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Exchange Teachers as another Link in Binding the [British] Empire in the Interwar Years - Kay Whitehead 1 La Educacin Fsica Comparada en Espaa (1806-1936) - Xavier Torrebadella Flix
Gender and Power Constructions in Visual Political Reporting - Susanne Kinnebrock, Thomas Knieper 54 El Franquismo Autrquico, la Mujer y la Educacin Fsica - Gonzalo Ramrez-Macas
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Los Sistemas Educativos: Perspectiva Histrica, Cultural y Sociolgica Mariano Gonzlez Delgado 103 Sex, Identity and Hermaphrodites in Iberia, 15001800 - Ana Ins Renta Davids 106 List of Reviewers 111
Exchange Teachers as another Link in Binding the [British] Empire in the Interwar Years Kay Whitehead1
1) Flinders University. Australia Date of publication: February 23 , 2014 Edition period: February 2014 - June 2014
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To cite this article: Whitehead, K. (2014) Exchange Teachers as another Link in Binding the [British] Empire in the Interwar Years . Social and Education History, 3(1), 1-24. doi:10.4471/hse.2014.01
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE The terms and conditions of use are related to the Open Journal System and to Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY).
HSESocial & Education History Vol. 3 No.1 February 2014 pp. 1-24
Exchange Teachers as another Link in Binding the [British] Empire in the Interwar Years
Kay Whitehead Flinders University
Abstract
This article focuses on exchange teachers from Great Britain plus Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa, these countries constituting the white settler dominions of the British Empire. Participants in the League of Empires exchange scheme were mostly white middle class women elementary teachers. Reports of their work in newspapers and magazines show that they used whiteness as a strategy to differentiate the lands and peoples they encountered during their year-long overseas appointment, as well as their experiences of education in government school systems that were underpinned by race thinking. At the same time, they affirmed the British Empire and white settler national identities. Ultimately, exchange teachers were implicated in a transnational politics of whiteness binding the white settler dominions to each other and to the imperial centre in the interwar years. Keywords: exchange teachers, whiteness, British Empire
HSESocial & Education History Vol. 3 No.1 February 2014 pp. 1-24
Profesores de Intercambio como Otro Vnculo para Unir el Imperio [Britnico] en los Aos de Entre Guerras
Kay Whitehead Flinders University
Resumen
Este artculo est enfocado en profesores de intercambio de Gran Bretaa, Australia, Canad, Nueva Zelanda y Sudfrica, pases que constituyen las zonas pobladas por los colonos blancos del Imperio Britnico. Los participantes en la Liga de Intercambio del Imperio fueron mayormente mujeres de raza blanca de clase media y profesoras de escuela. Artculos de su trabajo en peridicos y revistas son evidencia de que usaron su raza como estrategia para diferenciar las tierras y la gente que llegaron a conocer durante su ao en el exterior, as como su experiencia de educacin en el sistema escolar pblico que tambin estaba mantenido por una filosofa de raza. Al mismo tiempo, afirmaron la identidad nacional del colono blanco y el Imperio Britnico. Al final, las profesoras de intercambio estaban implicadas en una poltica transnacional de la raza blanca ligando unas con otras las zonas colonizadas por los blancos as como con el centro imperial en los aos entre las guerras. Palabras Clave: profesores de intercambio, raza blanca, Imperio Britnico
n recent years, the circulation of people, ideas and information beyond national borders has attracted historians attention in several Englishspeaking countries. Moving beyond the traditional concerns of politics and economics, new imperial histories are exploring reciprocal social and cultural relationships around the British Empire, and especially the notion that the empire shaped the metropole itself (Woollacott 2009, p. 20; Boucher, Carey & Ellinghaus 2009). Likewise, transnational historians seek to disrupt the binary of metropole and periphery and understand how ideas and practices are reconfigured in local contexts (Lake & Reynolds 2009; Buckner & Francis 2006). To these ends, there is an expanding body of research in the history of education which focuses on teachers mobility across national borders in the early to mid-twentieth century. For example, Goodman (2002), Morris Matthews (2005) and Whitehead (2010) have explored the lives and work of New Zealand and British women university graduates who left their home countries to teach in wealthy corporate schools around the British Empire on short-term contracts. Zimmermans (2006) focus is American teachers who travelled abroad in the twentieth century. Governments and other organisations also recruited overseas teachers to supplement local workforces: During the Boer War, for example, three hundred Canadian, New Zealand and Australian women teachers were employed in the South African War concentration camps (Reidi, 2005). And a large cohort of British teachers immigrated to the province of Saskatchewan in Canada in the interwar years (Barber 2006). Whatever the contexts in which they lived and worked, teachers were implicated in the transfer of knowledge across national borders. This article focuses on a small but steady stream of exchange teachers who moved among the white settler dominions of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, and Great Britain during this period. Opting for temporary posts overseas, exchange teachers lived and worked in another country for one year while retaining their permanent positions at home. Their salaries were also paid by their home countrys employer (Register, 17 July 1925, p. 8). The first section of the article provides a profile of teachers who joined the League of Empires exchange scheme. Beginning with British teachers who chose to work in the white settler dominions, the following sections examine teachers perspectives of their overseas posts as
Joyce was used to Canadas extremely cold winters but modern Canadian homes had central heating. She had expected similar home comforts in an equivalent white settler dominion. Australian exchange teachers had some difficulty acclimatising to Canadian winters, and snow at Christmas was deemed not natural (Gilgandra Weekly and Castlereagh, 2 February 1939, p. 4). In contrast Miss Louis from New Zealand gave a vivid description of her stay in Sydney [Australia] during the heat wave ( Evening Post, 11 March 1940, p. 14). For the most part, dominions exchange teachers conceptualised each others students as essentially the same. Kids are kids wherever they are, claimed two Australian teachers in Canada (Gilgandra Weekly and
