EEE 103 - Load Flow Analysis

EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems
Power Flow Through Short Transmission Lines

Let us consider a short transmission line. The single-phase equivalent circuit is shown below:
Z = (r + jxL )L = |Z| !#
I Vs = |Vs| !" s
IR V = |V | !0 R R
-
IS = I R = I
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VS = ZI + VR
RDDELMUNDO EEE 103 AY2010-11 S2 4
We calculate for the current I and its conjugate I* :
! (VS %! ) $ (VR %0 ) I = ( Z %" ) !# (VS % $ ! ) $ (VR %0 ) I = (Z% $" )
We calculate the single-phase complex power at the sending and receiving ends:
! !" SS = (VS #! ) $ I ! !" S R = (VR #0) $ I
The direction of power flow will be inherent in the direction of the current I, i.e., SS is the supplied power when positive, and SR is the load power when positive.
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Looking at the ! sending-end !# complex power:
S S = (VS %! ) & I
! VS % $ ! ) $ (VR %0 ) ( S S = (VS %! ) & (Z% $" ) ! ' VS2 ( ' VS &VR ( S S = ) %" * $ ) % (! + " ) * , + Z , + Z
Getting the real and imaginary (reactive) components:
# VS2 $ # VS %VR $ PS = ' % cos ! ( & ' % cos (" + ! ) ( * ) Z * ) Z # VS2 $ # VS %VR $ QS = ' % sin ! ( & ' % sin (" + ! ) ( * ) Z * ) Z
If we assume the line reactance is much greater than the line resistance, i.e., xL >> rL, then we can neglect rL. This means ! = 90 and Z = X, which when we substitute in the previous equations yield:
" VS2 # " VS $ VR # PS = & $ cos 90 ' % & $ cos (! + 90 ) ' ) ( X ) ( X " VS $ VR # PS = & $ sin ! ' ( X ) " VS2 # " VS $ VR # QS = & $ sin 90 ' % & $ sin (! + 90 ) ' ) ( X ) ( X " VS2 # " VS $ VR # QS = & ' % & $ cos ! ' ) ( X ) ( X
Looking at the receiving-end complex power:
! !# S R = (VR %0) & I
! VS % $ ! ) $ (VR %0 ) ( S R = (VR %0) & (Z% $" )

2 ! ' VS &VR ' ( V ( R SR = ) % ( $! + " ) * $ ) %" * + Z , + Z ,
Getting the real and imaginary (reactive) components:

2 $ % V & V V $ S R % R PR = ' & cos ( #! + " ) ( # ' & cos " ( ) Z * ) Z * 2 % $ VS &VR % $ VR QR = ' & sin ( #! + " ) ( # ' & sin " ( ) Z * ) Z *
If we assume the line reactance is much greater than the line resistance, i.e., xL >> rL, then we can neglect rL. This means ! = 90 and Z = X, which when we substitute in the previous equations yield:
2 $ # VS % VR $ # VR PR = & % cos ( "! + 90 ) ' " & % cos 90 ' ( X ) ( X )
# VS % VR $ PR = & % sin ! ' ( X )

2 $ # VS % VR $ # VR QR = & % sin ( "! + 90 ) ' " & % sin 90 ' ( X ) ( Z ) 2 # $ V % V V # S R $ R QR = & % cos ! ' " & ' ( X ) ( X )
Observations
1.! Since we assumed that the transmission line consists of pure reactance, real power is not dissipated in the line and PS = PR. If the transmission line resistance is non-negligible, we will have to use the unsimplified equations. Maximum real power transfer occurs when " = 90. Real power transfer is more sensitive to the difference between phase angles of the supply voltage and the load voltage. Reactive power transfer is more sensitive to the difference between magnitudes of the supply voltage and the load voltage.
2.! 3.! 4.!
5.!
The Load Flow Problem

