 = . The results are
reported for the first two modes for different thicknesses of the viscoelastic layers:
0
2 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 and 1mm e = . The damping of laminates is similar for the
two modes and for a given thickness of the viscoelastic layers the laminate
damping is notably lower than when viscoelastic layers are interleaved in the
middle plane of laminates. So, to obtain high damping in the case of external
viscoelastic layers it is necessary to use layers with high thicknesses. When the
thicknesses of the viscoelastic layers are increased, it has to be noted that the
actual laminate behaviour is not well described by the classical laminate theory
used in the damping modelling. Furthermore, in the case of external viscoelastic
layers, the energy is dissipated in the viscoelastic layers by the in-plane behaviour
of layers. It results that the resulting damping of laminates increases with the
Youngs modulus of layers for a given layer damping. Figure 7.21 reports the
results deduced from the modelling in the case of external viscoelastic layers of
thickness
0
2 0.8 mm e = , loss factor
v
0.30 = and for three values of the
Youngs modulus: E
v

=
50, 100 and 150 MPa.

FIGURE 7.20. Laminate damping as function of the fibre orientation in the case of external
viscoelastic layers for a Youngs modulus of the layers equal to 50 MPa and different
thicknesses of the layers.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
1st mode
2nd mode
E
v
=50 MPa
E
v
=150 MPa
E
v
=100 MPa

FIGURE 7.21. Laminate damping as function of the fibre orientation in the case of external
viscoelastic layers for a thickness of the layers equal to 0.8 mm and different values o
theYoungs modulus of the layers.
7.6 CONCLUSIONS
This chapter investigates the damping properties of unidirectional laminates in
which a single or two viscoelastic layers are interleaved. Modelling was first
developed and experimental investigation was implemented in the case of glass
fibre laminates with a single viscoelastic layer interleaved in the middle plane or
with two viscoelastic layers interleaved on both sides from the middle plane. The
damping characteristics of laminates were deduced from the flexural vibrations of
beams as function of fibre orientation. Interleaving viscoelastic layers increases
significantly the damping of laminates and the fibre orientation dependence of
damping appears somewhat similar to that of the initial laminates, but with a
damping maximum moved from 60 fibre orientation to about 30 fibre
orientation when viscoelastic layers are interleaved. In contrast to the non-
interleaved laminates, damping increases consistently with frequency in the entire
fibre orientation range depending on the vibration mode.
The increase of laminates damping when viscoelastic layers are interleaved is
associated essentially to the transverse shear energy dissipated in the viscoelastic
layers. The experimental results have been analysed considering the modelling
developed in Section 7.2. The analysis introduces the variation of the Youngs
modulus and damping of the viscoelastic layers with the frequency. A good
agreement is obtained between modelling and experimental investigation. This
agreement was corroborated by applying the modelling to the experimental results
obtained by Liao et al. in the case of angle-ply laminates.
7.6. Conclusions 241

Next, the chapter studies the effects of the thickness, the Youngs modulus and
the damping of a viscoelastic layer interleaved in the middle plane of laminates.
For a given thickness of the layer, the damping of laminates is increased when the
loss factor of the viscoelastic layer increases or when its Youngs modulus
decreases. Thus, the ratio of the loss factor to the Youngs modulus of the
viscoelastic layer characterises the laminate damping for a given thickness of the
viscoelastic layer interleaved in the middle plane.
Lastly, the chapter considers the damping of laminates with external visco-
elastic layers. The results obtained show that the laminate damping is notably
lower, compared to the case of laminates with interleaved layers.
CHAPTER 8
Finite Element Method in the Dynamic
Analysis of Composite Structures
8.1 PRINCIPLE OF THE METHOD
The basic concept of the finite element analysis is based on the concept that a
structure can be approximated by replacing the structure with an assemblage of
discrete elements. Since these elements can be put together in a variety of ways,
they can be used to represent complex shapes. So, the first step of finite element
analysis is to represent the structure as a mesh of discrete elements (Figure 8.1).
Next, the field of displacements within each element is expressed as function of
the displacements at the nodes of the element using interpolation functions. Then,
the equations of elasticity allow to express as functions of the nodal displacements
the strain energy, the kinetic energy and the work of external loads acting on the
structure. Expressing the equilibrium of the structure or applying the principle of
virtual displacements leads, in the case of a displacement formulation, to an equa-
tion system of the nodal displacements. Thus, the nodal displacements become the
new unknowns and the finite element discretisation procedure reduces the initial
continuum problem to one of a finite number of unknowns.

FIGURE 8.1. Meshing of a structure.
element
node
8.2. Formulation of Structural Elements 243
8.2 FORMULATION OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
8.2.1 Isoparametric Finite Element Formulation
The basic procedure in the finite element formulation is to express the element
coordinates in the form of interpolations in terms of the nodal coordinates. For a
general three-dimensional element, the coordinate interpolations are:

1

1

1
( , , ) ,
( , , ) ,
( , , ) ,
q
i i
i
q
i i
i
q
i i
i
x h x y z x
y h x y z y
z h x y z z
=
=
=
=
=
=
(8.1)
where x, y and z are the local coordinates at any point of the element, and x
i
, y
i
and
z
i
, i
=
1, 2, , q, are the coordinates of the q element nodes. Functions h
i
are the
interpolation functions, also called the shape functions. The fundamental property
of the interpolation functions is that its values is unity at node i and is zero at all
other nodes.
The first step to obtain the interpolation functions is to relate the global coor-
dinates of the element to a natural coordinate system which has variables r, s and t
that each vary from 1 to 1. Variables r, s and t are functions of coordinates x, y
and z. An example is given in Figure 8.2 for a two dimensional element of 9
nodes.

FIGURE 8.2. Two-dimensional element with four to nine nodes.
node 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
r
r
=
0
r
=
1
s
r
=
1
s
=
1
s
=
0
s
=
1
y
x
244 Chapter 8. Finite Element Method in the Dynamic Analysis of Composite Structures
8.2.2 Example of a Four-Node Finite Element
8.2.2.1 Interpolation Functions
As an example we consider the case of the four-node two-dimensional element
of Figure 8.3. The coordinate interpolations can be expressed as:

1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
,
,
x h x h x h x h x
y h y h y h y h y
= + + +
= + + +
(8.2)
introducing the interpolation functions:

( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
1 2
3 4
1 1
1 1 , 1 1 ,
4 4
1 1
1 1 , 1 1 .
4 4
h r s h r s
h r s h r s
= + + = +
= = +
(8.3)
In the isoparametric formulation the element in-plane displacements are inter-
polated in the same way as the node coordinates. So, we have for the in-plane
displacements:

0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
( , ) ,
( , ) ,
u x y u h u h u h u h u
x y h h h h
= = + + +
= = + + + v v v v v v
(8.4)
where
0
u and
0
v are the in-plane displacements at any point of the element, and
i
u and
i
v , i
=
1 to 4, are the corresponding displacements at the nodes of the
element.

FIGURE 8.3. Four-node two-dimensional element.
r
s
4 ( r
=1,
s
=
1)
y, v
x, u
1 ( r
=1,
s
=
1)
( r
=
1,
s
=
1) 2
( r
=
1,
s
=
1) 3
x
4
local coordinates
y
4
8.2. Formulation of Structural Elements 245
8.2.2.2 Strain Formulation
The in-plane strains of a two-dimensional element are given (Equation (1.51)
of Chapter 1) by:

0
0
m
0
( , )
xx
yy
xy
x y

=

, (8.5)
where

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
, , .
xx yy xy
u u
x y y x

= = = +

v v
(8.6)
To evaluate the displacement derivatives, we have to use the following
relations:

,
.
r s
x r x s x
r s
y r y s y

= +

= +

(8.7)
These relations need to calculate , r x , s x r y and , s y which means
that the explicit inverse relationships giving r and s as functions of x and y, res-
pectively, would need to be evaluated. These inverse relationships are in general
difficult to derive explicitly, and the required derivatives are evaluated in the
following way. The derivatives are expressed with respect to the natural coor-
dinates r and s as:

,
,
y x
r x r y r
y x
s x s y s

= +

= +

(8.8)
which can be expressed in matrix notation as:

y x
x
r r r
y x
y
s s s

=

. (8.9)
This matrix relation can be rewritten in a reduced form as:
, = J
r x

(8.10)
where J is the J acobian matrix relating the natural coordinate derivatives to the
local ones:

y x
r r
y x
s s

=

J . (8.11)
The J acobian matrix can be easily deduced from Equation (8.2). Next the local
coordinate derivatives are obtained as:

1
,
= J
x r

(8.12)
which requires that the inverse matrix of J exists. This inverse matrix exists
provided that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the natural and the
local coordinates of the element.
Thus, the J acobian matrix (8.11) is evaluated considering Equations (8.2) and
(8.3). We obtain:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ,
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ,
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ,
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 .
4 4 4 4
x
s x s x s x s x
r
x
r x r x r x r x
s
y
s y s y s y s y
r
y
r y r y r y r y
s
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
(8.13)
Therefore, we can form the J acobian matrix J for any values of r and s, by
using these expressions. Then, the local derivatives are expressed as:

1
x
r
y
s

J . (8.14)
The strains in the element are evaluated considering Equations (8.13). We
have:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
1 2 3 4
0
1 2 3 4
0
1 2 3 4
0
1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ,
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ,
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 ,
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 .
4 4 4 4
u
s u s u s u s u
r
u
r u r u r u r u
s
s s s s
r
r r r r
s
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
v
v v v v
v
v v v v
(8.15)
Combining Equations (8.14) and (8.15) we obtain:
8.3 Laminate Element 247

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
1
0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1
4
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
e
u
s s s s x
u
r r r r
y

+ +
=

+ +

J u , (8.16)
and

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
1
0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1
4
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
e
s s s s x
r r r r
y

+ +
=

+ +

J u
v
v
, (8.17)
where
e
u is the vector listing the element nodal point displacements expressed as:
[ ]
t
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 e
u u u u = u v v v v . (8.18)
8.3 LAMINATE ELEMENT
8.3.1 Displacement Field
We consider the formulation of a plate element that is based on the theory of
plates with transverse shear deformation included (Section 1.5 of Chapter 1). This
theory uses the assumption that particles of the plate originally on a line that is
normal to the non-deformed middle plane remain on a straight line during defor-
mation, this line being not necessary normal to the deformed middle surface. With
this assumption, the displacement components of a point of coordinates (x, y, z)
are given by Equation (1.22):

0
0
0
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ),
x
y
x y z t x y t
= +
= +
=
v v
w w
(8.19)
where the displacements
0
( , , ), u x y t
0
( , , ) and x y t v
0
( , , ) x y t w are the in-plane
displacements at point (x, y, 0) of the middle plane. Functions and
x y
can be
related to the rotations (Figure 8.4) and
x y
during deformation of the normal
lines to the non-deformed middle plane in the (x, z) and (y, z) planes, respectively,
or to the rotations and
x y
about the axes x and y, respectively:
, .
x y y x
= = (8.20)
Functions and
x y
are given by:

( , ) ( , ) ( , ),
( , ) ( , ) ( , ).
x x y
y y x
x y x y x y
x y x y x y

= =
= =
(8.21)

FIGURE 8.4. Flexural deformation in analysis of plate including shear deformation.
Therefore the displacement equation (8.19) can be rewritten as:

0
0
0
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ),
x
y
x y z t x y t
=
=
=
v v
w w
(8.22)
or

0
0
0
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ),
( , , , ) ( , , ).
y
x
x y z t x y t
= +
=
=
v v
w w
(8.23)
It results that the laminate behaviour with transverse shear included is charac-
terised by 5 degrees of freedom:
0 0 0
, , , and ,
x y
u v w which are the gene-
ralised displacements. In finite formulation these degrees of freedom are expres-
sed in the form of interpolations in terms of the degrees of freedom at each node.
In the case of a four-node element (Figure 8.3) the displacements are expressed
as:

0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
( , , ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ),
( , , ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ),
( , , ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , )
u x y t h x y u t h x y u t h x y u t h x y u t
x y t h x y t h x y t h x y t h x y t
x y t h x y t h x y t h x y t h x y
= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
v v v v v
w w w w w
1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4

1 2 3 4
( ),
( , , ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ),
( , , ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ) ( , ) ( ),
x x x x x
y y y y y
t

= + + +
= + + +
(8.24)
where
1 4

1 1 4 4
, , ... , , ... , , , ..., ,
y y
u u v v are the generalised displacements at
z
x, u
y, v
x

y

x

y

nodes 1, 2, 3 and 4, respectively, and where h
1
, h
2
, h
3
and h
4
are the interpolation
functions.
It results that the displacement field in the element is expressed as:

1
1
1
0 1 2 3 4 1
0 1 2 3 4
1
0 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
4
4
4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
.
. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
x
y
x
y
x
y
u
u h h h h
h h h h
h h h h
h h h h
h h h h
v
w
v
w
w
.
(8.25)
This relation can be rewritten for the finite element e in the matrix form:
( , , ) ( , ) ( ), ( , ) element ,
e e
x y t x y t x y e = U N u (8.26)
introducing the matrix of displacements and rotations:

t

0 0 0
( , , )
x y
x y t u =

U v w , (8.27)
the interpolation matrix of element e:

1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e
h h h h
h h h h
h h h h
h h h h
h h h h

=

N , (8.28)
and the matrix of nodal displacements and rotations of element e:

t 1 1 4 4
1 1 1 4
...
e x y x y
u

=

u v w w . (8.29)
8.3.2 In-Plane Behaviour
In-plane strains are given by Equations (1.82) of Chapter 1:

0
0
0 0
m
0
0 0
xx
yy
xy
u
x
y
u
y x

= =

+

v
v
. (8.30)
Considering Expression (8.25), the in-plane strains can be expressed as:

m
( , ) ( , ) ( )
e
x y x y t
= B u , (8.31)
introducing the matrix:

3 1 2 4
3 1 2 4
3 3 1 1 2 2 4 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h h h h
x x x x
h h h h
y y y y
h h h h h h h h
y x y x y x y x

=

B . (8.32)
The matrix
B introduces the local derivatives of the interpolation functions.

According to the results considered in Section 8.2.2, these derivatives are next
expressed as functions of the natural coordinates of the finite element.
8.3.3 Flexural Behaviour
The flexural strains are deduced from Relations (1.82), considering Relations
(8.21). Hence:

f
f

f
f
( , , ) ( , , )
xx
xy
xy
x y t z x y t

= =

, (8.33)
where the curvature matrix is given by:
( , , )
y
x
y
x
x
x y t
y
y x

. (8.34)
Considering Expression (8.25), the curvature matrix is expressed as:
( , , ) ( , ) ( )
e
x y t x y t
= B u , (8.35)

3 1 2 4
3 1 2 4
3 3 1 1 2 2 4 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h h h h
x x x x
h h h h
y y y y
h h h h h h h h
x y x y x y x y

=

B .
(8.36)
8.3.4 Transverse Shear Behaviour
The transverse shear strains are given by Equations (1.82):

0
s
0
x
yz
xz
y
y
x

= =

+

w
w
. (8.37)
So, in the first order theory including the transverse shear effects, the trans-
verse shear strains are constant though the laminate.
Introducing interpolation (8.25), the transverse shear strains can be expressed
as:

s
( , ) ( , ) ( )
e
x y x y t
= B u , (8.38)

3 1 2 4
1 2 3 4
3 1 2 4
1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
h h h h
h h h h
y y y y
h h h h
h h h h
x x x x

=

B .
(8.39)
8.3.5 Stress Formulation
The in-plane stresses in the layer k of laminate are given (1.54) by:

0
11 12 16 11 12 16
0
12 22 26 12 22 26
0
16 26 66 16 26 66
xx xx x
yy yy y
xy xy xy
k k k
Q Q Q Q Q Q
Q Q Q z Q Q Q
Q Q Q Q Q Q

= +

, (8.40)
where the constants
ij
Q are the reduced stiffnesses in the plate axes expressed in
Table 1.1 of Chapter 1. Relation (8.40) may be expressed in the matrix form as:

m m
( , , , ) ( , , ) ( , , )
k
k k
x y z t x y t z x y t = + Q Q , (8.41)
where
m
k
is the in-plane stress matrix of layer k and introducing the reduced
stiffness matrix
k
Q of layer k. Substituting Relations (8.31) and (8.35) into
Equation (8.41), we obtain:
[ ]
m
( , , , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( )
k
k k e
x y z t x y z x y t

= + Q Q u . (8.42)
The transverse shear stresses in the layer k are written (1.52) as:

44 45
45 55
yz yz
xz xz
k k
C C
C C

=

, (8.43)
where the constants
ij
C are the transverse shear stiffnesses of layer k. This
relation is expressed in the matrix form as:

s s
( , , , ) ( , , )
k
k
x y z t x y t = C , (8.44)
where
s
k
is the transverse shear stress of layer k and
k
C is the transverse shear
matrix of layer k. Introducing Relation (8.38) into Equation (8.44), we obtain:

s
( , , , ) ( , ) ( )
k
k e
x y z t x y t
= C u . (8.45)
8.3.6 Energy Formulation
8.3.6.1 Strain Energy and Element Stiffness
The strain energy stored in the element e of the laminate is given by:

d
1
d d d
2
1
d d d ,
2
xx
e
xx yy xy yy
e
xy
k
yz
yz xz
e xz
k
U x y z
x y z

=

+

(8.46)
where the integration is extended over the whole volume of the element e and
where
( )
, ,
xx yy xy
is the strain field resulting from the in-plane behaviour
and flexural behaviour of the laminate element:

0
0
0
xx
xx x
yy yy y
xy xy
xy
z

= +

. (8.47)
Introducing the different expressions of strains and stresses into Expression (8.46)
of the strain energy, then integrating through the laminate thickness, the strain
energy stored in the element e may be expressed as:

t
d
1
2
e
e e e
U = u K u , (8.48)
where the matrix
e
K is the stiffness matrix of the element expressed as:

t t
t t
t
d d d d
d d d d
d d .
e e
e e
e
e e e
S S
e e
S S
e
S
x y x y
x y x y
x y

= +
+ +
+

K B A B B B B
B B B B D B
B F B
(8.49)
This expression introduces the in-plane stiffness matrix ,
e
A the bending stiffness
matrix ,
e
D the in-plane/bending coupling stiffness matrix ,
e
B and the transverse
shear stiffness matrix ,
e
F for the element e of the laminate. These matrices are
expressed in Equations (1.56) to (1.63), and (1.83).
To account for the actual non uniformity of the transverse shear stresses, shear
coefficients may be introduced in the expression of the transverse shear stiffness
matrix (Section 1.5.4 of Chapter 1).
The total strain energy stored in the laminate structure is obtained by sum-
mation on the elements of the structure as:

t
d
1
2
U = U KU , (8.50)
where U is the matrix of displacements and rotations at all the nodes of the
structure and K is the stiffness matrix of the structure given by:

elements
e
=

K K , (8.51)
where the summation includes all the elements. To perform the summation, each
element matrix K
e
is written as a matrix of the same order as the stiffness matrix
K, where all the entries are zero, except those which correspond to the different
degrees of freedom of the element
8.3.6.2 Kinetic Energy
Neglecting the rotatory inertia terms, the kinetic energy of a finite element of
the structure is given (1.80) by:
( )

2 2 2
c 0 0 0
1
d d
2
e
e e
s
S
E u x y = + +

v w , (8.52)
where
e
s
is the mass per unit area of the element e.
The in-plane displacements u
0
, v
0
and w
0
are derived from Equation (8.25),
which leads to:

0
( , , ) ( , ) ( )
e
u e
x y t x y t = u H u , (8.53)
introducing the matrix of in-plane displacements in the element e:
[ ]
t
0 0 0 0
u = u v w , (8.54)
and the interpolation matrix of the element:

1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e
u
h h h h
h h h h
h h h h

=

H . (8.55)
It results that the kinetic energy of the element e may be expressed as:

t
c
1
2
e
e e e
E = u M u

, (8.56)
where the matrix
e
u
is the vector of the nodal point velocities of the element e

and introducing the mass matrix of the element:

t
d d
e
e e e
e s u u
S
x y =
M H H . (8.57)
The kinetic energy of the structure is obtained by summation on the elements of
the structure, which leads to:

t
c
1
2
E = U MU

, (8.58)
where U
is the vector of the velocities of all the nodal points of the structure. The
mass matrix of the structure can be written as:

elements
e
=

M M , (8.59)
where the matrix M is obtained by assemblage of the mass matrices of the
elements by the same procedure as the stiffness matrix.
8.3.6.3 Work of the External Loads
In the case of transverse loads acting on the lower and upper faces of the
laminate element, the expression of the work of the external loads is given by:

R 0
d d
e
e
e
S
W q x y =
w , (8.60)
where q
e
is the transverse external loading per unit area of the element e.
The transverse displacement w
0
is deduced from Equation (8.25), which leads
to:

0
( , , ) ( , ) ( )
e
e
x y t x y t = w H u
w
, (8.61)
where the matrix
e
H
w
is the interpolation matrix of the element associated to the
transverse displacement:
[ ]
1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
e
h h h h = H
w
. (8.62)
It results that the work of the transverse loading may be expressed as:

t
R
e
e e
W = u R , (8.63)
where
e
R is the load matrix of the element e expressed as:

t
( ) d d
e
e
e e e
S
t q x y = =
R R H
w
. (8.64)
The total work of the transverse loading is obtained by summation on the
elements of the structure. Whence:
8.4 Finite Element Dynamic Equation of Laminate Structure 255

t
f
W = U R, (8.65)
where R
=
R(t) is the external load vector obtained by assemblage of the load
matrices of all the elements.

elements
e
=

R R . (8.66)
8.4 FINITE ELEMENT DYNAMIC EQUATION
OF LAMINATE STRUCTURE
Considering the dynamic equilibrium of the laminate structure or that the total
potential energy must be stationary, we deduce the dynamic equation of laminate
structure as:
+ = MU KU R
, (8.67)
where U
is the matrix which lists the nodal point accelerations of the structure.
The matrices K, M and R are expressed in (8.51), (8.59) and (8.66), respectively.
In vibration analysis the structure damping is usually taken into account by
introducing viscous damping where the damping forces depend on velocity. In
this case the energy dissipated by the structure is expressed in a quadratic form as:

t 1
2
a
U = U CU

, (8.68)
where C is the damping matrix of the structure. The dynamic equation of the
laminate structure is thus modified as:
+ = MU CU+KU R

. (8.69)
The formulation (8.68) is introduced due to the fact that this formulation is
simple to deal with mathematically. But in practice, it is not possible to determine
for general finite element assemblages the damping parameters. For this reason,
the damping matrix C generally is constructed using the mass and stiffness
matrices of the complete element assemblage, considering the results obtained on
the structure damping which are deduced from experimental investigation or
modelling (Section 9.4).
As an example, we have considered in the previous sections the case of a four-
node plate element associated to a first order theory including the transverse shear
effect. This formulation leads to the formulation of the matrix stiffness K
expressed by Equations (8.49) and (8.51). In practice this element is somewhat
too stiff for modelling the behaviour of thin laminates. In this case, the behaviour
of the element can be improved by neglecting the transverse shear strain energy in
the finite element formulation and imposing the Kirchhoff assumption that the
transverse shear deformations are zero at the nodes of the elements.
Furthermore, isoparametric elements based on the formulation considered
previously are more effective when they are used as high-order elements and
specifically the 9-node quadrilateral elements. Also, the formulation of plate
elements can be obtained as a special case of a formulation of a general three-
dimensional shell element [80].
CHAPTER 9
Solution of Dynamic Equation
in Finite Element Analysis
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In Section 8.4 of Chapter 8 the dynamic equation of a system of finite elements
was derived in the form:
+ = MU CU+KU R

, (9.1)
where M, C and K are the mass, damping and stiffness matrices; R is the external
load vector; and U, U
and U
are the displacement, velocity and acceleration vec-

tors of the finite element assemblage. In practice it is difficult, if not impossible,
to determine the element damping properties for general finite element assem-
blages, in particular because the damping properties are dependent on frequency.
For this reason, the damping matrix C is in general not assembled from damping
matrices of the elements, but is constructed using the mass and stiffness matrices
of the complete element assemblage considering the experimental results obtained
on the structure damping or considering damping modelling.
Equation (9.1) is a system of linear differential equations of second order the
solution of which can be obtained, in principle, by standard procedures used for
solving differential equations with constant coefficients. However, these standard
procedures can become very expensive when the matrices M, C and K are large.
So, in finite element analysis only a few effective methods are used. The proce-
dures are divided into two types: direct integration and mode superposition. The
choice for one method or the other is determined by their numerical effectiveness.
9.2 DIRECT INTEGRATION METHODS
9.2.1 Principle
In direct integration, the differential equations in Equation (9.1) are integrated
using a numerical step-by-step procedure.
258 Chapter 9. Solution of Dynamic Equation in Finite Element Analysis
The displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors at time t
=
0 are known
and denoted by U
0
,
0
U
and
0
U
, respectively. The solution to Equation (9.1) is

searched from time t
=
0 to time T. In direct integration the time interval T is
divided into n equal time intervals t ( t T n = ). Then, the integration method
calculates approximate solutions at times 0, t, 2t, , t, t + t, ,T. The gene-
ral algorithm of the method is obtained by considering that the solution is known
at time t and the solution at time t + t is required next.
The dynamic equation (9.1) can be considered as a system of ordinary differ-
rential equation with constant coefficients. It results that any usual convenient
differrence formulation can be used to approximate the acceleration, velocities
and displacements (see for example [81, 82]). So, a large number of formulations
could be used. However, formulations should have to lead to efficient algorithms,
and it results that only few schemes are considered.
9.2.2 The Central Difference Method
9.2.2.1 Formulation
One procedure that can be efficient to obtain the solution of the dynamic
equation (9.1) is the central difference method. This method is derived from the
Eulers method and Euler-Cauchys method [81, 82].
In the central difference method the velocity is expressed as:
( )
1
2
t t t t t
t
+
=
U U U
. (9.2)
The velocity
t
U
at the central time t is expressed as function of the displacements

at t t + and t t , respectively. Next, the acceleration is expressed by the same
expression used on the interval
1 1
2 2
, t t t t +

. Thus we have:

( )
1 1
2 2
1
t
t t t t
t
+
=
U U U

, (9.3)
with
( )
1
2
1
t t t
t t
t
+
+
=
U U U
, (9.4)
( )
1
2
1
t t t
t t
t
+

=
U U U
. (9.5)
Finally, Equations (9.3) to (9.5) lead to:
( )
2
1
2
t t t t t t
t
+
=
U U U + U
. (9.6)
The error in Expressions (9.3) and (9.5) are of second order.
The displacement for time t t + is obtained by introducing the expressions for
and
t t
U U

in the dynamic equation at time t:
9.2. Direct Integration Methods 259

t t t t
+ = MU CU +KU R

. (9.7)
Substituting Equations (9.2) and (9.6) into Equation (9.7), we obtain:

2 2 2
1 1 2 1 1
2 2
t t t t t t
t t
t t t
+

+ =

M C U R K M U M C U . (9.8)
This equation can be solved for the displacement
t t +
U at time t t + as function
of the displacements at times t and t t .
The solution for
t t +
U is based on the dynamic equation (9.7) expressed at
time t. For this reason the integration procedure is called as explicit integration
method. Such an integration scheme does not require a factorisation of the stiff-
ness matrix in the step-by-step procedure.
Another characteristic of Equation (9.8) is that the calculation of
t t +
U invol-
ves the displacements and
t t t +
U U at times t and t t , respectively. There-
fore, a special starting procedure must be used at time t t = . At this time, Equa-
tion (9.8) leads to:

0 0
2 2 2
1 1 2 1 1
2 2
t t
t t
t t t

+ =

M C U R K M U M C U . (9.9)
This expression needs to have the displacement
t
U at time t . This display-
cement can be deduced from Equations (9.2) and (9.6), which leads to:
( )
0
1
2
t t
t

=
U U U
, (9.10)
( )
0 0
2
1
2
t t
t

=
U U U + U
. (9.11)
These two equations allow us to derive
t
U as:

2
0 0 0
2
t
t
t

= U U U + U

. (9.12)
It must be noted that with
0 0
and U U
known at time 0 t = , the acceleration

0
U

can be calculated using the dynamic equation (9.1) at time 0 t = .
Thus, the time integration scheme as it might be implemented in a computer is
reported in Table 9.1.
9.2.2.2 Characteristics of the Central Difference Method
In the central difference method it can be shown that it is not necessary to
calculate the stiffness and mass matrices of the complete element assemblage of
the structure under consideration. The solution for the displacements can be ob-
tained by considering only the element level and so relatively little storage is
required. The effectiveness of the method is even increased if the stiffness and
mass matrices are the same for the elements of the structure. In this case it is
necessary to calculate and store only the matrices corresponding to one element.
TABLE 9.1. Step-by-step procedure using the central difference method.
A. Initial Calculations
1. Form the mass matrix M, the damping matrix C and the stiffness matrix
K.
2. Initialize
0 0 0
, and U U U

.
3. Select the time step t and calculate the constants:

0 1 2 0 3
2
2
1 1 1
, , 2 , .
2
a a a a a
t a
t
= = = =

4. Form the effective mass matrix:

0 1
a a = + M M C
.
B. At each step of the procedure
1. Calculate the effective load at time t:
( ) ( )
2 0 1 t t t t t
a a a

= R R K M U M C U
.
2. Solve for the displacement at time t t + the equation:

t t t +
= MU R

.
3. Evaluate the velocities and accelerations at time t:
( )
1 t t t t t
a
+
= U U U
,
( )
0
2
t t t t t t
a
+
= U U U + U
.
A second important characteristic of the central difference method is that this
scheme requires that the time step t must be smaller than a critical value
cr
t
which depends on the mass and stiffness properties of the complete assemblage of
the structure. It is shown that we must have:

cr
n
T
t t
< = , (9.13)
where T
n
is the smallest period of the finite element assemblage having n degrees
of freedom. Schematically, this period is a function of the dimensions of the
smallest elements in the mesh of the structure.
Integration schemes that require the use of a time step smaller than a critical
time step, such as the central difference method are said to be conditionally stable.
If a time step larger than the critical one is used, the integration is unstable resul-
ting in an increase of the errors along the step integration procedure.
9.2.3 The Houbolt Method
As for the central difference method, the Houbolt scheme expresses the
velocity and acceleration in terms of the displacements. The finite difference
expansions used in the Houblot integration is:
( )
2
1
11 18 9 2
6
t t t t t t t t t
t
+ +
= +
U U U U U
, (9.14)
( )
2
2
1
2 5 4
t t t t t t t t t
t
+ +
=
U U U + U U
, (9.15)
which are difference expressions with errors of second order.
The solution for displacement at time t t + is obtained by substituting the
expressions for and
t t t t + +
U U

in the dynamic equation at time t t + :

t t t t t t t t + + + +
+ = MU CU +KU R

. (9.16)
We obtain:

2 2
2
2 2
2 11 5 3
6
4 3 1 1
.
2 3
t t t t t
t t t t
t t
t t
t t
t t
+ +

+ = + +

+ + + +

M C+K U R M C U
M C U M C U
(9.17)
A basic difference with the central difference scheme is the appearance of the
stiffness matrix K as a factor to the displacement
t t +
U . The terms
t t +
KU
appears because the dynamic equation is considered at time t t + (9.16) and not
at time t as in the central difference scheme (9.7). For this reason it results that the
Houtbolt method is an implicit integration scheme.
Furthermore there is not critical time step limit for the time step t . The
Houlbot scheme is unconditionally stable and t can in general be taken much
larger than the limit given in (9.13) for the central difference method.
Expression (9.17) shows that the calculation of
t t +
U requires the knowledge
of
2
, and
t t t t t
U U U . It results that a starting procedure must be used to cal-
culate
2
and
t t
U U .
The step-by-step procedure using the Houbolt method is reported in Table 9.2.
9.2.4 The Wilson method
The Wilson method is an extension of the linear acceleration scheme, for
which the acceleration variation is assumed to have a linear variation from time t
to time t t + . In the Wilson method, the acceleration is assumed to be linear
from time t to time t t + , with 1. In fact, it is shown that for unconditional
stability of the method it is necessary to take 1.37, and usually is taken as
1.40. =
Then, if denotes the increase in time, with 0 t , the acceleration at
TABLE 9.2. Step-by-step scheme using the Houbolt method.
K.
2. Initialize
0 0 0
, and U U U

.
3. Select the time step t and calculate the constants:

0 1 2 3
2 2
3 0 3
4 0 5 6 7
2 11 5 3
, , , ,
6
2
2 , , , .
2 2 9
a a a a
t t
t t
a a a
a a a a a
= = = =

= = = =

4. Use a starting procedure to obtain
2
and
t t
U U .
5. Form the effective stiffness matrix:

0 1
a a = + + K K M C
.
1. Calculate the effective load at time t t + :

( )
( )
2 4 6 2
3 5 7 2
.
t t t t t t t t
t t t t t
a a a
a a a
+

= + + +
+ + +
R R M U U U
C U U U
.

t t t t + +
= KU R

.
3. Evaluate the velocities and accelerations at time t:

1 3 5 7 2 t t t t t t t t t
a a a a
+ +
= U U U U U
,

0 2 4 6 2 t t t t t t t t t
a a a a
+ +
= U U U U U
.
time t + is given by:
( )
t t t t t
t

+ +
= +
U U U U

. (9.18)
Integrating this expression, we obtain:
( )
2
2
t t t t t t
t

+ +
= + +
U U U U U

, (9.19)
and next:
( )
2
2 1
2 6
t t t t t t t
t

+ +
= + +
U U + U U U U

. (9.20)
From these expressions, we obtain the velocity and the displacement at time
t t + as:
( )
2
t t t t t t
t