It was one thing to teach about Indigenous peoples as a primitive race at home in South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada, it was quite another to be disempowered by the same race thinking in the imperial centre. Gladys Schmidt from South Africa soon showed that I was merely an ordinary white person (Recorder, 2 May 1927, p. 2). An exchange teacher from New Zealand restored the balance of power simply: When he gave lectures illustrated with lantern slides, he cut out the Maoris of which they have heard so much and told the boys about the schools and industries and general conditions (League of Empire 1934, p. 33). It seemed that at least some exchange teachers from the white settler dominions spent much of their year reassuring the imperial centre that their corner of the British Empire was indeed, white, as well as modern and progressive. Cementing Ties in a Quiet, Unobtrusive Effective Way In a report to the League of Empire in 1934, the LCC stated that there is good ground for believing that the operation of the interchange scheme has been of great benefit on both sides, not only to the individual teachers who have acquired this additional experience, but to schools and the educational system generally (League of Empire 1934, p. 25). The League of Empire, its supporters, administrators in the various government school systems, and the exchange teachers articulated a range of benefits of the exchange scheme in the interwar years. Firstly, there was ample evidence of great gain to the school children (League of Empire 1934, p. 8) from contact with exchange teachers. The Chairman of the League of Empire stated, during the actual term of exchange, the teacher is, for the pupils, a living representative from parts of the world otherwise known to them only by hearsay, and a means of obtaining first-hand information (Times, 2 July 1938, p. 5). This meant that teachers carried an immense responsibility for what they put into students minds (Examiner, 2 July 1938, p. 5) but they also had greater
When they returned from their overseas posts, exchange teachers brought back with them things of value to their society ( Evening Post, 19 July 1935, p. 15). Children at home were treated to new knowledge and ideas, and so benefited from the exchange teachers liberal education. Likewise, colleagues were thought to profit by their example (Argus, 28 March 1916, p. 5). In addition, exchange teachers submitted reports of their year overseas, from which the Education Department in New Zealand derived much valuable information, indeed first-hand information secured by these exchange teachers (Evening Post, 12 July 1930, p. 10). However, an Australian government official did not think it was much value to the State and he could not find much merit in it as a means of improving the teaching service (Courier-Mail, 10 October 1934, p. 15). His standpoint was not shared in a report about women exchange teachers: Each teacher returning from her year of new experiences will pass on to an ever-widening circle the knowledge she has gained of other countries and other peoples (New Zealand Herald, 5 May 1923, p. 4). Superseding the advantages to children, teachers, local communities and school systems, was the claim that the exchange system is proving another link in binding the Empire (Brisbane Courier, 7 May 1930, p. 14). Indeed, exchange teachers were cementing Empire ties in a quiet, unobtrusive, but withal, effective way (League of Empire 1934, p. 31). There were frequent references to exchange teachers as apostles and true missionaries of education in the Commonwealth of Nations in the interwar years ( E.g. Evening Post, 1 June 1927, p. 10; Examiner, 2 July 1938, p. 5). A more extravagant claim for the exchange scheme was that it is on the schoolmaster, more than anyone else that the common knowledge of the Empire depends (Evening Post, 20 July 1925, p. 4). There were also specific comments on the part played by women [exchange teachers] in the strengthening of the Empires ideals (Mercury, 26 May 1923, p. 14). Addressing the Imperial Education Conference in 1924, the Duke of York proposed that instead of teaching primarily for the State, [exchange
Kay Whitehead: Professor of School of Education. Flinders University, Australia. Contact Address: Direct correspondence to the authors at GPO Box 2100. Adelaide 5001 (Australia), Kay.whitehead@flinders.edu.au
Date of publication: February 23 , 2014 Edition period: Edition period: February 2014 - June 2014
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To cite this article: Torrebadella, X. (2014). La Educacin Fsica Comparada en Espaa (1806-1936). Social and Education History 3(1), 2553. doi:10.4471/hse.2014.02 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/hse.2014.02
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Abstract
In the academic, professional and popular institutionalization of the physical education in Europe, manifested during throughout the XIX century and the beginning of the XX century, Spain centralized a considerable attention to events beyond its borders. Spain tried to set examples and to import foreign models. The doctrinal and technical discussions about this issue caused an infinite number of allusions in the press, in specialized magazines and pedagogical and gymnastics literature. Thus during the first third of the XX century, the first studies about comparative physical education were presented. The description and interpretation of these documents enable us both to assess the impact and to understand the influence that the foreign education systems exercised in Spain. Keywords: comparative physical education, history of physical education, gymnastics, period 1840 1936
lo largo del proceso de legitimacin de la educacin fsica espaola (1806-1936), se fij toda la atencin en los progresos que provenan ms all de las fronteras. A falta de proyectar iniciativas propias o de poseer un genuino y personal liderazgo en el universo de la educacin fsica, se opt en buscar proyectos y soluciones en el extranjero. Aunque Espaa a principios del siglo XIX tuvo la posibilidad de avanzarse al llamado renacimiento de la cultura fsica europea con la creacin del Real Instituto Militar Pestalozziano (1806), pero el proyecto represent un efmero sueo (Blanco, 1909). El clebre Francisco Amors (1770-1848), reconocido como el primer profesor de educacin fsica de Espaa, tuvo que huir incomprendido a Pars para alcanzar all la gloria de ser reconocido como el fundador de la escuela gimnstica francesa (Piernavieja, 1960; Reyes, 1961; Fernndez, 2005). Este lamentable hecho fue crucial y el retraso espaol en materia de educacin fsica o gimnstica escolar fue evidenciado por las contradicciones de una insuficiente y catica legislacin educativa (Cambeiro, 1997; Martnez, 1983; Pajarn, 2000; Pastor, 1997). En cuanto a la educacin fsica, podemos admitir, que todo y cuanto aprendimos vino a travs de las influencias y fuentes extranjeras (Torrebadella, 2009). Primero fueron los alumnos de Amors, que abrieron gimnasios en Espaa y, posteriormente, la influencia y divulgacin de su sistema gimnstico en la bibliografa decimonnica espaola (Hernndez, 1990). La obra de Amors fue especialmente divulgada a partir de su visita a Valencia en 1839 (Fernndez, 2005). En esta poca haba quien visitaba al ilustre espaol con el objeto de aprender de sus enseanzas (Monlau, 1840; Villalobos, 1842; Aparici, 1852). La aportacin de Pedro Felipe Monlau (1840) tras visitar el famoso gimnasio de Amors, no dejaba dudas puesto que argumentaba que
No puedo menos de desear que nuestro gobierno envi dos tres alumnos estudiar aquel establecimiento en todas sus prcticas y pormenores, fin de plantear uno en la capital del reino y propagarlo las provincias, sin descuidar sus importantes aplicaciones a las escuelas y los colegios (p. 67).