Basic Electrical Engineering Solution
How do you determine the voltage, current, power, and power factor at various points in a power system?
Sending End Line Receiving End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
Solve for:
1)! ISR = (SR/VR )* 2)! VD = ISRZL 3)! VS = VR + VD 4)! SS = VS(ISR)*
VS = ?
VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF
VOLTAGE DROP = VS - VR
RDDELMUNDO EEE 103 AY2010-11 S2
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Sending End Line
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
Receiving End
Solve for:
1)! ISR = (SR/VR )* 2)! VD = ISRZL 3)! VS = VR + VD 4)! SS = VS(ISR)*
VS = ?
VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF
S1! = ( 2,000,000 / 3 )$ cos "1 ( 0.85 ) = 666 ,666.67 $31.79 VA VR = ( 13,200 / 3 )$0 = 7621.02$0 V
#
% 666 ,666.67 $31.79 & I SR = ' ( = 87.48$ " 31.79 A 7621.02$0 ) * VD = ( 87.48$ " 31.79 )(1.1034 + j2.0856 ) = 178.15 + j104.23 V VS = (7621.02 + j0 ) + (178.15 + j104.23 ) = 7,799.87 $0.77 V VS = 7,799.87 $0.77 /1000* 3 = 13.51 k V

Load Flow From the Real World
Sending End Line Receiving End
1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

ISR = ?
VS = 13.2 kVLL
VR = ? Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF
How do you solve for:

1)! ISR = ? 2)! VD = ? 3)! VR = ? 4)! SS = ?
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Load Flow of Distribution System
Bus2 Bus1 I12 , Loss12 = ? I23 , Loss23 = ? I24 , Loss24 = ? V1 = 67 kV P1 , Q1 = ? V2 = ? P2 , Q2 = ? Bus3 V3 = ? P3 , Q3 = ?
Utility Grid
How do you solve for the Voltages, Currents, Power and Losses?
V4 = ? P4 , Q4 = ? Bus4 Lumped Load A 2 MVA 85%PF Lumped Load B 1 MVA 85%PF
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Load Flow of Transmission and Subtransmission System
G 1 How do you solve for the Voltages, Currents and Power of a LOOP power system? Line 2 3 Line 3 Line 1 G 2
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!! How do you determine the voltage, current, and power flows, at various points in the power system, under existing conditions of normal operations? !! How do you determine the adequacy of the power system in meeting the demand during contingencies? !! How about if there are contemplated changes in the power system? How will you determine in advance the effects of:
!! Growth or Addition of loads !! Addition or Decommissioning of generating plants !! Expansion of the transmission and distribution systems
before the proposed changes are implemented?


ANSWER: THE LOAD FLOW STUDY!
Load Flow Analysis simulates (i.e., mathematically determines) the performance of an electric power system under a given set of conditions. Load Flow (also called Power Flow) takes a snapshot of the electric power system at a given point in time.
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POWER SYSTEM MODELS FOR LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
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Network Models
!! The static components of the power system are modeled by the bus admittance matrix, [Ybus].
&Y11 $ $Y21 $ $Y31 $ $" $ $Yn 1 % Y12 Y22 Y32 " Yn 2 Y13 !Y1 n # ! Y23 !Y2 n ! ! Y33 !Y3 n ! ! " " ! ! Yn 3 !Ynn ! "
[YBUS] =
The number of buses (excluding the neutral bus) determines the dimension of the bus admittance, [Ybus].
Generator Models
1.! Voltage-controlled generating units to supply a scheduled active power P at a specified voltage magnitude V. The generators are equipped with voltage regulators to adjust the field excitation so that the units will supply or absorb a particular reactive power Q in order to maintain the voltage. Swing generating units to maintain the frequency at 60Hz in addition to the specified voltage. The generating unit is equipped with frequency following controller (quick-responding speed governor) and is assigned as the Swing Generator.
2.!
Bus Types
!! The power system is interconnected through the busses. The busses must therefore be identified in the load flow model. !!Generators, shunt admittances, and loads are connected from their corresponding bus to the neutral bus. !!Transmission lines, transformers, and series impedances are connected from bus to bus.
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Bus Types
!! To completely describe a particular bus, four quantities must be specified: !!Bus Voltage Magnitude, |VP| !!Bus Voltage Phase Angle, $P !!Bus Injected Active Power, PP !!Bus Injected Reactive Power, QP
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Swing Bus
Swing Bus or Slack Bus
The difference between the total load demand plus losses (both P and Q) and the scheduled generations is supplied by the swing bus. The voltage magnitude and phase angle are specified for the Swing Bus, also called the Slack Bus. P,Q + Swing Bus V!! G Specify: V, $ Unknown: P, Q
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Generator Bus
Generator Bus (Voltage-Controlled) Bus PV Bus or
The total real power Pp injected into the system through the bus is specified together with the magnitude of the voltage Vp at the bus. The bus voltage magnitude is maintained through reactive P,Q power injection. + Generator Bus V!! G Specify: P, V Unknown: Q, $
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Load Bus
Load Bus or PQ Bus
The total injected power Pp and the reactive power Qp at Bus P are specified and are assumed constant, independent of the small variations in bus voltage. P,Q Load Bus + Specify: P, Q Unknown: V, $
V!!
-
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Summary of Bus Types