+ +

= + + U U U U

, (9.21)
( )
2 2
2
6
t t t t t t t
t
t

+ +

= + + + U U U U U

. (9.22)
These last two expressions allow to obtain and
t t t t + +
U U

in terms of displa-
cement
t t +
U :
( )
2 2
6 6
2
t t t t t t t
t
t

+ +
=
U U U U U

, (9.23)
( )
3
2
2
t t t t t t t
t
t

+ +

=
U U U U U

. (9.24)
These expressions constitute the difference expansion of the Wilson method.
The equations for the displacements, velocities and accelerations at time t t +
are obtained by considering the dynamic equation (9.1) at time t t + :

t t t t t t t t + + + +
+ = MU CU +KU R

. (9.25)
In this expression appears the external load vector at time t t + . As the acce-
leration, this load vector is obtained by assuming a linear variation of the load:
( )
t t t t t t

+ +
= R R + R R . (9.26)
Substituting Equations (9.23) and (9.24) into Equation (9.25), we obtain an
equation from which the displacement
t t +
U can be solved:

( )
( ) ( )
2 2
6 3 3
6
2 2 .
2
t t t t t t t
t t
t t
t
t
t
+ +

+ = + +

+ + + +
M C+K U R R R CU
M C U M C U

(9.27)
Solving this equation, the displacement
t t +
U is then substituted into Equation
(9.23) to obtain the acceleration
t t +
U
at time t t + . Next, this acceleration is

introduced in Equations (9.18), (9.19) and (9.20), and the equations obtained are
evaluated at time t = to derive , and ,
t t t t t t + + +
U U U

at time t t + . The
algorithm for the integration is reported in Table 9.3.
The Wilson scheme is an implicit integration method, because the stiffness
matrix K is a coefficient matrix to the unknown displacement vector. No starting
procedure is necessary, since the displacements, velocities and accelerations at
time t t + are expressed in terms of displacements, velocities and accelerations
at time t only.
TABLE 9.3. Step-by-step procedure using the Wilson method.
K.
2. Initialize
0 0 0
, and U U U

.
3. Select the time step t and calculate the constants (usually
=
1.40):

0
0 1 2 1 3 4
2 2
2
2
5 6 7 8
6 3
, , 2 , , ,
2
3
, 1 , , .
2 2 6
a t
a a a a a a
t
t
a t t
a a a a
= = = = =

= = = =


0 1
a a = + + K K M C
.
( ) ( ) ( )
0 2 1 3
2 2 .
t t t t t t t t t t t
a a a a
+
= + + + + + + R R R - R +M U U U C U U U


t t t t + +
= KU R

.
3. Evaluate the accelerations, velocities and displacements at time t t + :
( )
4 5 6 t t t t t t t
a a a
+ +
= + + U U U U U

,
( )
7 t t t t t t
a
+ +
= + + U U U U

,
( )
8
2
t t t t t t t
t a
+ +
= + + + U U U U U

.
9.2.5 The Newmark Method
As the Wilson method, the Newmark integration can be considered as an
extension of the linear acceleration scheme. Expressions (9.21) and (9.22) of the
Wilson method are modified as:

( )
1
t t t t t t
t

+ +

= +

U U U + U

, (9.28)

( )
2
1
2
t t t t t t t
t t
+ +

= + + +

U U U U U

. (9.29)
For
1 1
2 6
and , = = these expressions correspond to the linear acceleration
scheme which is also obtained with 1 = in the Wilson method.
For
1 1
2 4
and , = = Expressions (9.28) of the velocity vector and (9.30) of
the displacement vector are reduced to:
( )
2
t t t t t t
t
+ +

= + U U U + U

, (9.30)
( )
2
4
t t t t t t t
t
t
+ +

= + + + U U U U U

. (9.31)
These expressions correspond to the integration method called the constant-
average-acceleration method which is an unconditionally stable scheme.
In the general case of Expressions (9.28) and (9.29), it is shown that the sche-
me is unconditionally stable if:

( )
2
1 1 1
, .
2 4 2
+ (9.32)
From Equation (9.29) we deduce the acceleration vector at time t t + as:
( )
( )
2
1 1 1
1
2
t t t t t t t
t
t

+ +
+
U = U U U U

. (9.33)
Then, substituting this result into Equation (9.30) leads to the velocity vector at
time t t + :
( )
( ) ( )
1 1
2
t t t t t t t
t

+ +
+ +
U = U U U U

. (9.34)
Expressions (9.33) and (9.34) are similar in forms to Expressions (9.23) and
(9.24) obtained in the case of the Wilson method.
Substituting Equations (9.33) and (9.34) into the dynamic equation (9.16) at
time t t + , we obtain an equation for which the displacement
t t +
U can be
solved:

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 1
1 1
1 1 1 .
2
t t t t t
t t
t t
t t
t

+ +

+ = + +

+

M C+K U R M C U
M C U M C U

(9.35)
Solving this equation, the displacement vector
t t +
U is then introduced in Equa-
tions (9.33) and (9.34) to derive the acceleration vector
t t +
U
and the velocity

vector
t t +
U
.
The algorithm using the Newmark integration is reported in Table 9.4. Accor-
ding to Equations (9.23) and (9.24), (9.33) and (9.34), the algorithm is similar to
the algorithm for Wilson method (Table 9.3). So, the two integration methods can
be easily implemented in a single computer program.
TABLE 9.4. Step-by-step procedure using the Newmark integration method.
K.
2. Initialize
0 0 0
, and U U U

.
3. Select the time step t , the parameters and , and calculate the
constants:

( )
2
1 1 1
, ,
2 4 2
+

( )
( )
0 1 2 3
2
4 5 6 7
1 1 1
, , , 1,
2
1, 2 , 1 , .
2
a a a a
t t
t
t
a a a t a t

= = = =

= = = =


0 1
a a = + + K K M C
.
( ) ( )
0 2 3 1 4 5
.
t t t t t t t t t
a a a a a a
+
= + + + + + + R R M U U U C U U U


t t t t + +
= KU R

.
3. Calculate the accelerations and velocities at time t t + :
( )
0 2 3 t t t t t t t
a a a
+ +
= U U U U U

.

6 7 t t t t t t
a a
+ +
= + + U U U U

,
9.3 MODE SUPERPOSITION
9.3.1 Introduction
The number of operations in the direct integration methods is directly propor-
tional to the number of time steps used in the integration. Therefore, direct
integration can be effective in the case of a response with relatively short dura-
tion. In contrast, if the integration must be carried out for many time steps, it may
be more effective to transform the dynamic equation (9.1) into a form in which
9.3. Mode Superposition 267
the step-by-step solution is less expensive. In this way, we consider in the present
section the case where the response is derived by using mode superposition.
9.3.2 Dynamic Equation in Modal Coordinates
9.3.2.1 Modal Coordinates
The free vibration equations with damping neglected are given in the matrix
form as:
0 + = MU KU
. (9.36)
When the structure vibrates, the displacement is harmonic and can be expressed in
the following form:

( )
cos sin A t B t = + U X , (9.37)
where X is a vector of order n, is the angular frequency of the harmonic
vibrations, and A and B are depending on the initial conditions at time 0 t = .
Substituting Equation (9.37) into (9.36), we obtain:

2
= KX MX, (9.38)
which is the equation of the generalised eigenproblem. Solving this equation
yields to the n eigensolutions: ( )
2
1 1
, , X ( )
2
2 2
, , X , ( )
2
, ,
n n
X where
1
,
2
, , ,
n
are the eigenvalues and
1
, X
2
, X , ,
n
X are the eigenvectors.
The eigenvectors can be M-orthonormalised, that is:

t
1, if ,

0, if ,
i j
i j
i j
=
=

X MX (9.39)
and the eigenvalues can be ranged as increasing values:

2 2 2
1 2
. . .
0
n
. (9.40)
The eigenvalue
i
is the natural frequency of vibration of the mode i and the
vector
i
X is the corresponding mode shape vector. Equation (9.37) is satisfied
using any of the n displacement solutions:
( ) cos sin , 1, 2, ... , .
i i i i
A t B t i n = + = U X (9.41)
This process generalises in a three-dimensional analysis the modal concept intro-
duced in the one-dimensional analysis developed in the case of beam vibrations
(Section 3.3 of Chapter 3).
Introducing the n n modal matrix the columns of which are the eigen-
vectors
i
X and a diagonal matrix
2
with the eigenvalues on its diagonal:
[ ]
2
1
2
2
2
1 2
2
. . .
0 0
. . .
0 0
. . .
,
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . .
0 0
n
n

= =

X X X , (9.42)
the n solutions to Equation (9.38) can be expressed as:

2
= K M . (9.43)
Since the eigenvectors are M-orthonormal, we have:

t 2 t
, , = K M = (9.44)
where I is the unit matrix.
9.3.2.2 Motion Equation in Modal Coordinates
When external loads are imposed, the dynamic equation is given by Equation
(9.1). A solution for this motion equation can be expressed in terms of time
functions ( ) t and modal displacement
i
X as:
( ) ( ) t t = U . (9.45)
Substitution of this expression into Equation (9.1), then considering the ortho-
normality properties (9.44) leads to:

t 2 t
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t t t t + + = C R

. (9.46)
This equation is the motion equation expressed in modal coordinates. This form
extends in three-dimension the motion equation (5.18) obtained in the analysis of
beam vibrations.
The initial conditions on ( ) t are derived from Equation (9.45) and consi-
dering the M-orthonormality properties of . So the initial conditions at time
0 t = are:

t t
0 0 0 0
, , = = MU MU

(9.47)
where
0
U is the displacement matrix and
0
U
the velocity matrix at time 0 t = .

9.3.3 Modal Analysis with Damping Neglected
If the damping effects are neglected, Equation (9.46) reduces to:

2 t
( ) ( ) ( ) t t t + = R
. (9.48)
This equation leads to n equations of the form:

2
( ) ( ) ( ), 1, 2, ... , ,
i i i i
t t r t i n + = =
(9.49)
where

t
( ) ( )
i i
r t t = X R . (9.50)
9.3. Mode Superposition 269
The initial conditions of the structure are derived from Equation (9.47) as:

t t
0 0 0 0
, .
i i i i
= = X MU X MU

(9.51)
In fact, Equation (9.49) is the motion equation of a single degree of freedom
system. The form is the same as the motion equation (3.96) obtained in the case of
undamped beam vibrations. So, the results of the Section 3.5 of Chapter 3 can be
transposed to the present analysis.
In the general case, the solution to each equation in (9.49) can be obtained
using a numerical integration or using the Duhamel integral according to Equation
(2.134) of Chapter 2 as:

0
1
( ) cos sin ( ) sin ( ) d
t
i i i i i i i
i
t A t B t r t t t t
+ = +
, (9.52)
where and
i i
A B are derived from the initial conditions (9.51).
Then, the complete response of the structure is obtained by superposition of the
response in each mode using Equation (9.45). We obtain:

1
( ) ( )
n
i i
i
t t
=
=
U X . (9.53)
It results that the response analysis by mode superposition requires to obtain,
first the solution for the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the eigenproblem (9.38),
then the solution of the decoupled motion equations in (9.49) for each mode, and,
finally, the superposition of the responses as expressed by (9.53).
9.3.4 Modal Analysis with Damping Included
The general form with damping included of the dynamic equation of a finite
element structure is given by Equation (9.46) in the basis of the eigenvectors X
i
.
When the damping effects are neglected (previous section), Equation (9.46) leads
to motion equations (9.49) which are decoupled and which can be solved indivi-
dually. In the case where damping cannot be neglected, the same property of
decoupled motion equations would be searched for in such a way to implement
the same procedure whether damping are neglected or included.
Indeed, the damping matrix C cannot be constructed from assemblage of the
element damping matrices, such as the mass and stiffness matrices of the element
assemblage. So, the damping properties are deduced, in general, from the overall
energy dissipation of the structure under consideration. In this way, the mode
superposition analysis is particularly effective in the case where the structure
damping can be expressed in the form:
2 , , 1, 2, ... , ,
t
i j i i ij
i j n = = X CX (9.54)
where
i
is the modal damping coefficient and
ij
is the Kronecker notation
( 1
ij
= for i j = and 0
ij
= for i j ). Therefore, Equation (9.54) assumes that
the eigenvectors are also C-orthogonal. In this case the dynamic equation (9.46)
leads to n decoupled equations of the form:

2
( ) 2 ( ) ( ) ( ), 1, 2, ... , ,
i i i i i i i
t t t r t i n + + = =

(9.55)
where ( )
i
r t and the initial conditions on ( )
i
t have already expressed in (9.50)
and (9.51), respectively.
In the general case, the solution to each equation in (9.55) can be obtained
using a numerical integration or using the Duhamel integral according to Equation
(2.134) as:

( )

( )
0
1
( ) cos sin ( ) sin ( ) d ,
1, 2, ... , , (9.56)
i i i i
t
t t t
i i i i i i di
di
t e A t B t r t e t t t
i n

+ = +
=

with the angular frequency:

2
1
di i i
= . (9.57)
The constants and
i i
A B are evaluated using the initial conditions (9.51).
The complete response is then obtained by superposition of the response in
each mode using Equation (9.53).
Equation (9.55) is the motion equation of a single degree of freedom system
with damping. The form is also the same as the motion equation (5.18) of Chapter
5 obtained in the case of damped beam vibrations. The results obtained in Section
5.3 of Chapter 5 can be transposed to the present analysis.
Finally, considering Equation (9.54) leads to the same procedure for analysis
with damping neglected or damping included. The mode superposition analysis
yields decoupled motion equations for which the damping matrix C is not calcu-
lated, but only the stiffness and mass matrices K and M.
9.4 EVALUATION OF THE STRUCTURE DAMPING
9.4.1 Modal Damping
The damping in composite materials has been extensively considered in
Chapters 5 and 6. In the case of orthotropic layers, the damping properties are
characterised by the damping coefficients
11 22 66
, and evaluated in the
material directions of the layer. These damping coefficients can be associated to
the reduced stiffnesses
11 22 66
, and Q Q Q of the layer, respectively. In the energy
analysis of damping developed in Sections 5.4 and 5.5 of Chapter 5, the damping
coefficients
11 22 66
, and are related to the energy dissipations in traction-
compression in the longitudinal direction of the material, in traction-compression
in the transverse direction and in in-plane shear, respectively. Energy is also dissi-
pated by transverse shear effects and damping can be characterised by the damping
coefficients
44 55
and associated to transverse shear stiffnesses C
44
and C
55
.
9.4. Evaluation of the Structure Damping 271
However in the case of laminate materials, the transverse shear strain energy is
much lower than the in-plane energies and the transverse shear damping can be
neglected.
Considering the elastic-viscoelastic correspondence principle (Section 5.1 of
Chapter 5), the complex stiffness matrix
e
K of the finite element e may be

evaluated by introducing the complex reduced stiffnesses
ij
Q

and complex trans-
verse shear moduli
ij
C

into Expression (8.49). Stiffnesses
ij
Q

are derived from
the relations reported in Table 1.1 of Chapter 1 by introducing the complex stiff-
nesses
ij
Q
in the material directions in the forms:

( ) ( ) ( )
11 11 11 22 22 11 66 66 11
1 , 1 , 1 . Q Q i Q Q i Q Q i

= + = + = + (9.58)
In a similar way, the transverse shear stiffnesses
ij
C

are deduced from Relations
(1.84) by introducing the complex transverse moduli
ij
C
in the forms:
( ) ( )
44 44 44 55 55 55
1 , 1 . C C i C C i

= + = + (9.59)
So the complex matrix of the element is obtained in the form:

e e e
i
= + K K K . (9.60)
Next, the complex stiffness matrix
K is obtained by assemblage on the elements

according to Expression (8.51). Finally the complex stiffness matrix is expressed
as:
i
= + K K K , (9.61)
where the real part K is obtained by assemblage of the real parts of the element
matrices:

elements
e
=

K K , (9.62)
and the imaginary part K is obtained by assemblage of the imaginary parts:

elements
e
=

K K . (9.63)
For a structure with low damping, the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the
damped structure are rather similar to the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of the
undamped structures. They are solutions of Equation (9.38). If X
i
is the eigen-
vector of mode i deduced from this equation, the energy dissipated by the
damping processes is:

a
1
2
i t
i i
U = X K X . (9.64)
The strain energy stored in the structure for the mode i is expressed as:

d
1
2
i t
i i
U = X K X . (9.65)
Next, the ratio of the dissipated energy to the strain energy allows us to derive the
modal damping coefficient as:

a
d
i t
i i
i
i t
i i
U
U

= =
X K X
X K X
. (9.66)
9.4.2 Damping Matrix
As considered in Section 9.3.4, the damping effects can easily be taken into
account in mode superposition analysis by introducing Equation (9.54). However,
in some cases it will be more effective to use direct step-by-step integration, the
modal damping coefficient
i
being evaluated for each mode i: i
=
1, 2, , n.
Mode superposition analysis can be very effective if only some vibration modes
are excited by the loading. In this case it is necessary to derive the damping
matrix C explicitly, which yields the damping ratio
i
when C is substituted in
Equation (9.54). A practical way is to assume a Rayleigh damping which is of the
form:
= + C M K, (9.67)
where and are constants to be determined from given damping coefficients
and
p q
corresponding to two different frequencies of structure vibrations
p

and
q
, respectively.
Substituting the Rayleigh relation (9.67) into Equation (9.54), we obtain:
( )
t
2
i i i i
+ = X M K X , (9.68)
and considering (9.38), this relation becomes:

2
2
i i i
+ = . (9.69)
Applying this relation for ( ,
p p
) and ( ,
q q
), we obtain:

2
2
2 ,
2 .
p p p
q q q

+ =
+ =
(9.70)
The solution is:

2
2 2 2 2
4 4 , 4 .
q q p p q q p p
p p p
q p q p

= =

(9.71)
With the damping evaluated by the Rayleigh damping matrix (9.67), the dam-
ping ratio
i
for any value of
i
is derived from Equation (9.69) as:

1
2
i i
i

= +

. (9.72)
In actual analysis, the damping coefficients are known for the different modes: i
=

1, 2, , n. In this case two average values ( ,
p p
) and ( ,
q q
) will be used to
9.5 Finite Element Nonlinear Analysis 273
evaluate and . The average values will be chosen in such a way they fit the
actual damping variation at the best.
It is possible to obtain a more complicated damping matrix when more two
damping coefficients are used to establish C. However, the damping matrix which
is obtained is not banded and the cost of analysis is increased significantly. So, in
most practical analyses using direct integration, Rayleigh damping evaluation is
considered.
9.5 FINITE ELEMENT NONLINEAR ANALYSIS
In the finite element formulation developed in Chapter 8 and in the present
chapter, it was assumed that the displacements of the finite element assemblage
are infinitesimally small and that the material has a linear elastic behaviour. In
addition, it was also assumed that the boundary conditions remain unchanged
during the application of the external loads on the finite element assemblage. With
these assumptions, the dynamic finite element equations (8.69) or (9.1) corres-
pond to a linear analysis of the structural problem under consideration. So, the
displacement response U is a linear function of the applied load vector R: if the
external loads are R instead of R, where is a constant, the corresponding
displacements are . U If this is not the case, the analysis is not linear.
Different nonlinear processes can be considered. Non linear structure beha-
viour can be induced by material nonlinear behaviour for which the stress-strain
relation is nonlinear. In the linear analysis, the displacements and strains are
infinitesimally small. When material is subjected to large displacements and large
strains, the stress-strain relation is also usually nonlinear. Another type of non
linear analysis is the analysis of problems for which the boundary conditions
change during the motion of the structure. This process arises in particular in the
case of contact problems.
The solution of the non linear dynamic response of a finite element system can
be obtained using the procedures already discussed: direct integration method or
mode superposition. The most common explicit integration is probably the central
difference method (Section 9.2.2). The shortcoming in the use of this method lies
in the time step restriction and a proper choice of the time step must be used.
All the implicit time integration schemes considered in Section 9.2 for linear
analysis can also be used in nonlinear dynamic analysis. A common technique is
the trapezoidal scheme, which is a Newmark method with
1 1
2 4
and = = (Sec-
tion 8.2.5).
The basic principles of mode superposition are also applicable to nonlinear
analysis of dynamic problems. In this case the vibration mode shapes and natural
frequencies change. The calculation of the vibration mode shapes and frequencies
at time t when these quantities have been calculated at a previous time should be
achieved economically as functions of these quantities. Furthermore, the mode
superposition analysis of nonlinear dynamic response is generally only effective
when the solution can be obtained without updating the stiffness matrix too
frequently.
CHAPTER 10
Damping of Sandwich Materials
and Structures
The purpose of this chapter is to develop modelling of the damping of sandwich
materials and structures based on a finite element analysis. The results derived
from this modelling are then applied to the experimental evaluation of the dam-
ping parameters of sandwich materials from the flexural vibrations of beam spe-
cimens. Parametric studies which are essential to the design of structures are next
considered.
10.1 MODELLING THE DAMPING OF SANDWICH
COMPOSITE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES
10.1.1 Stress Field in Sandwich Composite Material
A sandwich material (Chapter 1) is made from a material of low density (the
core) with face sheets (the skins) of high stiffness bonded to each other of the
surfaces of the core. The essential function of the core is to transfer, by transverse
shear, the mechanical loads developed on one skin to the other.
In the general case, the skins are laminates of thickness h
s1
for the lower skin
and of thickness h
s2
for the upper skin (Figure 10.1). The thickness h
c
of the core
is usually much greater than that of the skins. The coordinate system is chosen in
such a way that the (x, y) plane is the middle plane of the core.
The theory of sandwich plates considers (Section 1.6 of Chapter 1) the follo-
wing fundamental assumptions on the displacement field:
i) The in-plane displacements u
c
and v
c
in the core are linear functions of the
transverse z coordinate.
ii) The in-plane displacements u and v are uniform through the thickness of the
skins.
iii) The transverse displacement w is independent of the z coordinate. Thus, the
strain
zz
is neglected in the core and the skins.
10.1. Modelling the Damping of Sandwich Materials and Structures 275

FIGURE 10.1. Sandwich Plate
The strain field and the stress field are deduced from the previous displacement
field and then from the strain-stress relations. It results that the transverse shear
stresses
c c
and
xz yz
are constants through the thickness of the core. Further-
more, the in-plane stresses
c c c
, and
xx yy xy
are linear functions of the z coor-
dinate through the thickness of the core. These in-plane stresses are usually
neglected.
From the displacement field, it is also deduced that the in-plane stresses ,
xxk

and
yyk xyk
are constant in each layer k of the skins (lower or upper skin), as
well as the transverse shear stresses and .
xzk yzk
These transverse shear stresses
are usually neglected. Indeed, the stresses in each layer can be obtained consi-
dering a linear variation as a function of the z coordinate.
Thus, when finite elements based on the theory of sandwich plates are used,
finite element analysis gives (Figure 10.2) the values of the in-plane stresses ,
xx

, ,
yy xy
in each layer k of the skins of each finite element e of the structure
under consideration:
, , ,
xxk yyk xyk
(10.1)
and the values of the stresses ,
xx
, , , ,
yy xy xz yz
on the lower face (l) and
upper face (u) of the core for each finite element:

lc lc lc lc lc
uc uc uc uc uc
, , , , ,
, , , , ,
xx yy xy xz yz
xx yy xy xz yz

(10.2)
with

uc lc c uc lc c
, .
xz xz xz xz yz yz
= = = = (10.3)
It results that the in-plane stresses in the sandwich core can be expressed for the
element e as:

c c c
( , ) ( , ), , , ,
e
p p p
a x y z b x y p xx yy xy = + = (10.4)
c
2 h
s1
h
s2
h
c
h
y
x
z
core
skin
276 Chapter 10. Damping of Sandwich Materials and Structures

FIGURE 10.2. Stresses derived from finite element analysis in the layers of the skins and
in the core.
with

( )
uc lc
c
c
c uc lc
,
1
.
2
p p
p
p p p
a
h
b

=
= +
(10.5)
The transverse shear stresses in the layers of skins can be expressed consi-
dering a linear variation through the thicknesses of skins, and considering that the
shear stresses vanish on the upper and lower faces of sandwich material and are
equal to the transverse shear stresses in the sandwich core. Thus, we have:

1 1 1
( , ) ( , ), , ,
r r r
x y z x y r xz yz = + = (10.6)
with

c c
1 1
s1 s1
, 1 ,
2
r
r r
h
h h

= = +

(10.7)
for the lower skin, and:

2 2 2
( , ) ( , ), , ,
r r r
x y z x y r xz yz = + = (10.8)
with

c c
2 2
s2 s2
, 1 ,
2
r
r r
h
h h

= = +

(10.9)
for the upper skin of the sandwich material.
z
, ,
xxk yyk xyk

lc lc lc lc lc
, , , ,
xx yy xy xz yz

element e

uc uc uc uc uc
, , , ,
xx yy xy xz yz

k
1 k
h

k
h
c
2 h
c
2 h
0
s2
h
s1
h
10.1.2 In-Plane Strain Energy
We consider the case where the layers of the skins and the core of the sandwich
material are constituted of orthotropic materials.
The in-plane energy
d
e
U stored in a given finite element e can be expressed as a
function of the in-plane strain energies related to the material directions as:

d 1 2 6
,
e e e e
U U U U = + + (10.10)
with

1 1 1
2 2 2
6 6 6
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d ,
2
e
e
e
e
e
e
U x y z
U x y z
U x y z

=
=
=
(10.11)
where the integrations are extended over the volume of the finite element e.
The in-plane strains
1 2 6
, and related to the material directions of the core
or layer k of the skins are expressed as functions of stresses
1 2 6
, and in the
material directions according to the strain-stress relations as:

1 11 1 12 2
2 12 1 22 2
6 66 6
,
,
,
S S
S S
S

= +
= +
=
(10.12)
ij
S are the compliance constants of the material of core or
layer k related to the engineering moduli , , and
L T LT LT
E E G by the following
expressions:

11 22 12 66
1 1 1
, , , .
LT
L T L LT
S S S S
E E E G
= = = = (10.13)
It results that Expression (10.11) of the strain energy
1
e
U , stored in tension-
compression in the longitudinal direction can be written in the form:

1 11 12
e e e
U U U = + , (10.14)
with

2
11 11 1
12 12 1 2
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d .
2
e
e
e
e
U S x y z
U S x y z

=
=
(10.15)
In each layer k or in the core, stresses
1 2 6
, and , related to the material
directions, can be expressed as functions of the in-plane stresses , and
xx yy

,
xy
related to the finite element directions (x, y, z), according to the stress trans-
formation relation:

2 2
1
2 2
2
2 2
6
cos sin 2sin cos
sin cos 2sin cos
xx
yy
xy

=

, (10.16)
where is the orientation of material in layer k or in the core.
Whence:

( )

2 4 2 4
11 11
2 2 2
3 3
1
cos sin
2
2 2 sin cos
4 sin cos 4 sin cos d d d ,
e
xx yy
e
xy xx yy
xx xy yy xy
U S
x y z

= +
+ +
+ +

(10.17)
( )
( )
( )
( )

2 2 2 2 2
12 12
4 4
2 2
1
4 sin cos
2
sin cos
2 sin cos sin cos d d d .
e
xx yy xy
e
xx yy
xx xy yy xy
U S
x y z

= +
+ +
(10.18)
In the same way, the strain energy
2
U , stored in tension-compression in the
transverse direction can be written in the form:

2 22 12
e e e
U U U = + , (10.19)
with

( )

2 4 2 4
22 22
2 2 2
3 3
1
sin cos
2
2 2 sin cos
e
xx yy
e
xy xx yy
xx xy yy xy
U S
x y z

= +
+ +
(10.20)
Lastly, the in-plane shear strain energy is written as:
( )
( )
( )

2 2 2 2
6 66 66
2
2 2 2
2 2
1
2 sin cos
2
cos sin (10.21)
2 cos sin sin cos d d d
e e
xx yy xx yy
e
xy
yy xy xx xy
U U S
x y z

= = +
.

The in-plane strain energies stored in the finite element e can be expressed as:

11 11c 11 22 22c 22
1 1
12 12c 12 66 66c 66
1 1
, ,
, ,
n n
e e e e e e
k k
k k
n n
e e e e e e
k k
k k
U U U U U U
U U U U U U
= =
= =
= + = +
= + = +

(10.22)
where
c
e
pq
U and ( 11, 22, 12, 66)
e
pqk
U pq = are respectively the in-plane strain
energies stored in the core and layer k of the skins of the element e and n is the
total number of layers in the lower and upper skins.
It results from Expressions (10.17) to (10.21) that the in-plane strain energies
stored in layer k of the skins or in the core of the element e can be expressed as:
( )

4 4
11 11
2 2
3 3
cos sin
2 2 sin cos
e e e
l l xxxxl l yyyyl l
e e
xyxyl xxyyl l l
e e
xxxyl l l yyxyl l l
U S U U
U U
U U

= +
+ +
+ +

(10.23)

( )
( )
( )
( )

2 2
12 12
4 4
2 2
4 sin cos
sin cos
2 sin cos sin cos ,
e e e e
l l xxxxl yyyyl xyxyl l l
e
xxyyl l l
e e
xxxyl yyxyl l l l l
U S U U U
U
U U

= +
+ +
+

(10.24)
( )

4 4
22 22
2 2
3 3
sin cos
2 2 sin cos
e e e
l l xxxxl l yyyyl l
e e
xyxyl xxyyl l l
e e
xxxyl l l yyxyl l l
U S U U
U U
U U

= +
+ +

(10.25)

( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
66 66
2
2 2
2 2
2 sin cos
cos sin
2 sin cos sin cos ,
e e e e
l l xxxxl yyyyl xxyyl l l
e
xyxyl l l
e e
xxxyl yyxyl l l l l
U S U U U
U
U U

= +
+

(10.26)
These expressions introduce the orientation
k
of layer k of the skins ( l k = ) or
the orientation
c
of the core ( c l = ). The terms
e
pql
U ( , , , p q xx yy xy = ) are
derived by considering Expressions (10.1) and (10.4) for the in-plane stresses in
the core and in layer k of the skins. We obtain:
for the layer k of the skins ( l k = ):

1
, , , , ,
2
e e
pql pqk pk qk e k
U U S e p q xx yy xy = = = (10.27)
where S
e
is the area of the finite element e and e
k
is the thickness of the layer k;
for the core ( c l = ):

2
c
c c c c c c
1
, , , , ,
2 12
e e
pql pq p q p q e
h
U U a a b b S h p q xx yy xy

= = + =

(10.28)
where the coefficients
c c c c
, , and ,
p q p q
a a b b are given by Expressions (10.5).
Next, the in-plane strain energy stored in element e is given by Expressions
(10.22) and the total in-plane strain energies stored in the finite element assem-
blage is then obtained by summation on the elements as:

11 11 12 12
elements elements
22 22 66 66
elements elements
, ,
, .
e e
e e
U U U U
U U U U
= =
= =

(10.29)
10.1.3 Transverse Shear Strain Energy
The transverse shear strain energy for a given element e can be expressed in the
material directions as:

s 44 55
e e e
U U U = + , (10.30)
with

44 4 4
55 5 5
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d ,
2
e
e
e
e
U x y z
U x y z

=
=
(10.31)
where the integration is extended over the volume of the finite element e.
4 4
and are respectively the transverse shear stress and strain in plane ( , T T )
of material in the layer k of the skins or in the core of sandwich material.
5 5
and are the transverse shear stress and strain in plane ( , L T ) of the
materials.
The transverse shear strains and stresses are related by:

4 4 5 5
, ,
TT LT
G G

= = (10.32)
where and
TT LT
G G

are the transverse shear moduli in planes ( , T T ) and
( , L T ), respectively. It results that the transverse shear strain energies (10.31)
can be written as:

2
4
44
2
5
55
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d .
2
e
TT e
e
LT e
U x y z
G
U x y z
G
=
=
(10.33)
In each layer k of the skins or in the core, stresses
4 5
and , related to
material directions of the layer or the core, can be expressed as functions of the
transverse shear stresses and
yz xz
in the finite element directions (x, y, z)
according to the stress transformations:

4
5
cos sin
sin cos
yz
xz

=

. (10.34)
So, the transverse shear strain energies (10.33) are expressed as:
( )
2 2 2 2
44
1 1
cos sin 2 sin cos d d d ,
2
e
yz xz yz xz
TT e
U x y z
G

= +

(10.35)
( )
2 2 2 2
55
1 1
sin cos 2 sin cos d d d .
2
e
yz xz yz xz
LT e
U x y z
G

= + +

(10.36)
The transverse shear energies can be expressed as:

44 44c 44 55 55c 55
1 1
, ,
n n
e e e e e e
k k
k k
U U U U U U
= =
= + = +

(10.37)
where
c
and ( 44, 55)
e e
rs rsk
U U rs = are respectively the transverse shear strain
energies stored in the core and layer k of the skins of the element.
It results from Expressions (10.35) and (10.36) that the transverse shear strain
energies stored in layer k of the skins or in the core of the element e can be
expressed as:
( )
2 2
44
1
cos sin 2 sin cos ,
e e e e
l yzyzl l xzxzl l yzxzl l l
TT
U U U U
G

= + (10.38)
( )
2 2
55
1
sin cos 2 sin cos .
e e e e
l yzyzl l xzxzl l yzxzl l l
LT
U U U U
G

= + + (10.39)
As previously, these expressions introduce the orientation
k
of layer k of the
skins ( l k = ) or the orientation
c
of the core ( c l = ). The terms
e
rsl
U
( , , r s yz xz = ) are derived by considering Expressions (10.2), (10.6) and (10.8) of
the transverse shear stresses in the core and in the layer k of the skins. We obtain:
for the core ( c l = ):

c c c c
1
, , , ,
2
e e
rsl rs r s e
U U S h r s yz xz = = = (10.40)
for the layer k of the skins ( l k = ):
( ) ( )
3 3 2 2
1 1
1
1
,
2 3 2
, , , 1 for the lower skin and 2 for the upper skin, (10.41)
e e
rsl rsk
k k k k
ri si ri si si ri ri si k k e
U U
h h h h
h h S
r s yz xz i i