Jullien es considerado como el principal precursor de la educacin comparada como ciencia positiva (Rosell, 1974; Gautherin, 1993; Pancera, 1997). La obra de Marco Antonio Jullien (1775-1848), Ensayo general de educacin fsica, moral e intelectual (1840) escrita originalmente en Pars (1808) se revel como un excelente manual pedaggico de educacin integral, situado en la corriente pestalozziana, y por ello, una de las causas de su buena acogida en Espaa, ya que devolva la lnea pedaggica de Pestalozzi y el proyecto de educacin fsica iniciado por Amors en el Real Instituto Militar Pestalozziano. En 1836 la obra ya recibi un informe favorable de la Sociedad Econmica de Amigos del Pas de Valencia, por lo que fue traducida al castellano (Gautherin, 1993; Pancera, 1997). En este tratado Jullien valida pedaggicamente el sistema de la gimnstica de Amors, que se presentaba como un ejemplo a seguir. Fue una de las obras que desde la pedagoga general ms impulso concedi al sistema de Amors en Espaa, puesto que fue recomendada con mritos para ser estudiada (Figuerola, 1842; Avendao y Carderera, 1850) y reconocida por el Consejo de Instruccin Pblica, que nombr el tratado como til para los profesores y directores de instruccin primaria, por lo que se realiz una segunda edicin (Jullien, 1845). Con la apertura del perodo Liberal se empezaron a divulgar las modernas enseanzas europeas. Jorge de la Pea (1842) dedic un captulo de su obra pedaggica al anlisis de las escuelas extranjeras. En l present el ejemplo que protagonizaba el renacimiento de la educacin fsica en estas escuelas, que tenan en cuenta incorporar un gimnasio, para completar la educacin y servir como diversin y estmulo al equilibrio y al apego aplicado de los estudios. En el mbito de la enseanza, las influencias extranjeras de Pestalozzi, Jullien, Gerando, Rend, Swcharz o Matter,
En torno a la educacin fsica, Ricardo Becerro aconsejaba, preferiblemente, la rica variedad de los juegos corporales, como los adoptados por ingleses, y sin olvidar, tambin, la gran cantidad de juegos tradicionales practicados en Espaa, principalmente, el de pelota. En lo referente a la segunda enseanza, que defina como deficiente y superficial, trata la necesidad de establecer la obligatoriedad de la educacin fsica en los seis cursos del Bachillerato, por las tardes, en espacios al aire libre y en das alternos. Publicaciones como El Boletn de la Institucin Libre de Enseanza (BILE) o La Escuela Moderna, se ocuparon de la propagacin de la educacin fsica internacional. Sobre todo el BILE fue uno de los soportes ms importantes en la penetracin de las ideas extranjeras (Fernndez y Cecchini, 2009). En esta publicacin se destac la participacin de Ricardo Rubio (1856-1935), profesor en la ILE y Secretario en el Museo Pedaggico Nacional, el cual public numerosos artculos que actualizaban conocimientos sobre la materia. Como anota Anastasio Martnez (1985) se debe resaltar la importancia de Ricardo Rubio en la historia de la educacin comparada en Espaa, destacando tambin sus aportaciones en el mbito de la educacin fsica. Aunque no escribiese ninguna obra monogrfica Rubio tradujo importantes obras como las de Lagrange (1894 y 1895) y Tissi (1899) o Welpton (1928).
El diputado por Vilafranca Enric Rfols present a la Comisin de Instruccin Pblica de la Mancomunidad de Catalua las bases para a constituir un Instituto Cataln de Educacin Fsica, un organismo pensado para elaborar los futuros planes de educacin fsica escolares. Para tal
Asimismo se critican algunos momentos histricos del fracaso de la educacin fsica espaola, a la vez que se insista en adoptar un modelo racional y organizado:
Despus del maestro, la gimnasia, y sta debe ser obligatoria en las escuelas. En Espaa la tenemos en los Institutos y es fcil de burlar. Con ello se priva a la gran parte de nios, que no reciben la segunda enseanza, de sus beneficios. Pero la gimnasia debe estar, no como una asignatura ms, sino formando parte integral de un plan de estudios metdico y razonado. En buena hora que se contine en la segunda enseanza, pero nada de suprimirla en la primera. El Estado ejerce la tutela sobre los ciudadanos, o al menos debe ejercerla en la escuela y en el cuartel. La enseanza obligatoria y el servicio militar obligatorio no se discuten o por lo menos no deben discutirse. El cuartel debe perfeccionar y suplir la obra de la escuela en esta parte. Los ejercicios fsicos bien dirigidos, suplen la escasez de tiempo del servicio militar. En los cuarteles es preciso profesores de gimnasia, no de tcnicos para crear un organismo ms, sino, como ocurre en todas las partes, los profesores seran oficiales y clases que hubieran recibido instruccin previa. Y esta instruccin podan recibirla en una
Aunque la educacin fsica escolar acept la gimnasia sueca. No todos vieron en este modelo una alternativa que se adecuara. Adolfo Revuelta (1911), refirindose a la depresiva situacin de la educacin fsica en Espaa, peda que esta materia fuese objeto de atencin para optar a las pensiones de ampliacin de estudios en el extranjero, y aprovechar los resultados al efecto de unificar el plan de gimnstica escolar, sin prejuicios ni modas, y acomodarlo al carcter de nuestra raza, de nuestro clima y de nuestros recursos (p. 54-57). Augusto Condo (1918), criticaba el sistema gimnstico sueco e indicaba que en Espaa se haba copiado errneamente causando el descrdito en la educacin fsica. Por ello peda al Ministerio de Instruccin pblica crear una comisin de expertos para estudiar los mejores mtodos de educacin fsica implantados en el extranjero, con el objeto de prestar servicio a la regeneracin de la raza (p. 2). Estas recomendaciones tardaron varios aos en ser secundadas. El auge del deporte se antepona como mtodo de educacin fsica, aunque era frecuentemente cuestionado, puesto que no exista un modelo curricular oficial de educacin fsica o gimnstica escolar (Torrebadella, 2009). En esta poca vala el dicho: cada maestrillo con su librillo. Sin embargo, las primeras preocupaciones para encontrar una solucin a la educacin fsica escolar se iniciaron en los aos veinte, con las becas de varios trabajos para las ampliaciones de estudios al extranjero. Como ya hemos avanzado Salvador Lpez Carmona (1920) retom el trabajo de su padre Salvador Lpez Gmez (1881) y present una ampliacin y actualizacin del mismo en Compendio histrico de la
Notas
1
Cfr. R. O. de 13 de mayo de 1927 (BOMIP, 7 de junio de 1927, nm. 45, p. 733: Curso sobre Educacin Fsica Femenina de Zamora bajo la direccin de Cndida Cadenas Campo) 2 Comisin de Educacin Ciudadana Fsica y Premilitar, R. O. de 29 de marzo y 18 de abril de 19273 3 R. D. de 08 de mayo de 1925 (BOMIP, nm. 43, p. 622-623)
Referencias Aguilera, J. de (1928). Memoria sobre la organizacin de la educacin fsica en Francia, Alemania, Suecia e Italia. Madrid: Imp. de la Lib. y Casa Ed. Hernando. Aparici, J. M. (1852). Instruccin para la enseanza de la gimnstica en los cuerpos y establecimientos militares. Madrid: Imp. Rivadeneyra. Avendao, J., & Carderera, M. (1850). Curso elemental de pedagoga. Madrid: Imp. Victoriano Hernando. Baudouin, J. M. (1866). La enseanza primaria y especial en Alemania. Barcelona: Lib. de Juan Bastinos. Becerro, R. (1900). La enseanza en el siglo XX. Madrid: Edmundo Capdeville. Bejarano, E. (1886). Educacin fsica. El Genio Mdico-Quirrgico, 1.501, 53-54. Blanco, R. (1907-1912). Bibliografa pedaggica de obras escritas en castellano o traducidas a este idioma. Madrid: Tipografa de la Revista de Archivos, Biblioteca y Museos. Blanco, R. (1909). Pestalozzi su vida y sus obras. Pestalozzi en Espaa. Madrid: Imp. de la Revista de Archivos. Blanco, R. (1927). Bibliografa General de la Educacin Fsica. Madrid: Imp. Hernando. Buylla, A. (1888). Discurso ledo en el acto solemne de la apertura de la Academia de Derecho. Oviedo: Imp. Est. de la Revista de Asturias, Universidad de Oviedo.