Bus Type Swing Generator Load Known Unknown Quantities Quantities Vp, !p Pp, Vp Pp, Qp Pp, Qp Qp, !p Vp, !p
Bus Types
G Injected Powers: 1 Line 3 3
Load P Q 0 0 0 0 0.60 0.25 Remarks Swing Bus Gen Bus Load Bus
Line 1
G 2
PBUS = PGEN PLOAD Line 2 QBUS = QGEN QLOAD

Bus No. 1 2 3 Voltage Generation V (p.u.) ! P Q 1.0 0.0 * * 1.0 * 0.20 * * * 0 0
SOLUTIONS TO SIMULTANEOUS ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS
29
Numerical Methods
!! Direct Methods !!Cramers Rule !!Matrix Inversion !!Gaussian Elimination Method !!Gauss-Jordan Reduction Method !! Iterative Methods !!Gauss Iterative Method !!Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method !!Newton-Raphson Method
Iterative Methods
An iterative method (root word: iterate) is a repetitive process for obtaining the solution of an equation or a system of equations. The solutions start from arbitrarily chosen initial estimates of the unknown variables from which a new set of estimates is determined. Convergence is achieved when the absolute mismatch between the current and previous estimates is less than some acceptable pre-specified precision index (the convergence index) for all variables.
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Gauss Iterative Method

Given the system of algebraic equations,
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ! + a1n xn = y1 a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ! + a2n xn = y 2 ! ! ! ! a31 x1 + a32 x2 + ! + ann xn = y3

In the above equation, the xs are unknown.
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In general, the jth equation may be written as
1 n xj = ( b j # !i =1 a ji xi ) a jj
i" j
equation a
j = 1, 2, n
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In general, the Gauss iterative estimates are:
x1
x2
k +1
a1n k y1 a12 k a13 k = ! x2 ! x3 ! ... ! xn a11 a11 a11 a11

a2n k y2 a21 k a23 k = ! x1 ! x3 ! ... ! xn a22 a22 a22 a22 an,n-1 y n an1 k an2 k k = ! x1 ! x2 ! ... ! x n -1 ann ann ann ann
k +1
xn
k +1
where k is the iteration count

From an initial estimate of the unknowns (x10, x20, xn0), updated values of the unknown variables are computed using equation a. This completes one iteration. The new estimates replace the original estimates. Mathematically, at the kth iteration,
k +1 j
1 n k = ( b j # !i =1 a ji x ) a jj
i" j i
equation b
j = 1, 2, n

A convergence check is conducted after each iteration. The latest values are compared with their values respectively.
"x = x
k
k +1 j
!x
k j
equation c
j = 1, 2, n
The iteration process is terminated when:
max | "x | < !

k j
(convergent)
k = maximum no. of iterations (non-convergent)

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Example:
4x1 ! x2 + x3 = 4 x1 + 4x2 + x3 = 6 x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 5
Assume a convergence index of ! = 0.001 and use the following initial estimates:
a) x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.0
0 0 0
b) x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.5
0 0 0

Solution: a) The system of equation must be expressed in standard form.
x1
k +1
1 = ( 4 + x2k - x3k ) 4
1 = ( 6 - x1k - x3k ) 4
x2
k +1
x3
k +1
1 k = ( 5 - x1k - x2 ) 3