= =

+ + +

= = =

where the coefficients , , and ,
ri si ri si
are given by Expression (10.7) for
the lower skin ( 1 i = ) and Expression (10.9) for the lower skin ( 2 i = ).
Next, the transverse shear strain energy stored in element e is given by
Expressions (10.37) and the total transverse strain energies stored in the finite
element assemblage is then obtained by summation on the elements as:

44 44 55 55
elements elements
, .
e e
U U U U = =

(10.42)
10.1.4 Damping of a Sandwich Composite Structure
The damping of the finite element assemblage can be evaluated by extending
the energy formulation approach considered in Section 5.5.
The total strain energy stored in the sandwich structure is given by:

d 11 22 12 66 44 55
2 U U U U U U U = + + + + + , (10.43)
where the in-plane strain energies
11 22 12 66
, , 2 and U U U U are expressed by
Equations (10.29), and the transverse shear strain energies
44 55
and U U are given
by Expressions (10.42).
Then, the energy dissipated by damping in the layer k of the skins or in the core
of the sandwich material of the element e is derived from the strain energy stored
in layer k or in the core as:

11 11 22 22 12 12 66 66
44 44 55 55
2
,
e e e e e e e e e
l l l l l l l l l
e e e e
l l l l
U U U U U
U U

= + + +
+ +
(10.44)
introducing the specific damping coefficients of the layer k of the skins or of the
core. These coefficients are referred to the material directions ( , , L T T ) of the
layer k of the skins ( l k = ) or of the core ( c l = ):
11 22
and
e e
l l
are the damping
coefficients in traction-compression in the L direction and T direction of the layer
k of the skins or of the core, respectively;
12
e
l
is the in-plane coupling coeffi-
cient;
66
e
l
is the in-plane shear coefficient;
44 55
and
e e
l l
are the transverse
shear damping coefficients in planes ( , T T ) and ( , L T ), respectively.
The damping energy dissipated in the element e is next obtained by summation
on the core and on the layers of the skins of element e as:

c
1
,
n
e e e
k
k
U U U
=
= +
(10.45)
and the total energy U dissipated in the finite element assemblage is then
obtained by summation on the elements:

elements
.
e
U U =
(10.46)
Finally, the damping of the finite element assemblage is characterised by the
damping coefficient of the assemblage derived from relation:

d
U
U

= . (10.47)
The in-plane coupling energy
12
e
U is much lower than the other in-plane ener-
gies and can be neglected.
A general procedure was implemented to evaluate the damping of a sandwich
composite structure using finite element analysis. This procedure is based on the
previous formulation and can be applied to any structure for which the damping
characteristics are different according to the core and the layers of the skins and
according to the elements of the assemblage.
This procedure is applied hereafter to the analysis of the damping of sandwich
materials. The application to a sandwich composite structure is considered in
Chapter 11.
10.2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE
DAMPING OF SANDWICH MATERIALS
10.2.1 Materials
Experimental investigation of sandwich materials is developed in [83]. We
report hereafter the elements of this investigation.
The sandwich materials investigated were constructed with glass fibre lami-
nates as skins and with PVC closed-cell foams as core.
The glass fibre laminates of the skins are cross-ply laminates constituted of
unidirectional layers of E-glass fibres in an epoxy matrix, arranged in the
sequence [0/90/90/0]. The unidirectional layers were fabricated with unidirec-
tional fabrics of weight 300 gm
2
with glass fibres aligned in a single direction.
The engineering constants of the unidirectional layers referred to the material
directions ( , , L T T ) or (1, 2, 3) were measured in static tests as mean values of
10 tests for each constant. The values obtained are reported in Table 10.1.
Experimental damping analysis of the unidirectional glass fibre layers is invest-
tigated in Chapter 6 and the values of the loss factors derived from this analysis
TABLE 10.1. Engineering constants of the unidirectional glass fibre layers derived from
static tests.
E
L
(GPa) E
T
(GPa)
LT
G
LT
(GPa)
29.9 7.50
0.24 2.25
TABLE 10.2. Loss factors in the material directions of the unidirectional glass fibre layers,
derived from laminate beam vibrations.
f (Hz)
11
(%)
12

22
(%)
66
(%)
50 0.35 0 1.30 1.80
300 0.40 0 1.50 2.00
600 0.45 0 1.65 2.22
The PVC closed-cell foams were supplied in panels of thickness of 15 mm.
Three foams were considered in the experimental investigation differing in their
densities: 60 kg m
3
, 80 kg m
3
and 200 kgm
3
. Mechanical characteristics of the
foams were measured in static tensile tests for the Youngs modulus and the
Poissons ratio, and in static shear tests for the shear modulus. The experimental
results obtained show that the foams are fairly isotropic and the modulus values
derived are reported in Table 10.3.
Sandwich materials were constructed with these foams and with cross-ply
glass-fibre laminates prepared by hand lay-up process, which leads to a nominal
thickness of 1.2 mm for the sandwich skins.
TABLE 10.3. Mechanical characteristics of the foams derived from static tests.
Density of the
foam
(kg m
3
)
Youngs modulus
(MPa)
Poissons ratio
Shear modulus
(MPa)
60 59 0.42
22
80 83 0.43
30
200 240 0.45
80
10.2. Experimental Investigation of the Damping of Sandwich Materials 285
10.2.2 Determination of the Constitutive Damping
Parameters
The damping characteristics of the materials were obtained by subjecting
beams to flexural vibrations. The equipment used is the same as the one used for
the experimental investigation of laminates (Figure 6.1). The test specimen is
supported horizontally as a cantilever beam in a clamping block. An impulse
hammer is used to induce the excitation of the flexural vibrations of the beam near
the clamping box (Figure 10.3) and the beam response is detected near the free
end of the beam by using a laser vibrometer. Next, the excitation and the response
signals are digitalized and processed by a dynamic analyzer of signals. This
analyzer associated with a PC computer performs the acquisition of signals,
controls the acquisition conditions and next performs the analysis of the signals
acquired (Fourier transform, frequency response, mode shapes, etc.).
The flexural beam responses were identified in the frequency domain using
MATLAB Toolbox, and the identification procedure allows us to obtain the
values of the natural frequencies f
i
and the modal loss factors
i
, related to the
specific damping coefficient by the relation
i
= 2
i
.
10.3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
10.3.1 Determination of the Dynamic Characteristics of
the Foams
10.3.1.1 Test Specimens
The experimental investigation of the dynamic properties of the foams has
been implemented according to the experimental process considered in the
standard ASTM E 756 [79], which was introduced in Subsection 7.3.3.1 of
Chapter 7. Properties of the foams were evaluated from the flexural vibrations of a
clamped-free beam 40 mm wide and constituted of two aluminium beams with
foam material interleaved between the two aluminium beams (Figure 10.4). An
aluminium spacer was added in the root section which was closely clamped in a

Figure 10.3. Impact and measuring points.
Clamping box
Impact point Measuring point
x

FIGURE 10.4. Aluminium-foam beam for determining the dynamic characteristics of the
foams.
rigid fixture. The free length and the thicknesses of the aluminium beams were
selected so as to measure the foam characteristics on the frequency range [50,
1,000 Hz]. Thus, the beam dimensions used were a free length equal to 300, 350,
400 and 450 mm, with thicknesses of the aluminium beams of 4 mm.
The experimental results deduced for the damping of the aluminium-foam
beams are reported in Figure 10.5 for the three densities of the foam core. In fact,
these results do not represent the damping of the foam core. They have to be
corrected by considering the damping induced by the aluminium in the damping
of the aluminium-foam beams. This correction is considered hereafter.

FIGURE 10.5. Experimental beam damping derived from the bending of aluminium-foam
beams, for the three densities of the foam.
Clamping block
Foam core
Aluminium core
Aluminium or laminate
skins
Frequency ( Hz )
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(

%

)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
60 kg/m
3
80 kg/m
3
200 kg/m
3
10.3. Results and Discussion 287

FIGURE 10.6. Energies stored in the foam core of aluminium-foam beams for the first
mode of the bending vibrations.
10.3.1.2 Energies Stored in the Test Specimens and Procedure
Figure 10.6 shows a typical example of the values of the different strain ener-
gies stored in the foam core of the aluminium-foam beams for the first mode of
the bending vibrations. These results were obtained using a finite element analysis
in the case of a foam of density 60 kgm
3
and for a length of the beam equal to
300 mm. The results show that the longitudinal transverse shear energy is clearly
higher than the other energies.
Figures 10.7 to 10.9 show the evolution of the energies stored in the aluminium
beams and in the foam core as functions of the frequency for the first three modes.
The results were obtained using a finite element analysis in the case of foams of
density 60 kg m
3
(Figure 10.7), 80 kg m
3
(Figure 10.8) and 200 kg m
3
(Figure
10.9). The results obtained show that the energy stored in the foam cores is higher
than the energy stored in the aluminium beams, except for the first mode of the
beams with a foam core of 200 kgm
3
.
Damping of aluminium was deduced from the flexural vibrations of aluminium
beams. The results obtained show a fairly linear variation of the loss factor from
0.22 % to 0.32 % in the frequency domain of investigation [50, 1,000 Hz].
From the preceding results, it follows that it would be possible to consider only
the longitudinal transverse shear energy stored in the foam cores. In fact, the shear
modulus and the damping of the foams were deduced by fitting the experimental
frequency responses of the aluminium-foam beams with the results deduced from
the modelling considered in Section 10.1 introducing the damping of aluminium.
Frequency ( Hz )
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
E
n
e
r
g
y

(

J

)
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
U
xz
U
xy
x 10
5
U
yy
x 10
4
U
xx
x 10
2
U
yz
x 10
5

FIGURE 10.7. Energies stored in the aluminium beams and in the foam core as functions
of the frequency for the first three modes, in the case of foam density of 60 kg m
3
.

3
.
Frequency ( Hz )
0 200 400 600 800 1000
E
n
e
r
g
y
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
mode 1
mode 2 mode 3
U
core
/U
total
U
skins
/U
total
Frequency ( Hz )
0 200 400 600 800 1000
E
n
e
r
g
y
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
mode 1 mode 2 mode 3
U
skins
/U
total
U
core
/U
total
Frequency ( Hz )
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
E
n
e
r
g
y
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
mode 1
mode 2 mode 3
U
core
/U
total
U
skins
/U
total

3
.
Furthermore, it has been noted (Section 10.2.1) that the foams were isotropic.
So, in the investigation of the dynamic properties it was considered that the
Youngs modulus and the shear modulus of foams was related by the usual
relation of isotropic material, with a Poisson ratio independent of the frequency
equal to the values determined in static tests (Table 10.3).
10.3.1.3 Dynamic Characteristics of the Foams
Figures 10.10 and 10.11 report the results obtained for the shear modulus (Fi-
gure 10.10) and the loss factors (Figure 10.11) as functions of the frequency for
the three densities of the foams: 60, 80 and 200 kg m
3
. These results are deduced
from the experimental investigation and finite element analysis according to the
procedure described previously. In the frequency range studied, it is observed
(Figure 10.10) a fairly linear variation of the shear modulus as a function of the
logarithm of the frequency. The shear modulus increases clearly with the foam
density: the shear modulus is multiplied by about 4 when the foam density is in-
creased from 60 to 200 kg m
3
.
So, the variation of the shear modulus of the foams as function of the fre-
quency can be expressed in the linear form:

c c
log , (MPa), (Hz), G A B f G f = + (10.48)
where the values of the parameters A and B depend on the density of the foams.
The values are reported in Table 10.4.

FIGURE 10.10. Shear modulus of foams as function of frequency deduced from the
experimental investigation and the finite element analysis.

FIGURE 10.11. Damping of foams as function of frequency deduced from the experi-
mental investigation and the finite element analysis.
Frequency ( Hz )
10 100 1000 10000
S
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(

M
P
a

)
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
60 kg/m
3
80 kg/m
3
200 kg/m
3
Frequency ( Hz )
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(

%

)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
60 kg/m
3
80 kg/m
3
200 kg/m
3
TABLE 10.4. Values of the parameters of the frequency variation of the shear modulus of
the foams according to the foam density.
Foam density (kg/m
3
) A B
60 6.58 3.70
80 5.28 5.56
200 4.17 17.8

In contrast, the results of Figure 10.11 show that the foam damping is not much
depending on the foam density. The foam damping decreases with the frequency
according to a general property of the viscoelastic materials. Furthermore, compa-
ring the results of Figure 10.11 with the results of Figure 10.5 shows that the
actual damping of the foams is somewhat different from the damping of the
aluminium-foam beams. So the results of Figure 10.5 need to be corrected using
the finite element procedure to derive the damping of the foams.
10.3.2 Analysis of the Damping of Sandwich Materials
Investigation of damping was implemented in the case of the sandwich mate-
rials considered in Subsection 10.2.1. The experimental investigation was carried
out in the case of flexural vibrations of clamped-free beams with the same condi-
tions as the ones considered in the analysis of the foam properties (Subsection
10.3.1). An aluminium spacer was added in the root section which was closely
clamped in a rigid fixture. The free length of the beams was equal to 300, 350,
400 and 450 mm, and the beam width was equal to 40 mm.
The experimental results obtained are compared with the results deduced from
the modelling developed in Section 10.1. This analysis takes account of the varia-
tions of the shear modulus and damping of foam core as functions of the fre-
quency (Figures 10.10 and 10.11), as well as the variation of the damping of the
unidirectional layers of the skins (Table 10.2).
10.3.2.2 Mode shapes
The shapes of the modes 1 to 6 deduced from finite element analysis are repor-
ted in Figure 10.12 for the free flexural modes of the sandwich beams, in the case
of a beam length of 350 mm and a density of 60 kg m
3
of the foam core. Beam
twisting is observed for the modes 2 and 4. Because of the position of the measu-
ring point (Figure 10.3), these modes are not really observed in the experimental
investigation. So, the analysis implemented hereafter considers only the four
bending modes 1, 3, 5 and 6.

FIGURE 10.12. Free flexural modes of sandwich beams, for a length of 350 mm of the
beams and a density of 60 kg m
3
of the foam core.
10.3.2.3 Damping of the Sandwich Materials
Figure 10.13 compares the results deduced from the experimental investigation
and from modelling for the sandwich materials, in the case of core with foams of
60, 80 and 200 kg m
3
. The comparison shows a good agreement between the
experimental results and the results deduced from modelling. This agreement
mode 1 mode 2
mode 3 mode 4
mode 5 mode 6

FIGURE 10.13. Comparison between the results deduced from experiment and modelling
for the damping of sandwich materials, in the case of core with foams of 60, 80 and 200
kg m
3
.
underlines that the modelling considered is well suited to describe the damping of
sandwich materials constituted of a foam core and laminated skins.
Furthermore, it is observed that damping as a function of the frequency is
discontinuous from one mode to the other, due to a change of the distribution of
the strain energies in the beam volume according to the vibration mode. Damping
of sandwich materials increases when the density of the core foam decreases, so
when the shear modulus of the foam decreases, for a given mode. Also, for a
given mode and foam density, damping of sandwich materials decreases when the
frequency increases, that is associated to the increase of the shear modulus of the
foam as function of the frequency (Figure 10.10) as well as the decrease of the
foam damping with the frequency (Figure 10.11).
The evolution of the damping of the sandwich materials from one mode to the
other depends in fact on different factors as the distribution of the strain energy
between the skins and the foam core, the variation of the shear modulus of the
foam as a function of the frequency (Figure 10.10), the variation of the foam
damping (Figure 10.11) and the variation of the layer damping with the frequency
(Table 10.2). The influence of these different factors is considered in the
following section.
Frequency ( Hz )
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(

%

)
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
60 kg/m
3
80 kg/m
3
200 kg/m
3
Experiment
Modelling
10.4 CHARACTERISTIC FACTORS OF THE
DAMPING OF SANDWICH MATERIALS
10.4.1 Influence of the Shear Modulus of the Foam Core
For a given damping of the foam core, one of the principal factors which
governs the damping of sandwich materials is the shear modulus of the foam core.
Figure 10.14 shows the results derived from a finite element analysis for the
damping of sandwich materials as a function of the value of the shear modulus of
the foam core, in the case of the two first modes of sandwich beams of lengths
300, 350, 400 and 450 mm. The damping considered in the analysis for the foam
core is deduced from the results reported in Figure 10.11. Indeed, the foam dam-
ping is fairly similar when the shear modulus of the foam is increased. The results
of Figure 10.14 show clearly that an increase of the shear modulus of the foam
core yields a significant decrease of the damping of sandwich materials: when the
shear modulus is multiplied by 8, the sandwich damping is divided by a factor
about 4 for the first mode and about 3 for the second mode.
For a given mode and shear modulus of the foam core, damping of sandwich
materials decreases when the frequency increases, then when the length of the

FIGURE 10.14. Influence of the shear modulus of the foam core on the damping of
sandwich materials, for the first two modes of sandwich beams.
Frequency ( Hz )
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(

%

)
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
mode 1
G = 10 MPa
mode 2
G = 20 MPa
G = 30 MPa
G = 80 MPa
10.4. Characteristic Factors of the Damping of Sandwich Materials 295
sandwich beams is increased. This result can be associated to a decrease of the
part of the transverse shear strain energy stored in the foam core.
The variation of the damping from one mode to the other is associated to the
distribution of the strain energies in the skins and the core. Elements on this
aspect are considered in the following subsections.
10.4.2 Energies Dissipated in the Core and Skins
Figures 10.15, 10.16 and 10.17 report the energies dissipated in the core and in
the skins for the first four modes of the bending vibrations of the sandwich beams
of lengths 300, 350, 400 and 450 mm, in the case of foam cores of density 60, 80
and 200 kg m
3
, respectively. These results were derived from finite element mo-
delling.
For the densities of the foam core equal to 60 and 80 kg m
3
, the energy dis-
sipated in the foam core is clearly higher than the energy dissipated in the skins.
Also, it is observed an increase of the energy dissipated in the foam core and a
decrease of the energy dissipated in the skins when the frequency increases as
well as the mode number increases. This behaviour can be associated to the domi-
nant effect of the transverse shear in the foam core, which results from the low
values of the shear modulus of the foam core and which increases with the mode
because of the mode shape.