Xavier Torrebadella Flix: Profesor del Departament de Didctica de l'Expressi Musical, Plstica i Corporal. rea de Didctica de l'Expressi Corporal de la Universitat Autnoma de Barcelona. Direccin de contacto: Edifici G6 Professorat i Aules. Campus de la UAB, 08193 Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Valls). xtorreba@gmail.com
Gender and Power Constructions in Visual Political Reporting1 Susanne Kinnebrock1, Thomas Knieper2
1) University of Augsburg. Germany 2) University of Passau. Germany Date of publication: February 23 , 2014 Edition period: Edition period: February 2014 - June 2014
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To cite this article: Kinnebrock, S.,& Knieper, T. (2014). Gender and Power Constructions in Visual Political Reporting. Social and Education History 3(1), 54-77. doi:10.4471/hse.2014.03 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/hse.2014.03
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE The terms and conditions of use are related to the Open Journal System and to Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY).
HSE Social and Education History Vol. 3 No. 1 February 2014 pp. 5477
Abstract
The analysis of visual press coverage is still in the early stages of development, although political communication today is no longer logo- but mainly icon-centered. In our paper, we first outline a way to analyze the meaning of journalistic pictures in a standardized manner, combining methodological insights from quantitative content analyses with findings from social psychology and (de-)constructivist feminist theory. In a second step, we present the results of an analysis of the front pages of German news magazines, showing how cross-sex-typing is applied to mark political power or powerlessness. Keywords: journalism, gender, visual communication, content analysis
HSE Social and Education History Vol. 3 No. 1 February 2014 pp. 5477
Resumen
El anlisis de la cobertura de la prensa visual todava se encuentra en las primeras etapas de su desarrollo, a pesar que hoy la comunicacin poltica ya no est centrada en el logo, sino que principalmente se centra en el icono. En nuestro artculo, primero perfilamos un mtodo de analizar el significado de fotografas periodsticas de una forma estandarizada, combinando entendimientos metodolgicos del anlisis del contenido cuantitativo, con hallazgos de la psicologa social y la teora feminista (de-) constructiva. En una segunda etapa, presentamos los resultados de un anlisis de las portadas de revistas de noticias alemanas, que muestran como el " Cross-SexTyping" es aplicado para marcar la impotencia o el poder poltico.
n the German federal elections in September 2005, former Chancellor Helmut Kohls Kohls girl, Angela Merkel, was victorious. If the German press were to be believed, then Merkel had developed from being a former pale ministers daughter and an East German broad, which was how she was referred to five years ago in the two most important German news magazines, Spiegel and Focus (Hildebrand, 2000; Stock, 2000), into an Iron Angie ( Lambeck, 2005). The thoughtful, quality paper Zeit even certified Merkel the political power of a genius (Geis, 2005). Press coverage of Angela Merkel as a person and politician therefore changed fundamentally (see also Gnndiger, 2007, pp. 99-134; Meyer, 2009, p. 15; Rser & Mller, 2012, p.61; Maier & Lnenborg, 2012, pp. 92-94). The chair of the German Association of Female Journalists, Eva Kohlrusch, describes the results of her analysis of more than 300 press articles on Merkel in 2005 as follows: The woman who sei zed power irritates a lot. She does not meet the expectations women usually face and nevertheless Merkel was primarily looked at and evaluated as a woman (2006, p.1). This conclusion might not only refer to Angela Merkel, Germany and the year 2005. Indeed, Kohlrusch highlights the way in which female politicians are described in general at least in Western industrial countries (see Norris, 1997; Pantti, 2007; Gallagher, 2005; Holtz-Bacha, 2009; Gallagher, 2010). Moreover, not only are male politicians described neutrally, but also as men by referring to gendered role expectations and gendered sociocultural positions. Gender underlies everything (HoltzBacha, 2007, p. 100), whereas gender constructions and power constructions intervene. Gender and power are not only represented in text. Images also convey meanings that are linked to these concepts. Yet, difficulties in decoding the polysemous nature of pictures have led to content analyses being focused on textual gender and power representations. This article, however, tries to approach the so-called power of images by showing how to capture visual gender and power constructions by using a standardized content analysis. Furthermore, there is a presentation of the results of an explorative study that analyzed images of individuals on the front pages of German news magazines in 2005, which were dominated by Angela Merkel, the first
Other visual characterizations of people are to be interpreted primarily along the dimension of power. When it comes to body postures, the represented women tended to be depicted with more unstable postures, and therefore seemed to be more fragile. Compared to men, women were more often shown smiling and with their head tending to hang in a sideways direction. In summary, signals of appeasement or even subordination were found to a disproportionately greater extent in the pictures of women. This conclusion is also supported by our findings on viewing directions. The straight view, namely a gaze that was fixed on an opponent or the camera (which is usually perceived as aggressive), was reserved for the depicted men, while the women tended to avoid eye-contact. As a result, there is an imbalance in the gender representations on the front page s of Focus and Spiegel, signals of subordination in terms of facial expressions and body posture can still be found. Astonishing and unexpected are the results concerning required space. The represented men did not take recognizably more space with their arm postures than the represented women. Moreover, men were not shown in a more dynamic manner than their female counterparts. Furthermore, with respect to the presented interactions between people, the men were not dominant when pictured with women. In summary, there was no clear subordination of women in the field of gestures. However, it is notable that there were clear gender differences with respect to barely controllable facial expressions. Given that politicians in particular are now very well aware of their body language and try to control it (Weinlich, 2002, p. 153), it seems plausible that the visual coverage reflects both the training with respect to power gestures that is applied by female politicians, and the traditional facial expressions of women that signal subordination.