Iteration 1 (k = 0):
1 ( 4 + 0 - 0 ) = 1.0 4 1 1 x2 = ( 6 - 0 - 0 ) = 1.5 4 1 x3 1 = ( 5 - 0 - 0 ) = 1.6667 3 0 "x1 = 1!0 = 1 x1 1 =

0 "x2 = 1.5 ! 0 = 1.5 0 "x3 = 1.6667 ! 0 = 1.6667 0 max "x3 = 1.6667
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1 x1 = ( 4 + 1.5 - 1.6667 ) = 0.958333 4 1 2 x2 = ( 6 - 1.0 - 1.6667 ) = 0.833333 4 1 x3 2 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.5 ) = 0.833333 3 "x11 = 0.958325 ! 1 = 0.041667
2
"x21 = 0.833333 ! 1.5 = 0.66667 "x31 = 0.833333 ! 1.6667 = !0.83334

max "x31 = 0.83334

1 x1 = ( 4 + 0.8333 - 0.8333 ) = 1.0 4 1 3 x2 = ( 6 - 0.9583 - 0.8333 ) = 1.0521 4 1 3 x3 = ( 5 - 0.9583 - 0.8333 ) = 1.0695 3 "x12 = 1 ! 0.958325 = 0.041667
3
"x22 = 1.0521 ! 0.833325 = 0.21877 "x32 = 1.0695 ! 0.8333 = 0.23617

max "x32 = 0.23617

1 x1 = ( 4 + 1.0521 - 1.0695 ) = 0.9956 4 1 4 x2 = ( 6 - 1.0 - 1.0695 ) = 0.9826 4 1 4 x3 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.0521 ) = 0.9826 3 "x13 = 0.9956 ! 1 = !0.0044
4
"x23 = 0.9826 ! 1.0521 = !0.0695 "x33 = 0.9826 ! 1.0695 = !0.0869

max "x33 = 0.0869

1 x1 = ( 4 + 0.9826 - 0.9826 ) = 1.0 4 1 5 x2 = ( 6 - 0.9956 - 0.9826 ) = 1.0054 4 1 5 x3 = ( 5 - 0.9956 - 0.9826) = 1.0073 3 "x14 = 1 ! 0.9956 = 0.0044
5
"x24 = 1.0054 ! 0.9826 = !0.0228 "x34 = 1.0073 ! 0.9826 = 0.0247

max "x34 = 0.0247

1 x1 = ( 4 + 1.0054 - 1.0073 ) = 0.9995 4 1 6 x2 = ( 6 - 1.0 - 1.0071 ) = 0.9982 4 1 6 x3 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.0054 ) = 0.9982 3 "x15 = 0.9995 ! 1 = !0.0005
6
"x25 = 0.9982 ! 1.0054 = !0.0072 "x35 = o.9982 ! 1.0073 = !0.0091

max "x35 = 0.0091

1 x1 = ( 4 + 0.9982 - 0.9982 ) = 1.0 4 1 7 x2 = ( 6 - 0.9995 - 0.9982 ) = 1.0006 4 1 7 x3 = ( 5 - 0.9995 - 0.9982) = 1.0008 3 "x16 = 1 ! 0.9995 = 0.0005
7
"x 6 = 1.0006 ! 0.9982 = 0.0024 2 "x36 = 1.0008 ! 0.9982 = 0.0026

6 max "x3 = 0.0026
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1 x1 = ( 4 + 1.0006 - 1.0008 ) = 0.9995 4 1 8 x2 = ( 6 - 1.0 - 1.0008 ) = 0.9998 4 1 8 x3 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.0008 ) = 0.9998 3 "x17 = 0.9995 ! 1 = !0.0005
8 7 "x2 = 0.9998 ! 1.0006 = !0.0008 "x37 = 0.9998 ! 1.0008 = !0.0010 7 max "x3 = 0.0010
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The Gauss iterative method has converged at iteration 8. The method yields the following solution:
x1 = 0.9995 x2 = 0.9998 x3 = 0.9998
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GAUSS-SEIDEL ITERATIVE METHOD FOR A SYSTEM OF EQUATIONS
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Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method

The Gauss-Seidel method is an improvement over the Gauss iterative method. As presented in the previous section, the standard form of the jth equation may be written as follows.
1 n xj = ( b j # !i =1 a ji xi ) a jj
i" j
j = 1, 2, n
From an initial estimates (x10, x20,xn0), an updated value is computed for x1 using the above equation with j set to 1.This new value replaces x10 and is then used together with the remaining initial estimates to compute a new value for x2. The process is repeated until a new estimate is obtained for xn. This completes one iteration.