FIGURE 10.15. Energies dissipated in the core and in the skins for the first four modes of
the bending vibrations of the sandwich beams of lengths 300, 350, 400 and 450 mm, in
the case of a foam core of density 60 kg m
3
.
Frequency ( Hz )
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
D
i
s
s
i
p
a
t
e
d

e
n
e
r
g
y
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
mode 1
U
skins
/U
total
U
core
/U
total

3
.

3
.
Frequency ( Hz )
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
D
i
s
s
i
p
a
t
e
d

e
n
e
r
g
i
e
s
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
mode 1
U
core
/U
total
U
skins
/U
total
Frequency ( Hz )
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
D
i
s
s
i
p
a
t
e
d

e
n
e
r
g
i
e
s
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
mode 1
U
core
/U
total
U
core
/U
total
U
skins
/U
total
U
skins
/U
total
10.4. Characteristic Factors of the Damping of Sandwich Materials 297
Thickness ratio h
core
/h
skins
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
D
i
s
s
i
p
a
t
e
d

e
n
e
r
g
i
e
s
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
mode 1
U
core
/U
total
U
skins
/U
total
mode 2
mode 3
mode 2
mode 3
In contrast, for the density of 200 kg m
3
of the foam core, the energy dissipated
in the foam core increases with the frequency and the mode number, when the
energy dissipated in the skins decreases. Moreover, the energy dissipated in the
foam core is smaller for the modes 1 and 2 and higher for the mode 4. For this
foam density the value of the shear modulus is high, and the results observed can
be associated with two different elements: the distribution of the energy in the
core and skins according to the modes, and the increase of the shear modulus as a
function of the frequency. For the modes 1 and 2, the transverse deformation of
the foam core is less pronounced than for the mode 4, which yields, with a high
value of the shear modulus of the foam core, to a low energy dissipated in the
foam core.
The preceding effect according to the mode shape is also underlined when we
consider the evolution of the energies dissipated as functions of the ratio of the
core thickness to the skin thickness (Figure 10.18). In this figure, the dissipated
energies derived from finite element analysis are reported for the first three modes
of the bending vibrations of sandwich beams of 350 mm long and a foam density
of 60 kg m
3
. Skins of the beams are [0/90]
s
cross-ply laminates. It is observed that
the energy dissipated in the core increases with the thickness of the foam core. For
the first mode, the energy dissipated in the skins is higher than the energy dissi-
pated in the foam core for low values of core thickness: values of core thickness
smaller than about four times the skin thicknesses. Also, the energy dissipated in
the foam core increases when the mode number increases, which shows clearly

FIGURE 10.18. Energies dissipated in the core and in the skins for the first third modes of
the bending vibrations of sandwich beams of lengths 350 mm as functions of the ratio of
core and skins thicknesses, in the case of a foam core of density 60 kg m
3
and (0/90)
s

skins.
that the part of the transverse shear energy dissipated in the foam core increases
with the mode number. This effect is induced by the shapes of the vibration mode.
10.4.3 Effect of the Core Thickness on the Damping
of Sandwich Materials
Figure 10.19 shows the evolution of the damping of the sandwich materials as
a function of the thickness of the foam core, for a foam density of 60 kg m
3
. It is
observed two different evolutions of the loss factors as function of the frequency
according to the foam thickness: for thicknesses of the foam core of 3.5, 5 and 7.5
mm, the loss factor increases as functions of the frequency (Figure 10.19a), when
the loss factor decreases for thicknesses of the core higher or equal to 10 mm
(Figure 10.19b). These two different behaviours can be associated to the evolution
of the distribution of the energies dissipated in the core and skins as functions of
the core thickness. For low values of the core thickness, the effect of the damping
of the skins is dominant and the increase of the damping of the skin layers with
frequency (Table 10.2) induces an increase of the resultant damping of the
sandwich materials. For high values of the skin thicknesses, the effect of the
damping of foam core is dominant and the increase of the shear modulus of the
foam with the frequency (Figure 10.10) as well as the decrease of the foam
damping (Figure 10.11) lead to a decrease of the damping of the sandwich mate-
rials as function of the frequency.
10.5 CONCLUSIONS
An evaluation of the damping of sandwich materials constituted of a foam core
and laminated skins was presented based on the theory of sandwich plates and on
a finite element analysis of the vibrations of a composite structure. The analysis
derived the strain energies stored in the material directions of the foam core and in
the material directions of the layers of the skins. Next, the energy dissipated by
damping in the structure can be obtained as a function of the strain energies and
the damping coefficients associated to the different energies stored in the material
directions of the core and of the layers of the skins.
Damping characteristics of laminates were evaluated experimentally using
beam specimens subjected to an impulse input. The flexural beam responses were
identified in the frequency domain, and the identification procedure allows us to
obtain the values of the natural frequencies and the modal loss factors.
Dynamic properties of the foams of different densities were first measured
using free-clamped beams constituted of two aluminium beams with foam
material interleaved between the two aluminium beams. The experimental invest-
tigation shows a significant increase of the shear modulus of the foams associated
to a decrease of the loss factors as functions of the frequency, depending on the
10.5. Conclusions 299

FIGURE 10.19. Evaluation of the damping of the sandwich materials for various
thicknesses of the foam core, in the case of (0/90)
s
cross-ply laminate skins and a foam
density of 60 kg m
3
: (a) thickness core smaller than 7.5 mm and (b) thickness core higher
than 10 mm.
Frequency ( Hz )
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(

%

)
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
10 mm
15 mm
20 mm
25 mm
30 mm
Core thickness
mode 1
mode 2
(b)
Frequency
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(

%

)
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
mode 1
mode 2
3.5 mm
5 mm
7.5 mm
Core thickness
(a)
foam density. These variations as functions of frequency have to be considered in
the analysis of the damping of the sandwich materials.
Next, modelling was applied to the analysis of the dynamic properties of
sandwich materials constituted of the foams as core and of glass [0/90]
s
cross-ply
laminates as skins. The comparison between the results deduced from the experi-
mental investigation and the results derived from the modelling shows that the
modelling describes fairly well the damping properties of the foam sandwich
materials.
Furthermore, modelling allows us to underline the characteristic factors which
govern the damping of sandwich materials. The principal parameters are the shear
modulus of the foam core and the ratio of the core thickness to the thickness of the
skins. Also, modelling shows clearly the effect of the distribution of the energies
dissipated in the foam core and in the skins on the damping of the sandwich mate-
rials. Damping is more dependent of the energy dissipated in the skins for the first
mode when damping depends essentially on the energy dissipated in the foam
core for the other modes. This effect results from the shape of the modes which
induce a higher transverse shear deformation of the core for modes of high order.

CHAPTER 11
General Formulation of Damping
of Composite Materials and Structures
The purpose of this chapter is to report a general formulation of the different
concepts introduced in the present textbook by applying these concepts to the
analysis of the damping of different laminates and sandwich materials and to the
analysis of the damping and vibrations of a simple shape structure.
11.1 MATERIALS
The materials considered in the analysis are laminate materials, sandwich mate-
rials and laminates with interleaved viscoelastic layers.
The laminate materials are constituted of E-glass fibres in an epoxy matrix and
were fabricated with different layers: unidirectional layers studied in Section 6.2
of Chapter 6, unidirectional woven fabric layers, taffeta layers and serge weave
layers. The reinforcement for unidirectional layers was unidirectional fabrics of
weight 300 gm
2
. In the unidirectional woven fabric, glass fibres are aligned in the
warp direction and are held together by fine weft glass threads, so that the fabric is
mostly unidirectional. The weight of fabrics was 200 gm
2
. The weights of taffeta
fabrics and serge fabrics were 200 gm
2
and 300 gm
2
, respectively.
Laminate materials were prepared by hand lay-up process from epoxy resin
with hardener and glass fabrics. Plates of different dimensions were cured at room
temperature with pressure using vacuum moulding process, and then post-cured in
an oven. The plates were fabricated with 8 or 12 layers according to the weight of
reinforcement in such a way to obtain the same plate thickness (nominal value of
2.4 mm) with the same reinforcement volume fraction (nominal value of 0.41).
The engineering constants of the laminates referred to the material directions
( , , L T T ) or (1, 2, 3) were measured in static tests as mean values of 10 tests for
each constant. The values obtained are reported in Table 11.1. Then, the values of
the reduced stiffnesses were derived and are reported in Table 11.2.
The sandwich materials considered are the sandwich materials studied in
Chapter 10. They were constructed with the previous unidirectional laminates as
skins and with PVC closed-cell foams supplied in panels of thickness of 15 mm.
Chapter 11. General Formulation of the Damping of Composite Materials and Structures 302
TABLE 11.1. Engineering constants of laminates.
Laminate E
L
(GPa) E
T
(GPa)
LT
G
LT
(GPa)
Unidirectional layer 29.9 7.50 0.24 2.25
Unidirectional woven layer 28 11.0 0.24 3.8
Taffeta layer 14 13.5 0.25 2.05
Serge layer 16 15.4 0.24 2.10
TABLE 11.2. Reduced stiffnesses of laminates.
Laminate Q
11
(GPa) Q
12
(GPa) Q
22
(GPa) Q
66
(GPa)
Unidirectional layer 30.3 1.83 7.61 2.25
Unidirectional woven layer 28.6 2.70 11.3 3.8
Taffeta layer 14.9 3.45 14.4 2.05
Serge layer 16.9 3.91 16.3 2.10

16 26
0, 0. Q Q = =
TABLE 11.3. Mechanical characteristics of the foams.
Density (kgm
3
)
Youngs modulus
(MPa)
Poissons ratio
Shear modulus
(MPa)
60 59 0.42 22
80 83 0.43 30
200 240 0.45 80
Three foams were considered differing in their densities: 60 kgm
3
, 80 kgm
3
and
200 kgm
3
. Mechanical characteristics of the foams were measured in static ten-
sile tests for the Youngs modulus and the Poissons ratio, and in static shear tests
for the shear modulus. The values derived are reported in Table 11.3.
In addition the effect of interleaving viscoelastic layers in laminates (Chapter
7) was also considered. The characteristics of the viscoelastic layers and inter-
leaved laminates are reported in Section 7.3.
11.2 MODELLING DAMPING OF LAMINATE BEAMS
AND RECTANGULAR PLATES
Modelling of the damping of beams and rectangular plates made of unidirec-
tional or orthotropic laminates has been considered in Chapter 5 and experimental
investigation of damping of laminates has been developed extensively in Chapter
11.3. Damping Modelling using Finite Element Analysis 303
6. The results obtained show that the material damping can be evaluated by an
energy approach based on the evaluation of the strain energy stored in the material
directions and where the dissipated energy is characterized by damping coeffi-
cients. In the case of beams or rectangular plates the strain energy can be derived
by using the Ritz method.
11.3 DAMPING MODELLING
USING FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
11.3.1 Introduction
The Ritz method is restricted to the analysis of rectangular plates and to the
case where the materials are unidirectional or orthotropic materials. In the case of
other types of materials or complex shape structures, it is necessary to use a finite
element analysis to analyze the dynamic behaviour.
Principle of finite element analysis of a dynamic problem of a structure with
damping included has been considered in Chapters 8 and 9. The energy approach
for the evaluation of damping which has been developed in Chapter 5 by consi-
dering the Ritz method can be extended to any type of materials and to a complex
shape structure by using finite element analysis. The formulation was applied in
Chapter 10 to the case of sandwich materials using finite element analysis asso-
ciated to sandwich plate theory. A general formulation which can be applied to
different composite materials (laminates, laminates with viscoelastic layers,
sandwich materials) and complex shape structures is developed in the present
section. This formulation is based on the first-order laminate theory including the
transverse shear effects.
11.3.2 Stress Field in Composite Materials
Laminates, laminates with interleaved viscoelastic layers and sandwich mate-
rials are constituted of layers with different orientations and properties. The
middle plane is chosen as the reference plane (Oxy). Each layer k is referred to
(Figure 11.1) by the z coordinate of its lower face (
1 k
h

) and upper face (
k
h ).

FIGURE 11.1. Stresses evaluated by finite element analysis in the layers of a finite element.
z
1 k
h

k
h
k k
e
u u u u u
, , , ,
xx k yy k xy k xz k yz k

l l l l l
, , , ,
xx k yy k xy k xz k yz k

The laminate theory taking into account the transverse shear effects is based on
a first-order theory (Section 1.5 of Chapter 1) which expresses the displacement
field as a linear function of z coordinate through the thickness of laminate element.
Furthermore, the laminate theory assumes that the stress
zz
can be neglected
through the thickness of laminate. The strain field and the stress field are deduced
from the previous displacement field and then from the strain-stress relations.
When finite element based on the laminate theory with transverse shear effects
included is used, finite element analysis gives the values of stresses
, , , , ,
xx yy xy yz xz
on the lower face (l) and upper face (u) of each layer
k of each finite element e of the structure (Figure 11.1):

l l l l l
u u u u u
, , , , ,
, , , , .
xx k yy k xy k yz k xz k
xx k yy k xy k yz k xz k

(11.1)
The first-order theory leads to in-plane stresses in layer k which are linear func-
tions of z coordinate of the forms:
( , ) ( , ), , , ,
pk pk pk
a x y z b x y p xx yy xy = + = (11.2)
with
, , .
e e e
pk xxk yyk xyk
= (11.3)
Coefficients and
pk pk
a b in each element e can be deduced from the stresses cal-
culated by the finite element analysis on the lower and upper faces of each layer k.
Note that in-plane stresses are discontinuous at the layer interfaces. We obtain:

( )
u l
u u l
,
,
p k p k
pk
k
k
pk p k p k p k
k
a
e
h
b
e

=
=
(11.4)
with

u u u u
l l l l
, , ,
, , ,
p k xx k yy k xy k
p k xx k yy k xy k

=
=
(11.5)
and where
k
e is the thickness of layer k.
From the first-order theory it results that the transverse shear stresses are uni-
form through the layer thickness and discontinuous between. However a better
estimate can be obtained considering the governing equations of the mechanics of
materials:

0,
0.
xyk
xxk xzk
yyk xyk yzk
x y z
y x z

+ + =

+ + =

(11.6)
These expressions allow us to derive the transverse shear stresses and
xzk yzk

as functions of the in-plane stresses , and .
xxk yyk xyk
Considering Expres-
sion (11.2), Equations (11.6) show that the transverse shear stresses are quadratic
functions of the z coordinate. Moreover the transverse shear stresses are conti-
nuous at the layer interfaces and are zero on the two outer faces of the laminate.
Finite element analysis gives the values of the transverse shear stresses (
l , yz k

l u u
, ,
xz k yz k xz k
) on the lower and upper faces of each layer of each element
e. So, the transverse shear stresses can be expressed as:

2
( , ) ( , ), , ,
rk rk rk
x y z x y r yz xz = + = (11.7)
where the coefficients are deduced from the values of the shear stresses on the
lower and upper faces. Whence:

( )
2 l u
u
1
, , , .
r k r k
rk rk r k rk k
k k k
h r yz xz
h h e

= = + =
+
(11.8)
11.3.3 In-Plane Strain Energy
We consider the case where the layers of the composite material are constituted
of orthotropic materials.
The in-plane energy
d
e
U stored in a given finite element e can be expressed as a
function of the in-plane strain energies related to the material directions as:

d 1 2 6
,
e e e e
U U U U = + + (11.9)
with

1 1 1
2 2 2
6 6 6
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d ,
2
e
e
e
e
e
e
U x y z
U x y z
U x y z

=
=
=
(11.10)
where the integrations are extended over the volume of the finite element e.
The in-plane strains
1 2 6
, and related to the material directions of the
layer are expressed as functions of stresses
1 2 6
, and in the material direc-
tions according to the strain-stress relations as:

1 11 1 12 2
2 12 1 22 2
6 66 6
,
,
,
S S
S S
S

= +
= +
=
(11.11)
ij
S are the compliance constants of the layer related to the
engineering moduli , , and
L T LT LT
E E G by the following expressions:

11 22 12 66
1 1 1
, , , .
LT
L T L LT
S S S S
E E E G
= = = = (11.12)
It results that Expression (11.10) of the strain energy
1
e
U , stored in tension-
compression in the longitudinal direction can be written in the form:

1 11 12
e e e
U U U = + , (11.13)
with

2
11 11 1
12 12 1 2
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d .
2
e
e
e
e
U S x y z
U S x y z

=
=
(11.14)
In each layer, stresses
1 2 6
, and , related to the material directions, can be
expressed as functions of the in-plane stresses , and ,
xx yy xy
related to the
finite element directions (x, y, z), according to the stress transformation relation:

2 2
1
2 2
2
2 2
6
cos sin 2sin cos
sin cos 2sin cos
xx
yy
xy

=

, (11.15)
where is the orientation of the material in the layer.
Whence:

( )

2 4 2 4
11 11
2 2 2
3 3
1
cos sin
2
2 2 sin cos
e
xx yy
e
xy xx yy
xx xy yy xy
U S
x y z

= +
+ +
+ +

(11.16)
( )
( )
( )
( )

2 2 2 2 2
12 12
4 4
2 2
1
4 sin cos
2
sin cos
2 sin cos sin cos d d d .
e
xx yy xy
e
xx yy
xx xy yy xy
U S
x y z

= +
+ +
(11.17)
In the same way, the strain energy
2
U , stored in tension-compression in the
transverse direction can be written in the form:

2 22 12
e e e
U U U = + , (11.18)
with

( )

2 4 2 4
22 22
2 2 2
3 3
1
sin cos
2
2 2 sin cos
e
xx yy
e
xy xx yy
xx xy yy xy
U S
x y z

= +
+ +
(11.19)
Lastly, the in-plane shear strain energy is written as:
( )
( )
( )
( )

2 2 2 2
6 66 66
2
2 2 2
2 2
1
2 sin cos
2
cos sin (11.20)
2 cos sin sin cos d d d
e e
xx yy xx yy
e
xy
yy xy xx xy
U U S
x y z

= = +
.