The Merkel-Effect Our results can be cautiously interpreted to mean that the gender hierarchy in visual reporting is no longer rigidly perpetuated. However, this interpretation must be relativized if the historical background is reflected. In particular, the fact that in 2005 Angela Merkel won the election against Chancellor Gerhard Schrder must be taken into consideration. Female politicians were rarely represented on the front pages of Spiegel and Focus (nine female and 44 male politicians were portrayed). If one only takes into account the pictures of politicians, the percentage appearance rate of women is only 16.9%. This low figure is mainly due to the approach of Spiegel, which prefers to have political topics on its front page, meaning that almost half of those represented on its covers are politicians (54.5%). Among the 36 images of politicians on the front page of Spiegel in 2005, only five were female: Merkel was depicted four times and the former US Secretary of State, Condoleezza Rice, once. Accordingly, only 13.8% of the politicians on Spiegels covers were female. Only four female politicians were shown (three times Angela Merkel) on the front pages of Focus. However, as there were only 17 politicians in total depicted on the covers of this magazine in 2005, the percentage appearance rate of female politicians appears to be higher than for Spiegel (23.5% instead of 13.8%). In total, Angela Merkel was the one female politician to dominate the front pages of the studied news magazines, if seven images in connection with a cover story can be evaluated as a dominant position. More interesting than these rough quantifying factors is the more detailed analysis of Merkel s facial expressions, gestures and body postures in comparison to her direct competitor, former Chancellor Gerhard Schrder. To the same extent as Schrders power was eroding, he was also stripped down visually, e.g. with images that showed him as: small from a birds eye view, evasively looking to the side, or holding his arms tight to his body. Increasingly, Schrder was presented with the facial expressions and gestures of subordination that usually apply to pictures of women. Angela
Notes
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This paper is a revised edition of our German essay Mnnliche Angie und weiblicher Gerd? Visuelle Geschlechter- und Machtkonstruktionen auf Titelseiten von politischen Nachrichtenmagazinen (Kinnebrock & Knieper, 2008).
References Archer, D., Iritani, B., Kimes, D., & Barrios, M. (1989). Mnner-Kpfe, Frauen-Krper. Studien zur unterschiedlichen Abbildung von Frauen und Mnnern auf Pressefotos [Male-heads, female-bodies. Studies of the different portrayals of men and women in press photos]. In Schmerl, C. (Ed.), In die Presse geraten. Darstellungen von Frauen in der Presse und Frauenarbeit in den Medien [Get into press. Representation of women in the press and womens work in the media.]. (pp. 53-75). Kln, Wien: Bhlau. Ashmore, R.D., & Del Boca, F. K. (1979). Sex stereotypes an implicit personality theory. Towards a cognitive-social psychological conceptualization. Sex Roles, 5(2), 219-248. doi: 10.1007/BF00287932 Bock, A., Isermann, H., & Knieper, T. (2011). Quantitative Content Analysis of the Visual. In Margolis, E. & Pauwels, L. (Eds.), The Sage Handbook of Visual Research Methods. (pp. 265-282). London et al.: Sage.
Prof. Dr. Susanne Kinnebrock: Department of Media, Knowledge and Communication, University of Augsburg. Prof. Dr. Thomas Knieper: Department of Language, Text and Media, University of Passau Address: University of Augsburg, Universittsstrae 10, 86135 Augsburg, Germany. University of Passau, Innstrae 33a, 94032 Passau, Germany. susanne.kinnebrock@phil.uni-augsburg.de / Thomas.Knieper@Uni-Passau.De
Date of publication: February 23 , 2014 Edition period: Edition period: February 2014 - June 2014
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To cite this article: Kinnebrock, S.,& Knieper, T. (2014). El Franquismo Autrquico, la Mujer y la Educacin FsicaSocial and Education History 3(1), 78-102. doi:10.4471/hse.2014.04 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/hse.2014.04
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HSE Social and Education History Vol. 3 No. 1 February 2014 pp. 78-102
Abstract
The subject of this paper consists on the ideal of women in Spain during Autarky francoism (1939-1959) and how it was transmitted through female Physical Education and sports (swimming, hockey, skiing, basketball and handball). At this time, female Physical Education and sports were directed by the Women Section, from where the ideal of women was transmitted. The research focuses on the concepts and values from different fields (political, professional, cultural, religious, etc.) which described women and determined their life during this period, and which showed through physical and sport activities specific to this gender. Keywords: Franco's regime, autarky, female model, physical education
HSE Social and Education History Vol. 3 No. 1 February 2014 pp. 78-102
Resumen
El objetivo de este artculo se centra en el ideal de mujer en Espaa durante la Autarqua franquista (1939-1959) y como ste se transmiti a partir de la Educacin Fsica y los deportes femeninos (natacin, hockey, esqu, baloncesto y balonmano). En esta poca la Educacin Fsica y los deportes femeninos fueron dirigidos por la Seccin Femenina, que se esforz mucho por transmitir el ideal de mujer a partir de ellos. La investigacin se centra en los conceptos y valores que, desde diferentes mbitos (polticos, profesionales, culturales, religiosas, etc), definan a las mujeres y acabaron determinando sus vidas durante este perodo, y como todo ello se mostraba a travs de las actividades fsicas y deportivas propias de este gnero.
n el campo de la Educacin Fsica y el deporte, plagado de inevitables connotaciones masculinas, en especial aquellos deportes tradicionalmente varoniles, como por ejemplo el ftbol, las mujeres practicantes han visto cuestionada de forma sistemtica su relacin con estas actividades, ya que la natural relacin de adecuacin entre el cuerpo masculino y el deporte excluye, por definicin, el cuerpo femenino. Las mujeres deportistas confirman la tesis de que las barreras de acceso a la prctica de estos deportes masculinos se deben principalmente al estereotipo del gnero femenino, no a supuestas limitaciones fsicas del cuerpo femenino. Por tanto, ante esta situacin en la que la mujer es catalogada bajo una serie de prejuicios, condensados en este estereotipo femenino, cabe preguntarse por la historia reciente de la mujer en el mbito deportivo, pues dicha historia puede ayudar a comprender mejor la situacin estereotipada que hoy da viven dentro del deporte. Al respecto, como punto de partida, hay que destacar unas palabras de Cagigal (1982):
El conjunto de los estereotipos tradicionalmente dominantes en la sociedad occidental y occidentalizada, podra resumirse en el esquema: hombre inseguro- mujer dbil [] El deporte, sobre todo entendido como eficiencia de ejecuciones fsicas, se fue configurando como tarea tpicamente varonil (p. 109).