Within an iteration, the most recent computed values are used in computing for the remaining unknowns. In general, at iteration k,
k+1 j
1 n = (b j # $ i =1 a ji x i! ) a jj i" j
j = 1, 2, n
where ! = k if i > j = k + 1 if i < j
After each iteration, a convergence check is conducted. The convergence criterion applied is the same with Gauss Iterative Method.
An improvement to the Gauss Iterative Method

x1
k +1
x2
k +1
a1n k y1 a12 k = ! x2 ! ... ! xn a11 a11 a11 a2n k y2 a21 k +1 = ! x1 ! ... ! xn a22 a22 a22
ai,i-1 k +1 ai,i+1 k +1 ain k +1 yi aij k +1 x i = ! xi ! ... ! xi-1 ! xi+1 ! xn aii aii aii aii aii
k +1
xn
k +1
an,n-1 yn an1 k +1 k +1 = ! x1 ! ... ! xn-1 ann ann ann
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Example: Solve the system of equations using the Gauss-Seidel method. Used a convergence index of ! = 0.001
4x1 ! x2 + x3 = 4 x1 + 4x 2 + x3 = 6 x1 + x2 + 3x3 = 5
x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.5
0 0 0

Solution: a) The system of equation must be expressed in standard form.
x x
k +1 1
k +1 2
k +1 x3
1 k k = ( 4 + x2 - x3 ) 4 1 k +1 k = ( 6 - x1 - x3 ) 4 1 k +1 = ( 5 - x1k +1 - x2 ) 3

with x1 = x2 = x3 = 0.5
0 0 0
Iteration 1 (k =0):
1 x1 = ( 4 + 0.5 - 0.5 ) = 1.0 4 1 1 x2 = ( 6 - 1.0 - 0.5 ) = 1.125 4 1 1 x3 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.125 ) = 0.9583 3 0 "x1 = 1 ! 0.5 = 0.50
1 0 "x2 = 1.125 ! 0.50 = 0.625 0 "x3 = 0.9583 ! 0.50 = 0.4583 0 max | "x2 | = 0.625
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1 x1 2 = ( 4 + 1.125 - 0.9583 ) = 1.0417 4 1 x2 2 = ( 6 - 1.0417 - 0.9583 ) = 1.0 4 1 2 x3 = ( 5 - 1.0417 - 1.0 ) = 0.9861 3 "x11 = 1.0417 ! 1 = 0.0417
"x21 = 1 ! 1.125 = !0.125 "x31 = 0.9861 ! 0.9583 = 0.0323 max | "x21 | = 0.125

1 x1 3 = ( 4 + 1.0 - 0.9861 ) = 1.0035 4 1 3 x2 = ( 6 - 1.0035 - 0.9891 ) = 1.0026 4 1 x3 3 = ( 5 - 1.0035 - 1.0026 ) = 0.9980 3 "x12 = 1.0035 ! 1.0417 = !0.0382
"x22 = 1.0026 ! 1 = 0.0026 "x32 = 0.9980 ! 0.9861 = 0.0119 max | "x32 | = 0.0119

1 x1 4 = ( 4 + 1.0026 - 0.9980 ) = 1.0012 4 1 x2 4 = ( 6 - 1.0012 - 0.9980) = 1.0002 4 1 4 x3 = ( 5 - 1.0 - 1.0012 - 1.0002) = 0.9995 3 "x13 = 1.0012 ! 1.0035 = 0.0023
"x23 = 1.0002 ! 1.0026 = !0.0024 "x33 = 0.9995 ! 0.9980 = 0.0015 max | "x23 | = 0.0024

1 x1 = ( 4 + 1.0002 - 0.9995 ) = 1.0002 4 1 x2 5 = ( 6 - 1.0002 - 0.9995) = 1.0001 4 1 5 x3 = ( 5 - 1.0002 - 1.0001) = 0.9999 3 "x14 = 1.0002 # 1.0012 = #0.001
5
"x24 = 1.0001 # 1.0002 = #0.0001 "x34 = 0.9999 # 0.9995 = 0.0004 max | "x 4 | = 0.001 < !