The in-plane strain energies stored in the finite element e can be expressed as:

11 11 22 22
1 1
12 12 66 66
1 1
, ,
, ,
n n
e e e e
k k
k k
n n
e e e e
k k
k k
U U U U
U U U U
= =
= =
= =
= =

(11.21)
where ( 11, 22, 12, 66)
e
ijk
U ij = are the in-plane strain energies stored in the
layer k of the element e and n is the total number of layers in the lower and upper
skins.
It results from Expressions (11.16) to (11.20) that the in-plane strain energies
stored in layer k of the element e can be expressed as:
( )

4 4
11 11
2 2
3 3
cos sin
2 2 sin cos
e e e
k k xxxxk k yyyyk k
e e
xyxyk xxyyk k k
e e
xx xyk k k yyxyk k k
U S U U
U U
U U

= +
+ +
+ +

(11.22)

( )
( )
( )
( )

2 2
12 12
4 4
2 2
4 sin cos
sin cos
2 sin cos sin cos ,
e e e e
k k xxxxk yyyyk xyxyk k k
e
xxyyk k k
e e
xxxyk yyxyk k k k k
U S U U U
U
U U

= +
+ +
+

(11.23)
( )

4 4
22 22
2 2
3 3
sin cos
2 2 sin cos
e e e
k k xxxxk k yyyyk k
e e
xyxyk xxyyk k k
e e
xx xyk k k yyxyk k k
U S U U
U U
U U

= +
+ +

(11.24)

( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
66 66
2
2 2
2 2
2 sin cos
cos sin
2 sin cos sin cos .
e e e e
k k xxxxk yyyyk xxyyk k k
e
xyxyk k k
e e
xxxyk yyxyk k k k k
U S U U U
U
U U

= +
+

(11.25)
Expressions (11.22) to (11.25) introduce the orientation
k
of layer k.
The energy terms
e
pqk
U ( , , , p q xx yy xy = ) introduced in Expressions (11.22)
to (11.25) can be expressed in the form:
, , , , ,
2
e e e
pqk pqk
S
U I p q xx yy xy = = (11.26)
where S
e
is the area of the finite element e and introducing the integral:

1
d , , , , .
k
k
h
e
ppk pk qk
h
I z p q xx yy xy
= =
(11.27)
Considering Expression (11.2) of the in-plane stresses, this integral can be
expressed as:

( )
( )
( )

3 3 2 2
1 1
1 1
,
3 2
, , , .
e
pqk pk qk k k pk qk qk pk k k pk qk k
I a a h h a b a b h h b b e
p q xx yy xy

= + + +
=
(11.28)
Coefficients , , and ,
pk qk pk pk
a a b bq are derived from Expressions (11.4).
Next, the in-plane strain energies stored in element e are given by Expressions
(11.21) and the total in-plane strain energies stored in the finite element
assemblage is then obtained by summation on the elements as:

11 11 12 12
elements elements
22 22 66 66
elements elements
, ,
, .
e e
e e
U U U U
U U U U
= =
= =

(11.29)
11.3.4 Transverse Shear Strain Energy
The transverse shear strain energy for a given element e can be expressed in the
material directions as:

s 44 55
e e e
U U U = + , (11.30)
with

44 4 4
55 5 5
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d ,
2
e
e
e
e
U x y z
U x y z

=
=
(11.31)
where the integration is extended over the volume of the finite element e.
4 4
and are respectively the transverse shear stress and strain in plane ( , T T )
of material in layer k.
5 5
and are the transverse shear stress and strain in plane
( , L T ).
The transverse shear strains and stresses are related by:

4 4 5 5
, ,
TT LT
G G

= = (11.32)
where and
TT LT
G G

are the transverse shear moduli in planes ( , T T ) and
( , L T ), respectively. It results that the transverse shear strain energies (11.31)
can be written as:

2
4
44
2
5
55
1
d d d ,
2
1
d d d .
2
e
TT e
e
LT e
U x y z
G
U x y z
G
=
=
(11.33)
In each layer k, stresses
4 5
and , relative to the material directions of the
layer, can be expressed as functions of the transverse shear stresses and
yz xz

in the finite element directions (x, y, z) according to the stress transformations:

4
5
cos sin
sin cos
yz
xz

=

. (11.34)
So, the transverse strain energies (11.33) are expressed as:
( )
2 2 2 2
44
1 1
cos sin 2 sin cos d d d ,
2
e
yz xz yz xz
TT e
U x y z
G

= +

(11.35)
( )
2 2 2 2
55
1 1
sin cos 2 sin cos d d d .
2
e
yz xz yz xz
LT e
U x y z
G

= + +

(11.36)
The transverse shear energies can be expressed as:

44 44 55 55
1 1
, ,
n n
e e e e
k k
k k
U U U U
= =
= =

(11.37)
where ( 44, 55)
e
mmk
U mm = are the transverse shear strain energies stored in
layer k of the element.
Introducing the terms:

1 1
1
2 2
d , d ,
2 2
d ,
2
k k
k k
k
k
h h
e e e e
yzyzk yzk xzxz k xzk
h h
h
e e
yzxzk yzk xzk
h
S S
U z U z
S
U z

= =
=

(11.38)
the transverse shear energies stored in layer k are expressed as:
( )
2 2
44
1
cos sin 2 sin cos ,
e e e e
k yzyzk k xzxzk k yzxzk k k
TT
U U U U
G

= + (11.39)
( )
2 2
55
1
sin cos 2 sin cos .
e e e e
k yzyzk k xzxzk k yzxzk k k
LT
U U U U
G

= + + (11.40)
The energy terms , and
e e e
yzyzk xzxzk yzxzk
U U U are derived by introducing Ex-
pression (11.7) of the transverse shear stresses. It results that the energy terms can
be written as:
, , , ,
2
e e e
rsk rsk
S
U I r s yz xz = = (11.41)
with
( ) ( )( ) ( )
5 5 3 3
1 1 1
1 1
,
5 3
, , . (11.42)
e
rsk rk sk k k rk sk sk rk k k rk rk k k
I h h h h h h
r s yz xz

= + + +
=

Constants , , and
rk rk sk sk
are deduced from Equations (11.8).
Next, the transverse shear strain energy stored in element e is given by Expres-
sions (11.37) and the total transverse shear strain energies stored in the finite
element assemblage is obtained by summation on the elements as:

44 44 55 55
elements elements
, .
e e
U U U U = =

(11.43)
11.3.5 Damping of a Composite Structure
The damping of the finite element assemblage can be evaluated by extending to
the finite element analysis the energy formulation approach considered in the case
of the Ritz method (Chapter 5).
The total strain energy stored in the laminated structure is given by:

d 11 22 12 66 44 55
2 U U U U U U U = + + + + + , (11.44)
where the in-plane strain energies
11 22 12 66
, , 2 and U U U U are expressed by
Equations (11.29), and the transverse shear strain energies
44 55
and U U are given
by Equations (11.43).
Then, the energy dissipated by damping in the layer k of the element e is
derived from the strain energy stored in layer as:

11 11 22 22 12 12 66 66
44 44 55 55
2
,
e e e e e e e e e
k k k k k k k k k
e e e e
k k k k
U U U U U
U U

= + + +
+ +
(11.45)
introducing the specific damping coefficients
e
pqk
of the layer. These coeffi-
cients are related to the material directions ( , , L T T ) of the layer:
11
and
e
k

22
e
k
are the damping coefficients in traction-compression in the L direction and
T direction of layer, respectively;
12
e
k
is the in-plane coupling coefficient;
66
e
k

is the in-plane shear coefficient;
44 55
and
e e
k k
are the transverse shear damping
coefficients in planes ( , T T ) and ( , L T ), respectively.
The damping energy dissipated in the element e is next obtained by summation
on the layers of element as:

1
,
n
e e
k
k
U U
=
=
(11.46)
and the total energy U dissipated in the finite element assemblage is then ob-
tained by summation on the elements:

elements
.
e
U U =
(11.47)
Finally, the damping of the finite element assemblage is characterised by the
damping coefficient of the assemblage derived from relation:

d
U
U

= . (11.48)
It has to be noted that the in-plane coupling energy
12
e
U is much lower than the
other in-plane energies and this energy can be neglected.
11.3.6 Procedure for Evaluating the Damping
of Composite Structure
A general procedure was implemented to evaluate the damping of a structure
using finite element analysis. This procedure is based on the previous formulation
and can be applied to any structure for which the damping characteristics are dif-
ferent according to the layers and the elements of the assemblage. In the
procedure, the finite element analysis is used first to establish the eigen-equation
of the structure vibrations. The equation is solved to obtain the natural frequencies
and the corresponding mode shapes. Next, the stresses on the lower and upper
faces of each layer are read in each element of the finite element assemblage for
each vibration mode. The different energies are calculated according to the formu-
lation developed in the previous sections and the damping
i
for each mode i is
evaluated according to Equation (11.48).
The formulation considered is based on the laminate theory including the
transverse shear effects. Results that we derived from the application of this for-
mulation have shown that this formulation can be applied to all the materials
considered in Section 11.1: laminate materials, laminate materials with inter-
leaved viscoelastic layers and sandwich materials.
In the case of laminate materials, the results deduced from the formulation
show that the transverse shear strain energies can be neglected with regard to the
in-plane strain energies. So, the damping is induced by the in-plane behaviour of
laminate layers.
In the case of sandwich materials, the results derived show that the behaviour
of materials obtained by considering finite elements based on the laminate theory
including the transverse shear effects is the same as the behaviour obtained by
considering finite elements based on the sandwich theory (Chapter 10). Moreover,
the results obtained show that the transverse shear strain energies are much higher
than the in-plane strain energies. Damping in sandwich materials is induced by the
transverse shear behaviour of sandwich core for large thicknesses of the core.
A similar behaviour as in the case of sandwich materials is observed in the case
of laminate materials with interleaved viscoelastic layers. Damping is induced by
the transverse behaviour of the viscoelastic layers.
Finally, the results deduced from the previous finite element damping formu-
lation is general and can be applied to laminate materials, sandwich materials and
laminate materials with interleaved viscoelastic layers.
11.4 INVESTIGATION OF THE DAMPING OF
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
11.4.1 Determination of the Constitutive Damping
Parameters
The damping characteristics of the materials can be obtained by subjecting
beams to flexural vibrations. The equipment is shown in Figure 6.1. The test spe-
cimen is supported horizontally as a cantilever beam in a clamping block. An
impulse hammer is used to induce the excitation of the flexural vibrations of the
beam and the beam response is detected by using a laser vibrometer. Next, the
excitation and the response signals are digitalized and processed by a dynamic
analyzer of signals. This analyzer associated with a PC computer performs the
acquisition of signals, controls the acquisition conditions and next performs the
analysis of the signals acquired (Fourier transform, frequency response, mode
shapes, etc.).
In the case of laminate materials, the damping characteristics of the beams are
deduced from the Fourier transform of the beam response to an impulse input by
fitting this experimental response with the analytical response of the beam which
was derived in Subsection 6.2.4.1 of Chapter 6 using the Ritz method. This fitting
is obtained by a least square method which allows us to obtain the values of the
natural frequencies f
i
and the modal loss factors
i
, related to the specific damping
coefficient by the relation
i
=2
i
.
In the case of laminate materials with interleaved viscoelastic layers and in the
case of sandwich materials, it is not possible to derive the beam response using
the Ritz method. So, this response is obtained by using a finite element analysis
and fitting the results with the experimental response allows us to obtain the
modal loss factors.
11.4. Investigation of the Damping of Composite Materials 313
11.4.2 Damping of the Glass Fibre Laminates
The experimental evaluation of damping was performed on beams of different
lengths: 160, 180 and 200 mm so as to have a variation of the values of the peak
frequencies. Beams had a nominal width of 20 mm and a nominal thickness of 2.4
mm.
Figures 11.2 to 11.5 show the experimental results obtained for damping in the
case of unidirectional glass fibre composites (Figure 11.2), unidirectional glass
cloth composites (Figure 11.3), glass taffeta composites (Figure 11.4) and glass
serge composites (Figure 11.5). The results are reported for the first three bending
modes and for the different lengths of the beams as functions of the frequency,
considering different orientations of glass fibres. For a given fibre orientation, it is
observed that damping increases when the frequency is increased. The values of
the damping increase when the frequency is increased from 50 Hz to 600 Hz are
reported in Table 11.4 for the different glass fibre composites considered. The
table shows that the damping increase is fairly the same for the different fibre
orientations in the case of a given laminate. The increase is fairly higher in the
case of unidirectional laminates (21 to 26 %) and unidirectional cloth laminates
(18 to 22 %) than in the case of taffeta laminates (15 to 20 %) and serge laminates
(17 to 21 %).
The variations of the loss factor with fibre or cloth orientation are given in
Figures 11.6 to 11.8 for the three frequencies 50, 300 and 600 Hz. In the case of
unidirectional glass fibre laminates and unidirectional glass cloth laminates, the
transverse damping is higher than the longitudinal damping, and the damping is
maximum at a fibre orientation of about 60 for the glass fibre composites. In the
case of taffeta and serge laminates, the damping variation is symmetric with a
damping maximum for the orientation of 45.
TABLE 11.4. Damping increase (%) of the different laminates, in the frequency range
[50, 600 Hz].
Fibre orientation () 0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Unidirectional glass fibre
composites
21 24 26 23 26 23 27
Unidirectional glass cloth
composites
19 20 21 19 22 20 18
Glass taffeta composites 15 17 20 19 20 18 15
Glass serge composites 18 19 21 17 21 19 18

FIGURE 11.2. Experimental results obtained for the damping as functions of the frequency
for different fibre orientations, in the case of unidirectional glass fibre composites.

for different orientations, in the case of unidirectional glass cloth composites.
Frequency (Hz)
0 200 400 600 800
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.7
=0
=15
=30
=45
=75
=90
=60
Frequency (Hz)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
=0
=15
=90
=75
=45
=60
=30

for different orientations, in the case of glass taffeta composites.

for different orientations, in the case of glass serge composites.
Frequency (Hz)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
=0, =90
=15, =75
=30, =60
=45
Frequency (Hz)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
=0, =90
=15, =75
=30, =60
=45

FIGURE 11.6. Variation of the loss factor as a function of fibre orientation in the case of
unidirectional glass fibre composites. Comparison between experimental results and
modelling.