Por tanto, a lo largo de la historia de la Educacin Fsica y el deporte, las mujeres han tenido que hacerse un sitio y apropiarse las caractersticas de unas actividades que siempre las han considerado inadecuadas y que han negado su participacin con un ser y estar en femenino. En el caso concreto de la historia reciente de Espaa, la situacin estereotipada anteriormente descrita tuvo un fuerte impulso durante el rgimen franquista, especialmente en la primera etapa de esta dictadura, conocida como Autarqua (1939-1959), donde el llamado Periodo Azul (1939-1945) fue especialmente insidioso al respecto. En estos aos autrquicos se establecieron unos modelos de conducta entre la poblacin espaola apoyados por los grupos cercanos al poder (Iglesia, Falange),
Por tanto, las funciones de la mujer se circunscriba, en la mayora de los casos, a dos muy concretas: ser esposa y ser madre, siempre en el mismo
Con respecto al plano sexual, como se observa en la cita anterior, el rgimen haba marcado dentro del hogar un carcter inhibidor, ya que la familia constitua la estructura bsica en torno a la cual giraba el rgimen y sta era controlada duramente. Esta postura era apoyada por la Iglesia Catlica, que defenda la castidad y pureza de la mujer hasta lmites sorprendentes; como indica Ballarn (2001), la castidad y virginidad, centro obsesivo de la moral femenina, se expresara en centmetros de ropa, formas de pasear, hablar, divertirse, etc. (p.117).
Por supuesto no faltaban dirigentes de la poltica educativa del pas que se pronunciaran al respecto, por ejemplo Pemartn, director de Enseanza Media y Superior, en una entrevista en la revista Signo en el ao 1942, afirmaba: Mi opinin es la de que debe alejarse a la mujer de la Universidad, quiero decir que el sitio de la mujer, a mi juicio, es el hogar (citado por Pastor i Homs, 1984, p. 31). Al respecto, es imprescindible citar a una de esas figuras femeninas, perteneciente a esa lite cuya vorgine incandescente de un ideal ultraterreno era ms fuerte que toda inclinacin natural (este apunte irnico se basa en las afirmaciones de Granero, citado con anterioridad), la cual tuvo gran relevancia en la educacin de las mujeres espaolas durante el franquismo ya que fue Delegada Nacional de la Seccin Femenina durante sus 43 aos de existencia, me refiero a Pilar Primo de Rivera (Intervencin en el I Consejo Nacional del SEM, 1942 citado por Ballarn, 2001): Las mujeres nunca descubren nada: les falta, desde luego, el talento creador reservado
La seccin femenina
La Seccin Femenina comenz su andadura poco despus de la creacin de la Falange Espaola Tradicionalista y de las JONS, concretamente en 1934, constituyendo la rama femenina de la Falange. Esta organizacin pas a constituirse en un organismo institucional en la Guerra Civil (1936-1939), a partir del Decreto de 19 de Abril de 1937 de Unificacin de Falange con el movimiento carlista (BOE de 20 de Abril de 1937), poco despus se le encomend el Servicio social de la mujer por medio del Decreto de 7 de Octubre de 1937 (BOE de 8 de Octubre de 1937). Esta institucin tuvo vigencia durante parte de la II Repblica y todo el franquismo, desapareciendo en el ao 1977, al igual que todos los organismos dependientes de la Secretara General del Movimiento, en virtud del Real Decreto-ley de 1 de Abril de 1977 de reestructuracin de los rganos dependientes del Consejo Nacional y nuevo rgimen jurdico de asociaciones, funcionarios y patrimonio (BOE de 7 de abril de 1977). La organizacin interna de la Seccin Femenina se caracteriz por el centralismo y la jerarqua, siguiendo el modelo franquista, lo que desemboc, en un primer momento, en una uniformidad y control absoluto; sin embargo, conforme pasaban los aos, la uniformidad se transform en
La Educacin Fsica se convirti en un mero instrumento para formar madres que parieran hijos fuertes y sanos, todo ello aderezado con conocimientos sobre puericultura y sanidad infantil, que tambin eran elementos fundamentales de su formacin. La justificacin de una Educacin Fsica diferenciada y especfica para la mujer, se argument, como muy bien han expuesto Manrique y cols. (2009), a partir de explicaciones que provenan de diferentes mbitos (cientficomdico, religioso y poltico). En primer lugar, los argumentos cientfico-mdicos determinaron la necesidad de establecer un programa de higiene y salud corporal, siempre cimentado en su gran misin terrenal: la maternidad. As, el ejercicio tuvo siempre una orientacin de prevencin de la salud, tratando de preservar la funcin procreadora; lo cual contribuy a fomentar el estereotipo de personas frgiles, delicadas y poco aptas para el esfuerzo fsico. Sirva como ejemplo el hecho de que Agosti (1974), gran terico de la gimnasia femenina
Conclusin
El periodo de la historia de Espaa comprendido entre 1939 y 1959, marcado por un rgimen muy represivo, tuvo una gran influencia sobre el estilo de vida de los espaoles y espaolas, en especial de estas ltimas. El frreo control que los poderes de la poca ejercieron sobre la mujer, no estaba exento de intencionalidad poltica: la base de su modelo social, sindicalista-tradicional y catlico, era la familia cristiana, dentro de sta la mujer era el pilar fundamental, por tanto si controlaba a este elemento se asegurara el control y adoctrinamiento de gran parte de la masa social. Como sostiene Pastor i Homs (1984), hay que resaltar, dentro de un contexto general de represin y censura, el profundo anti-feminismo que caracteriz la sociedad en general. Ese anti-feminismo se nutra del
Referencias Agosti, L. (1974). Gimnasia Educativa. Madrid: Grefol. Agull, M.C. (1993). La educacin de la mujer durante el franquismo y su evolucin en Valencia (1951-1970). Valencia: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Valencia. Alted, A. (1991). Las mujeres en la sociedad espaola de los aos cuarenta. En Las mujeres y la Guerra Civil Espaola (pp. 293-303). Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura. Instituto de la Mujer. Ballarn, P. (2001). La educacin de las mujeres en la Espaa contempornea (siglos XIX-XX). Madrid: Sntesis Educacin. Barrachina, M.A. (1991). Ideal de la Mujer Falangista. Ideal Falangista de la Mujer. En Las mujeres y la Guerra Civil Espaola (pp. 211-217). Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura. Instituto de la Mujer. Biescas, J.A., & Tun de Lara, M. (1987). Historia de Espaa X: Espaa bajo la Dictadura Franquista. Madrid: Editorial Labor.