The Gauss-Seidel Iterative Method has converged after only 5 iterations with the following solutions:
x1 = 1.0002 x2 = 1.0001 x3 = 0.9999
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow

Linear Formulation of Load Flow Equations
Pp + jQp = Vp Ip* Pp - jQp = Vp* Ip Pp = real power injected into bus P Qp = reactive power injected into bus P Vp = phasor voltage of bus P Ip = current injected into bus P
The real and reactive power into any bus P is: or where
(1)

Equation (1) may be rewritten as: Pp - jQp _________ Ip = Vp* From the Bus Admittance Matrix equation, the current injected into the bus are: Ip = Yp1V1 + Yp2V2 + + YppVp + + YpnVn I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 I3 = Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3
(2)
(3)

Substituting (3) into (2) Pp - jQp _________ = Y V + Y V + + Y V + + Y V p1 1 p2 2 pp p pn n * Vp P1 jQ1 _________ = Y V + Y V + Y V 11 1 12 2 13 3 * V1 P2 jQ2 _________ = Y V + Y V + Y V 21 1 22 2 23 3 * V2 P3 jQ3 _________ = Y V + Y V + Y V 31 1 32 2 33 3 * V3
(4)

Solving for Vp in (4) P 1 jQ1 _______ Y11V1 = - (___ + Y12V2 + Y13V3) V1*
1 V1 = Y11
P 2 jQ2 _______ Y22V2 = - (Y12V2 + ___ + Y13V3) V2*
& P1 ' jQ1 # $ V * ' Y12V2 ' Y13V3 ! % " 1
1 V2 = Y22
& P2 ' jQ2 # ' Y21V1 ' Y13V3 ! $ V* % " 2


P 3 jQ3 _______ Y33V3 = - (Y13V1 + Y23V2 + ___) V3*
1 V3 = Y33
& P3 ' jQ3 # ' Y31V1 ' Y32V2 ! $ V* % " 3

(5)
n P jQ 1 p p _______ ___ Vp = - ! YpqVq Ypp Vp* q=1 q#p
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Solution
Generalizing the Gauss-Seidel Load Flow, the estimate for the voltage Vp at bus p at the kth iteration is:
n P jQ 1 p p ___ _______ - ! YpqVq" k+1 Vp = Ypp (Vpk)* q=1 q#p
(6)
where, " = k "=k+1
if p < q if p > q

!! Gauss-Seidel Voltage Equations of the form shown in (6) are written for all buses except for the swing bus. The solution proceeds iteratively from an estimate of all bus voltages !! For a Load Bus (Type 3) whose real power and reactive power are specified, the G-S voltage equation is used directly to compute the next estimate of the bus voltage. !! For a Generator Bus (Type 2) where the voltage magnitude is specified, an estimate of Qp must be determined first. This estimate is then compared with the reactive power limits of the generator. If it falls within the limits, the specified voltage is maintained and the computed Qp is inputted, in the Gauss-Seidel equation. Otherwise, the reactive power is set to an appropriate limit (Qmin or Qmax) and the bus is treated as a load bus in the current iteration.