FIGURE 11.7. Variation of the loss factor as a function of orientation in the case of
unidirectional cloth fibre composites. Comparison between experimental results and
modelling.
Frequency (Hz)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
f =50 Hz
f =300 Hz
f =600 Hz
f =50 Hz
f =300 Hz
f =600 Hz
Modelling
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
f =50 Hz
f =300 Hz
f =600 Hz
f =50 Hz
f =300 Hz
f =600 Hz
Modelling

FIGURE 11.8. Variation of the loss factor as a function of orientation in the case of glass
taffeta or serge composites. Comparison between experimental results and modelling.
The analysis using the Ritz method (Section 5.5 of Chapter 5) or the analysis
using the finite element method (Section 11.3 of this chapter) can be applied to
the experimental results obtained for the bending of beams. The beams were con-
sidered in the form of plates with one edge clamped and with the others free. The
results obtained are identical by using either the Ritz analysis or the finite element
analysis, and these results are reported in Figures 11.6 to 11.8. A good agreement
is obtained with the experimental results. The values of the loss factors in the
material directions considered for modelling the damping results are reported in
Tables 11.5 to 11.8 for the frequencies 50, 300 and 600 Hz. The loss factors are
fairly identical for the taffeta laminates and serge laminates. The increase of

TABLE 11.5. Loss factors derived from modelling in the case of unidirectional glass fibre
laminates.
f (Hz)
11
(%)
12

22
(%)
66
(%)
50 0.35 0 1.30 1.80
300 0.40 0 1.50 2.00
600 0.45 0 1.65 2.22
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
f =50 Hz
f =300 Hz
f =600 Hz
f =50 Hz
f =300 Hz
f =600 Hz
Modelling
TABLE 11.6. Loss factors derived from modelling in the case of unidirectional glass cloth
laminates.
f (Hz)
11
(%)
12

22
(%)
66
(%)
50 0.50 0 1.24 1.61
300 0.55 0 1.40 1.85
600 0.58 0 1.43 2.11
TABLE 11.7. Loss factors derived from modelling in the case of glass taffeta laminates.
f (Hz)
11
(%)
12

22
(%)
66
(%)
50 0.66 0 0.65 1.50
300 0.83 0 0.84 1.75
600 0.89 0 0.9 1.80
TABLE 11.8. Loss factors derived from modelling in the case of glass serge laminates.
f (Hz)
11
(%)
12

22
(%)
66
(%)
50 0.67 0 0.67 1.53
300 0.83 0 0.83 1.78
600 0.89 0 0.89 1.83

fibres in the 90 direction from the unidirectional laminates to taffeta and serge
laminates leads to an increase of the loss factor
11
in the 0 direction, a decrease
of the loss factor
22
in the 90 direction and a decrease of the shear loss factor
66
.
11.4.3 Damping Comparison between Taffeta Laminates,
Serge Laminates and Cross-Ply Laminates
Figure 11.9 compares the results obtained for damping in the case of taffeta
laminates, serge laminates and cross-ply laminates, for 0 orientation of the lami-
nates. Two cross-ply laminates are considered: [(0/90)
2
]
s
and [0
2
/90
2
]
s
. Damping
of [(0/90)
2
]
s
laminates is slightly higher than that of [0
2
/90
2
]
s
laminates. This fact
results from the damping of the 90 layers which are more external in the
[(0/90)
2
]
s
laminates.

FIGURE 11.9. Comparison between damping of taffeta and serge laminates and damping
of cross-ply laminates, for 0 orientation of the laminates.
In Figure 11.9, it is observed that the damping of taffeta and serge laminates is
clearly higher than the damping of cross-ply laminates. This increase of damping
may be associated with the energy which is dissipated by friction between the
warp fibres and weft fibres, in the case of the taffeta and serge laminates.
11.4.4 Damping of the Unidirectional Glass Fibre
Laminates with Interleaved Viscoelastic Layers
As in the case of unidirectional composites (Subsection 11.4.1), the experi-
mental evaluation of damping was performed on beams 20 mm wide of different
lengths: 160, 180 and 200 mm. An extended experimental investigation is deve-
loped in Chapter 7 (Subsection 7.3) in the case of glass laminates with a single
viscoelastic layers e
0
of thickness 0.2 mm interleaved in the middle plane, lami-
nates with a single layer of thickness 2e
0
and laminates with two viscoelastic layers
of thicknesses e
0
interleaved on both sides from the middle plane.
The Youngs modulus and the loss factor of the viscoelastic layers were ob-
tained (Chapter 7) following the standard ASTM E 756 [79]. These properties
were evaluated from the flexural vibrations of clamped-free beams 10 mm wide
and constituted of two aluminium beams with a layer of the viscoelastic material
interleaved between the two aluminium beams of the test specimens. The free
lengths and the thicknesses of the aluminium beams were selected so as to
measure the dynamic properties on the frequency range [50, 600 Hz]. The
Youngs modulus of the viscoelastic material was deduced from the natural
Frequency (Hz)
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

i

(
%
)
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
[(0/90)
2
]
s
[0
2
/90
2
]
s
Taffeta
Serge
frequencies of the test specimens and the loss factor was evaluated by applying
either the modelling considered in Section 7.2 of Chapter 7 or the modelling
developed in Section 11.3 of this chapter. Figures 7.8 and 7.9 report the expe-
rimental results obtained, using logarithmic scales for the Youngs modulus and
for the frequency. In the frequency range studied, it is observed linear variations
for the logarithm of the Youngs modulus and for the loss factor of the visco-
elastic material as functions of the frequency.
Next, the loss factor of the glass fibre laminates with interleaved viscoelastic
layers can be derived from the modelling considered in Section 11.3. As an
example, the results obtained are compared with the experimental results in Figure
11.10, for the first two modes of the test specimens, in the case of a single
interleaved viscoelastic layer of 0.2 mm thick, for the different free lengths of the
test specimens: 160, 180 and 200 mm. It is observed that the results deduced from
the modelling describe fairly well the experimental damping variation obtained as
a function of the fibre orientation.
11.4.5 Damping of the Sandwich Materials
An extended analysis of the damping of the sandwich materials was developed
in Chapter 10.
As in the case of the viscoelastic layers (previous subsection), the experimental
investigation of the dynamic properties of the PVC foams were evaluated from the
flexural vibrations of a clamped-free beam 40 mm wide and constituted of two
aluminium beams with foam material interleaved between the two aluminium
beams. An aluminium spacer was added in the root section which was closely
clamped in a rigid fixture. The free length and the thicknesses of the aluminium
beams were selected so as to measure the foam characteristics on the frequency
range [50, 1,000 Hz]. Thus, the beam dimensions used were a free length equal to
300, 350, 400 and 450 mm, and thicknesses of the aluminium beams of 4 mm.
Investigation of damping was implemented in the case of sandwich materials
constituted of glass [0/90]
s
laminates as skins and PVC foams as core. The
experimental investigation was carried out in the case of flexural vibration of
clamped-free beams with the same conditions as the ones considered in the
previous subsection. An aluminium spacer was added in the root section which
was closely clamped in a rigid fixture. The free length of the beams was equal to
300, 350, 400 and 450 mm, and the beam width was equal to 40 mm. The
experimental loss factors were derived from the frequency responses for the first
four modes. The results are reported in Figure 10.13 for the three foam densities
under consideration.
Next, the damping of sandwich materials can be evaluated by considering
modelling. The results obtained show that the evaluation of the damping is
identical when either the modelling implemented in Section 10.1 based on the
sandwich theory or the modelling developed in Section 11.3 is used. It has to be
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
s
s

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
0
1
2
3
4
5
1st mode
2nd mode
1st mode
2nd mode
modelling
experiment

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 11.10. Comparison between the experimental results and the results deduced
from the modelling, in the case of a single viscoelastic layer 0.2 mm thick, for test
specimen lengths of: (a) l =160 mm, (b) l =180 mm, (c) l =200 mm.
noted that modelling must take into account the variations of the properties of
skins and core as functions of the frequency. The results derived from modelling
are compared to the experimental results in Figure 10.13.
11.5 DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF
A COMPOSITE STRUCTURE
As an application, modelling developed in Section 11.3 and the results deduced
from the investigation developed in Section 11.4 for the damping of the different
materials were applied to the analysis of the simple shape structure of Figure
11.11. Three types of materials were used for the structure: glass serge laminate
of thickness of 5 mm; glass serge laminate with interleaved viscoelastic layer 0.2
mm thick; sandwich material with PVC foam 15 mm thick and density of 60 kg
m
3
, and glass [0/90]
s
skins 1.2 mm thick. The damping properties of these
different materials were considered in the previous section. The different mate-
rials of the structure were chosen in such a way to have the same stiffness of the
structure. The structure was clamped in a clamping block of dimensions 150 mm
150 mm. An impulse hammer was used to induce the excitation of the
vibrations of the structure. The response of the structure was detected by using a

Figure 11.11. Simple shape structure.
Clamping block
Measuring point
Impact point
560 mm
80 mm
150 mm
150 mm
11.5. Dynamic Response of a Structure 323
laser vibrometer. Different impact points and measuring points were considered to
induce and to detect all the vibration modes of the structure.
Figure 11.12 shows the shapes of the first six modes deduced from finite
element analysis in the case where the structure is constituted of serge laminate or
serge laminate with interleaved viscoelastic layer. In the case of sandwich
material, modes 1 and 2 are inverted. Mode 1 is a twisting mode, mode 2 a longi-
tudinal bending mode and mode 3 a transverse bending mode. The other modes
combine these different effects.
The loss factors of the modes were evaluated by applying the modelling
developed in Section 11.3 to the structure considered. The results obtained for the
damping are reported in Tables 11.9 to 11.11, for the three different materials.
The modal loss factors were also deduced from experimental investigation where
the responses of the structure were identified in the frequency domain using
MATLAB Toolbox. The results are compared in Tables 11.9 to 11.11 for the first
ten modes. Also, tables report the frequencies of the free natural modes of the
structure deduced from experiment and finite element analysis. A good agreement
is observed between the results derived from modelling and the experimental
results. Interleaving viscoelastic layer does not change significantly the frequency
of the modes. Compared to the damping of the structure constituted of serge
laminate, the damping of the first two modes is increased by a factor of about 5
when the structure is constituted of the sandwich material. For the other modes,
the damping is increased by a factor of 1.5 to 2. In the case of the structure
constituted of the serge laminate with interleaved viscoelastic layer, the damping
of mode 2 (a twisting mode) is lower than the structure with sandwich material.
The damping of the other modes is greatly increased, by a factor 6 to 12 with
respect to the structure constituted of the serge laminate.
Next, the modal responses of the structure were derived by finite element
analysis using a mode superposition method (Chapter 9). This analysis considers
the modal loss factors obtained previously and the analysis was nonlinear so as to
take into account the variation of the moduli of the materials with the frequency.
Figure 11.13 compares the frequency responses of the structure constituted of the
different materials derived from the finite element analysis with the frequency
responses obtained by the experimental investigation. For these responses the
impact point and the measuring point considered are reported in Figure 11.11. The
modal responses derived from finite element analysis were adjusted so as to have
the amplitude response equal to zero for the frequency equal to zero. Next the
experimental responses were fitted so as to have the same amplitude of the finite
element analysis response and the experimental response for the first peak. The
responses are reported with the same scale for the response amplitude.
Due to the mode shapes and the positions of the impact and measuring points
(Figure 11.11), the vibration modes 1, 5 and 6 are not detected in the case where
the structure is constituted of serge laminate or serge laminate with interleaved
viscoelastic layer. Modes 2 and 3 combine to yield two resonance peaks at
frequencies of 153 Hz and 215 Hz, and an anti-resonance peak at 180 Hz. Mode 4
leads to a resonance peak at 341 Hz, and modes 7 and 8 to a resonance peak about
475 Hz.

FIGURE 11.12. Examples of the shapes of the vibration modes of the structure constituted
of serge laminate or serge laminate with interleaved viscoelastic layer.
mode 1
mode 2
mode 3
mode 4
mode 5 mode 6
TABLE 11.9. Comparison of the modal loss factors deduced from modelling and the ones
obtained by experimental investigation, in the case of the structure constituted of the
serge laminate.
Modelling Experiment
Mode frequency Loss factor Mode frequency Loss factor
mode 1 107 0.95 109 0.98
mode 2 153 0.94 155 0.96
mode 3 215 0.82 216 0.84
mode 4 341 0.97 341 1.05
mode 5 345 0.99 348 1.01
mode 6 457 1.03 456 1.05
mode 7 471 0.96 473 0.99
mode 8 475 0.99 476 1.15
mode 9 538 1.01 540 1.05
mode 10 556 1.05 559 1.07

serge laminate with interleaved viscoelastic layer.
mode 1 108 5.74 110 5.80
mode 2 153 2.80 155 2.88
mode 3 216 9.74 215 9.65
mode 4 343 14.3 345 14.4
mode 5 348 11.3 351 11.1
mode 6 456 12.1 455 12.4
mode 7 471 7.39 474 7.52
mode 8 477 9.75 480 9.65
mode 9 540 9.41 543 9.45
mode 10 562 10.4 565 10.7
sandwich material.
mode 1 109 4.25 110 4.30
mode 2 148 4.99 150 4.80
mode 3 423 1.89 425 1.95
mode 4 545 1.69 543 1.82
mode 5 588 1.64 590 1.70
mode 6 630 1.62 633 1.68
mode 7 767 1.56 769 1.70
mode 8 830 1.54 834 1.60
mode 9 853 1.53 855 1.63
mode 10 955 1.50 958 1.58

In the case of the structure constituted of the sandwich material, the vibration
modes 2, 3 and 5 are not detected. Modes 1, 4, 6 and 7 yield resonance peaks of
109, 545, 588 and 767 Hz, respectively.
The amplitudes of the peaks are slightly decreased in the case of the structure
constituted of the sandwich material. However, the higher damping is obtained in
the case of the structure constituted of the serge laminate with interleaved
viscoelastic layer. A significantly higher damping could be obtained using a
thicker viscoelastic layer.
In fact, the purpose of this section was to show that the modelling considered,
associated to the experimental characterisation of the dynamic properties of the
constituents, was well suited to the analysis of the damped response of a structure
constituted of different composite materials. The agreement between the expe-
rimental dynamic responses and the responses deduced from the modelling cor-
roborates this ability.
11.6 CONCLUSIONS
Modelling of the damping properties of composite materials was developed
considering the first-order laminate theory including the effects of the transverse
shear. Finite element analysis allows us to derive the different strain energies
stored in the material directions of the constituents of composite materials, and
next, the energy dissipated by damping in the materials and the composite
structure can be obtained as a function of the strain energies and the damping
coefficients associated to the different energies stored in the material directions.

FIGURE 11.13. Frequency responses of the structure constituted of three different
materials: (a) glass serge laminate, (b) glass serge laminate with interleaved viscoelastic
layer and (c) sandwich material.
Frequency ( Hz )
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(

d
B

)
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
Finite element analysis
(a)
(b)
Frequency ( Hz )
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(

d
B

)
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40

FIGURE 11.13 (continued). Frequency responses of the structure constituted of three
different materials: (a) glass serge laminate, (b) glass serge laminate with interleaved
viscoelastic layer and (c) sandwich material.
Modelling so considered can be applied to structures made of laminates, laminates
with interleaved viscoelastic layers, as well as sandwich materials.
Damping characteristics of laminates were evaluated experimentally using
beam specimens subjected to an impulse input. Loss factors were then derived by
fitting the experimental Fourier responses with the analytical motion responses
expressed in modal coordinates.
The damping characteristics of the composite materials and of the constituents
can be deduced by applying modelling to the flexural vibrations of free-clamped
beams. So it can be obtained: the loss factors in the material directions of the dif-
ferrent layers of laminated materials, the damping characteristics of the visco-
elastic layers, as well as the ones of the foam cores. The analysis has to be imple-
mented as a function of the frequency because of the variations with the frequency
of the moduli and of the damping properties of the constituents.
Next, modelling can be applied to evaluate the damping properties of struc-
tures constituted of laminates, laminates with interleaved viscoelastic layers or
sandwich materials. Then, the dynamic responses of structures can be derived by
using a nonlinear mode superposition method. The application to a simple shape
structure showed that the procedure developed is well suited to the description of
the experimental results obtained.

Frequency ( Hz )
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(

d
B

)
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
(c)
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and Structures

J ean-Marie Berthelot is an Emeritus Professor at the Institute for Advanced
Materials and Mechanics (ISMANS), Le Mans, France. His current research is on
the mechanical behaviour of composite materials and structures. He has published
extensively in the area of composite materials and is the author of a textbook
entitled Composite Materials, Mechanical Behavior and Structural Analysis
published by Springer, New York, in 1999.

DynamicsComposites Jean-Marie Berthelot

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Jean-Marie Berthelot

Dynamics of Composite Materials

is directed in the direction of increasing layer number. Each layer k is referred

and the tangential unit vector t

is the unit vector of z direction. The loads

are the elements of the inverse matrix of [D

coefficients are the flexural compliance matrix components, derived

are given by:

are the components of the inverse matrix

B introduces the local derivatives of the interpolation functions.

is the vector of the nodal point velocities of the element e

are the displacement, velocity and acceleration vec-

, respectively. The solution to Equation (9.1) is

at the central time t is expressed as function of the displacements

known at time 0 t = , the acceleration

at time t t + . Next, this acceleration is

and the velocity

the velocity matrix at time 0 t = .

K of the finite element e may be

in the material directions in the forms:

K is obtained by assemblage on the elements

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