Gonzalo Ramrez-Macas: Profesor del Departamento de Educacin Fsica y deporte. Universidad de Sevilla. Direccin de contacto: Departamento de Educacin Fsica y deporte. Universidad de Sevilla. C/ Pirotecnia, s/n. C.P: 41013 (Sevilla), grm@us.es
Los Sistemas Educativos: Perspectiva Histrica, Cultural y Sociolgica Mariano Gonzlez Delgado1
1) Universidad de La Laguna Essen, Espaa Date of publication: February 23 , 2014 Edition period: Edition period: February 2014 - June 2014
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To cite this article: Gonzlez, M. (2014). Los Sistemas Educativos: Perspectiva Histrica, Cultural y Sociolgica [Review of the book]. Social and Education History, 3(1), 103-105. doi: 10.4471/hse.2014.05 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/hse.2014.05
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HSE Social and Education History Vol. 3 No. 1 February 2014 pp.103105
Reviews (I)
Trhler, D., & Barbu, R. (2012) (Comps.) Los Sistemas Educativos: Perspectiva Histrica, Cultural y Sociolgica. Barcelona: Octaedro. ISBN: 978-84-9921-348-4
La investigacin y anlisis de los sistemas educativos sigue siendo un objeto de estudio en pleno auge dentro de la Historia de la Educacin. A pesar de que en los ltimos aos tal entidad ha logrado popularidad dentro los investigadores del campo, tambin es cierto que muchas de sus perspectivas, intereses, enfoques y propuestas han estado canalizadas o puntualizadas por los debates que han planteado los organismos internacionales. La UNESCO, la OCDE, el Banco Mundial e incluso los programas de evaluacin de los sistemas educativos como PISA, han ganado un peso importante dentro de las preocupaciones educativas y han conformado, en muchos casos, los debates en torno a los sistemas educativos y la manera de abordar stos. En muchas ocasiones, los organismos internacionales y la agenda de investigacin que estos proponen ignora y no tiene presente la profunda complejidad socio-cultural sobre el que se asientan las instituciones escolares. Bajo esta amplia crtica de carcter historiogrfico sobre quin controla el campo de la investigacin educativa, D. Trhler y R. Barbu han compilado una serie de trabajos con el objetivo de proponer una salida a dicha cuestin. El propsito de este libro es debatir a gran escala las cuestiones relativas a cmo se puede abordar los sistemas de investigacin ms all de los parmetros de la agenda de investigacin existente (p. 9). En este sentido, el libro est compuesto por diez captulos que se agrupan en cinco secciones o partes (1. Mtodos, 2. Reformas, 3. xitos, 4. Prcticas y
104
5. Reflexiones) y que son el resultado de unas conferencias que los propios autores organizaron bajo el ttulo de El futuro de la investigacin educativa desde la Universidad de Luxemburgo entre 2010 y 2013. As pues, en esta obra se pueden encontrar estudios llevados a cabo por reconocidos miembros del campo educativo tales como T. Popkewitz, R. Cowen, D. Labaree, I. Dussel, F. Osterwalder, H. Fend, A. Rohstock, L. Fendler, N. Stehr o el mismo D. Trhler. Todos ellos ofrecen reflexiones crticas respecto a diferentes temas relacionados con la actual investigacin educativa. En el primer captulo, por ejemplo, F. Osterwalder desarrolla un interesantsimo anlisis sobre la necesidad de incluir el estudio de las reformas educativas en una perspectiva histrica ms amplia: la longue dure (larga duracin). A travs del ejemplo de las reformas educativas llevadas a cabo en la Revolucin Francesa y en la Suiza de finales del siglo XX, el autor critica que los estudios educativos tiendan a analizar periodos educativos cerrados o limitados en el tiempo. Las reformas educativas, no se asientan una vez que una ley se sanciona. Normalmente, stas estn sujetas a una serie de vaivenes polticos o culturales a lo largo de su historia. Es necesario analizar las reformas bajo unos espacios temporales ms amplios y extensos para observar el proceso de su puesta en marcha. En un sentido parecido, R. Cowen tambin hace una dura crtica al campo de la educacin comparada. Seala que dicho campo tiene que escapar de la estrecha agenda investigadora que delimitan los gobiernos y los estudios PISA sobre la poltica educativa. Reivindica una visin o enfoque ms amplio sobre los sistemas educativos y relacionar el estudio de los mismos con los sistemas de estratificacin social, la economa, o determinados fenmenos polticos y culturales. Seala que se debe volver a una agenda intelectual independiente y seria (p. 36) y a una lectura global sobre las polticas educativas al estilo de E. Durkheim, M. Weber y K. Marx. Toda comparacin entre sistemas escolares, debe tener en cuenta la particularidad de sus orgenes sociales. En este sentido, este captulo es uno de los ms interesantes de la obra. Por otro lado, los trabajos de D. Trhler, H. Fend, D. Labaree, I. Dussel o T. Popkewitz, tambin tienen un inters muy importante. En menor o mayor grado, todos ellos critican la estrechez de miras de la actual investigacin educativa. Tienden a sealar que, dicho campo no tiene presente cul fue el origen de la actual agenda de investigacin educativa y cules han sido sus
To cite this article: Renta, A. I. (2013). Sex, Identity and Hermaphrodites in Iberia, 15001800. [Review of the book]. Social and Education History, 3(1), 106-110. doi:10.4471/hse.2014.06 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/hse.2014.06
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HSE Social and Education History Vol. 3 No. 1 February 2014 pp. 106110
Reviews (II)
Cleminson, R., & Vzquez, F. (2013). Sex, Identity and Hermaphroditism in Iberia, 1500-1800. London: Pickering & Chatto Publishers. ISBN-10: 1848933029 | ISBN-13: 978-1848933026. Scientifically and historically accurate, original and compelling. The study draws on cases of hermaphroditism and sex changes in Iberia over the years 1500 to 1800 and discusses the scientific theories and social and cultural beliefs which lie behind the understanding of these phenomena during this period of history. The authors address the question of personal identity and, more specifically, sexual identity on the basis of the analysis of the tacit truths which make up a culture in order to understand the social and historical conditions which provide a context for the circulation of certain given ideas. They describe different cases of ambiguous individuals or sex changes which were documented in medical, juridical, theological and literary sources of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The study places scientific, theological, social and cultural discourse on hermaphroditism in Iberia within its own context and frame of reference. The framework for the textual treatment of hermaphroditism in Iberia is built on the basis of the scientific and religious discourses of the time and within the cultural and social constrained prevailing ideas and practices on sex and gender. The authors avoid any hint of essentialism in their analysis by which acts, behaviours and discourses are considered in light of current considerations. Instead, they employ and reveal the meanings of terminology which reflect the concepts and discourses utilized during the three hundred or so years which are covered in the study. Therefore, they employ and