Numerical Example
Shown in the figure is a 3-bus power system. The line and bus data pertinent to the system are also given. The reactive limits of generator 2 are -50 MVARS and 50 MVARS. Use base power of 100 MVA. Solve the load flow problem using GaussSeidel iterative method with a 0.005 convergence index.
G 1 Line 2
Line 1
G 2 Line 3 3
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Branch Data
Line No. Bus Code Impedance Zpq (p.u.) 1 2 3 1-2 1-3 2-3 0.08 + j0.24 0.02 + j0.06 0.06 + j0.18
Bus Data Bus Voltage Generation No. V (p.u.) ! P Q 1 1.0 0.0 * * 2 1.0 * 0.20 * 3 * * 0 0
Load P Q 0 0 0 0 0.60 0.25
Remarks Swing Bus Gen Bus Load Bus


The Bus Admittance Matrix is:
[YBUS] =
Y11 = 6.25 - j18.75 Y31 = -5 + j15 Y12 = -1.25 + j3.75 Y32 = -1.6667 + j5 Y13 = -5 + j15 Y23 = -1.6667 + j5 Y33 = 6.6667 - j20 Y21 = -1.25 + j3.75 Y22 = 2.9167 - j8.75
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Specified Variables: V1 = 1.0 $1 = 0.0 V2 = 1.0 P3 = -0.6 P2 = 0.2 Q3 = -0.25 Note the negative sign of P and Q of the Load at Bus 3
Initial Estimates of Unknown Variables: $20 = 0.0 V30 = 1.0 $30 = 0.0
Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Equations

!! Bus 1: Swing Bus
V1
!! Bus 2: PV Bus
( k +1)
= 1.0!0
for all iterations
We must first estimate the Q2 for Bus 2 by:
P2 " jQ2 = (V
k
k ! 2
) # (Y
21
#V
( k +1) 1
+ Y22 #V
(k ) 2
+ Y23 #V
(k ) 3
Then we substitute the Q2 value (and only the Q2 value) to:
V2( k +1)
"$ k 1 ') P2 & jQ2 = + Y22 ') (V ( k ) )! 2 .,
# % * & Y + V ( k +1) & Y + V ( k ) ( 21 1 23 3 ( * /

Gauss-Seidel Load Flow Equations

!! Bus 3: PQ Bus
The Gauss-Seidel Equation for PQ Bus is straightforward:
V3( k +1)
"$ # % 1 ') P3 & jQ3 * ( k +1) ( k +1) ( = + & Y + V & Y + V 13 1 23 3 ! ( k ) ' ( Y33 ) (V ) * ., 3 /
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Gauss-Seidel Load Flow: Example

Iteration 1: k = 0 k V Bus 1: 1 = 1.0!0 k k ! Bus 2:
for all iterations
( k +1) 1
P2 " jQ2 = (V2

Y21
V20
) # (Y
21
#V
+ Y22 #V
(k ) 2
+ Y23 #V
(k ) 3
V1k
0 % ( "1.25 + j3.75 ) # (1$0 ) & V20 Q2 ( ! ' 0 P2 " jQ2 = (1$0 ) # ' + ( 2.9167 " j8.75 ) # (1$0 )( = 0 " j 0 ' + "1.6667 + j5 # 1$0 ( V30 discard Y22 ) ( )( ) *
Y23
0 Q2 =0
(This value is within limits.)


Bus 2: (iteration 1, continued)
V2( k +1)
"$ k 1 ') P2 & jQ2 = + Y22 ') (V ( k ) )! 2 .,

P2
# % * & Y + V ( k +1) & Y + V ( k ) ( 21 1 23 3 ( * /

0 Q2
"$ 0.2 & j 0 % # '+ , & ( &1.25 + j3.75) ) (1*0 )( 1 ! 1 , 0 V2 = ) '+ 1 * 0 ( ( ) Y V 23 3 . ( 2.9167 & j8.75) ' 0 ( V2 & ( &1.6667 + j5) ) (1*0 ) ( ' / 0 Y
22
Y21 V1k
V21 = 1.0071!1.1705! " V21a = 1.0!1.1705!


Bus 3: (iteration 1)
"$ # % 1 ') P3 & jQ3 * ( k +1) ( k +1) ( k +1) ( V3 = + & Y + V & Y + V 31 1 32 2 ! ( k ) ' ( Y33 ) (V ) * ., 3 / P3 Q3 Y31 V1k "$ &0.60 + j 0.25 % # '+ , & ( &5 + j15 ) ) (1*0 )( ! 1 , 1a 1 * 0 ( V31 = ) '+ ( ) Y V . 32 2 (6.6667 & j 20) ' 0 ( ! V 3 & & 1.6667 + j 5 ) 1.0 * 1.1705 ' ( )( )( / 0 Y33
V31 = 0.9799! " 1.0609!