interrogate the meanings of hermaphroditism and sex change, the significances which surround what it meant to be a man or a woman and the outward and inward signs that appeared to prove this status to doctors, inquisitors and theologians who examined ambiguous or doubtful cases of sexual identity. The study gives a comparative account that goes beyond the more standard coverage of the topic in which Europe is often focused on Britain, France and Germany. At its heart is, of course, an analysis of the situation of hermaphroditism in Spain and Portugal which were generally ignored for any significance they may have for a broader understanding of an European culture, and more specifically, the history of sexuality. In this regard, the authors pose the following questions: what was notable about the two Iberian countries in respect of the knowledge of hermaphroditism in the European reality? What does the study of the discourse about hermaphroditism in Iberia bring to a wider comprehension of this topic? They argued that what is exceptional in comparison to other countries production of knowledge on hermaphroditism such as France and Germany is the general lack of transcendence of the cases studied and the analysis conveyed beyond the borders of Spain and Portugal. In the Introduction, the authors set up the framework with which they will conduct the analysis of the different cases of hermaphroditism describing the models of sexual interpretation which were predominant at that time. They recognize the coexistence of the Aristotelian model with a HippocraticGalenic understanding of sex and gender during the period of study. According to the authors, although there were some differences between these two models, the interpretations of sex were vertical and hierarchical based on a one-sex model. These interpretations did not consider biology, the sex of the organism, as the stable basis by which visible differences in behaviours and social roles were established: to be a woman or a man was not so much to possess a particular biological quality but rather to display a social attribute (p.6). In the first chapter, the concepts of mirabilia, magicus and miraculous are described. The authors describe the category mirabilia as extraordinary beings
and events, marvels that showed the omnipotence of divine design with mixed understandings of them as evidence of the benevolence of God or as a manifestation of evil. Whether the presence of God or evil, marvels are not necessarily counter-natural beings rather natural rarities who have their analogies in the Universe. This ambivalence is clear in the case of hermaphrodites and changes of sex, despite the fact that medical opinions classify them as natural happenings. The idea of magicus corresponds to what is supernaturally evil, where sin is present and where the intervention of Satan can be found. According to this interpretation, cases of hermaphrodites and sex changes were understood as warnings of some catastrophe to come or as the result of a sin against Nature. Between these two extremes of marvels and anti-natural, there was a third category in which hermaphrodites and sex changes were considered as miraculus, that is, as a sign of redemption. This category could be understood in a literal sense as instances of divine intervention in order to save the individual in a particularly problematic situation or as a symbol of original perfection or a lack of difference representing an emblem of the harmonious fusion of the opposites. In the second chapter, the authors examine the question of hermaphorditism in four selected cases out of the twenty which have been collected. The case of Estebana (born in Valdaracete in 1496) is presented, who managed to have her condition of hermaphrodite and her transit to manhood accepted by means of display of bravery, physical strength and her ability with weapons. Following, the case of Elena de Cspedes (born in Alhama, Granada, 1546) is examined, who was able to remake her own personality many times over because of the changing nature of commerce and the importance of particular skills. Next, the case of Catalina de Erauso (born in San Sebastian, 1592) is analysed, who combined war-like acts of male bravery and essential qualities of the perfect virgin woman through which she was known as the virgin warrior showing signs of impeccable religious devotion. Finally, the case of Juan Daz Donoso (born in Zafra, tried in 1634) is examined, who was ordained as priest but acted as a woman and was accused of having seduced another man. In all these cases, the authors highlight the degree of agency of the individuals studied and their ability to
subvert the sexual norms of their time and place within the internal logic of the social conditions and sexual models clearly different from our own. The third chapter traces the decline of the one-sex model and the interruption which this caused to the progress of knowledge about hermaphrodites in the eighteenth century in the Spanish context. The authors identify three main influences responsible for this decline: the naturalization of the monster, the take-off of legal medicine, and the biological foundation of the sexual differences. Firstly, nature began to be understood as mere nature governed by its own laws; under this interpretation towards nature, the monster, which is one of its products, can no longer be viewed either as a sign of divine omnipotence nor as a warning of providence. Secondly, the emergence out of the liberal state, which in Spain was revived under the rule of Isabel II, allowed the implementation by the government of health systems and the precepts of legal medicine. Under this framework, the medico-legal practitioner became the ultimate authority in the assignation of sex to those individuals deemed of doubtful sex. No longer is the predominant sex spoken of or the election of sex open to interpretation in case of ambiguity. The definite break with the one-sex model is represented by authors who argued that biological differences are the material basis which grounds the mental and physical existence of individuals. In this way, the old regime collapse, as differences are no longer situated in differences of rank but in differences between the organic and psychological constitutions of the body. The fourth chapter develop the topic of hermaphroditism in Portugal from a three-fold perspective. The first section of the chapter focuses on some examples of sexual ambiguity in Portugal from the 1500 onwards. In this section, cases of gender transgressions such as that of Saint Uncumber, the bearded saint, is mentioned as an important framing discourse of sexual ambiguity. Other cases of sexual transgression such as Antonia Rodriguez, who became Antonio Rodriguez in the early 1600s, are analysed in order to provide insights into the comprehension of the nature of sex in that period in the Portuguese context. The second part of the chapter analyses the thought of philosophers and medical doctors, many of them of Jewish origin, whose ideas framed discussions on sex changes and hermaphroditism. The third part
of the chapter provides an in-depth analysis of the cases of Sister Claudiana da Natividade (Vila Viosa, 1622), Manuel Joao (1637), Estevao Lus (1686), Father Pedro Furtado (1698) and Jos Martins (1725) known as the she-man of Ervedal. The authors conclude that in both countries the influence of the work of the Arabic scholars meant that understandings of hermaphrodites in Iberia were permeated by a highly pluralistic set of knowledge, from Aristotelian, Galenic and Hippocratic notions through Roman and Jewish law. This diverse scenario is evidenced by the discussions held among inquisitors and medical practitioners in Spain and Portugal which have been presented and analysed extensively by the authors in this study.
List of Reviewers
Date of publication: February 23 , 2013 Edition period: February 2014 June 2014
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To cite this article: (2014). List of Reviewers. Social and Education History, 3(1), 111. doi:10.4471/hse.2014.07 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/hse.2014.06
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List of Reviewers
The editors of the Social and Education History, we wish thank the reviewers for their contributions to the quality of the journal during 2013. . Carme GarcaYeste Gregor Siles Molina Editors
Bietti, Lucas Cabr Oliv, Joan Campdepadros Cullell, Roger Cobano-Delgado, Vernica De Botton, Lena D'Hoest, Florelle De-Juanas, Angel Diestro, Alfonso Foncillas, Mercedes Garca Blanco, Miriam Gonzlez Delgado, Mariano Gonzlez Gmez, Sara Groves, Tamar Igelmo Zaldvar, Jon Lpez Sabatel, Jos Antonio Marcos, Josep Martnez Alvarez, Lucio Mora Luna, Antonia Mara Pay Rico, Andrs
Parads, Ricard Ros, Oriol Serradell i Pumareda, Olga Vzquez Domnguez, Carmen Ziga, Mario