Check for convergence: (iteration 1)
! V2 = V " V
1 2
0 2
= (1.0071#1.1705 ) " (1.0#0
= 0.0217 > 0.005
!1V3 = V31 " V30 = ( 0.9799# " 1.0609! ) " (1.0#0! ) = 0.0272 > 0.005
Action: Continue iterating.
1a 2
1 ! V = 0.9799 ! " 1.0609 = 1.0!1.1705 3

!
78

Iteration 2: k = 1 Bus 2: P2 "
V21a*
jQ2 = (V
k
k ! 2
) # (Y
Y21
21
#V
( k +1) 1
+ Y22 #V
(k ) 2
+ Y23 #V
V1k
(k ) 3
! ( #1.25 + j3.75) $ (1%0! ) V21a " & ' P2 # jQ 12 = (1.0% # 1.1705) $ &+ ( 2.9167 # j8.75) $ (1.0%1.1705! ) V31' & ' ! ' & discard + # 1.6667 + j 5 $ 0.9799 % # 1.0609 )( )) Y22 ( ( P2 # jQ 12 = 0.3024 # j 0.0160
Y23
1 Q2 = 0.0160

V2( k +1)
"$ k 1 ') P2 & jQ2 = + Y22 ') (V ( k ) )! 2 .,

P2
# % * & Y + V ( k +1) & Y + V ( k ) ( 21 1 23 3 ( * /

1 Q2
!$ 0.2 " j 0.0160 % ! # " ( "1.25 + j3.75) & (1'0 ) + ( ) * ! 1 V22 = & *, 1.0' " 1.1705 V31 + Y23 ( 2.9167 " j8.75) * V21a* " ( "1.6667 + j 5 ) & ( 0.9799' " 1.0610! )+ . /
Y22
Y21 V1k
V22 = 0.9965!0.5648! " V22 a = 1.0!0.5648!


Bus 3: (iteration 2)
V3( k +1)
"$ # % 1 ') P3 & jQ3 * ( k +1) ( k +1) ( = + & Y + V & Y + V 31 1 32 2 ! ( k ) ' ( Y33 ) (V ) * ., 3 /
P3
!$ "0.60 + j 0.25 % ! # " ( "5 + j15 ) & (1'0 )+ ( ) * ! 1 V32 = & *, 0.9799'1.0610 - Y32 V22 a + (6.6667 " j 20) *V 1* ! + 3 " " 1.6667 + j 5 & 1.0 ' 0.5648 ( )( )/ .
Y33
Q3
Y31 V1k
V32 = 0.9791! " 1.2218!


Check for convergence: (iteration 2) ! 0.9965 ! 0.5648 2 " V2 = V22 # V21a = # 1.0!1.1705!
Action: Continue iterating.
= 0.0111 > 0.005 ! 0.9791 ! " 1.2218 ( ) 2 2 1 # V3 = V3 " V3 = " ( 0.9799! " 1.0610! ) = 0.0029 < 0.005
V22 a = 1.0!0.5648! V32 = 0.9791! " 1.2218!

Iteration 3: k = 2 Bus 2: P2 "
V22 a*
jQ2 = (V
k
k ! 2
) # (Y
Y21
21
#V
( k +1) 1
+ Y22 #V
(k ) 2
+ Y23 #V
(k ) 3
V1k
! ( #1.25 + j3.75) $ (1%0 ) V 2 a " 2 & ' & + ( 2.9167 # j8.75) $ (1.0%0.5648! ) V32' P2 # jQ 2 = 1.0 % # 0.5648 $ ( ) 2 & ' ! ' & discard + # 1.6667 + j 5 $ 0.9791 % # 1.2218 )( )) Y22 ( ( P2 # jQ 2 = 0.2253 # j 0.0438 2
Y23
2 Q2 = 0.0438

V2( k +1)
"$ k 1 ') P2 & jQ2 = + Y22 ') (V ( k ) )! 2 .,

P2
# % * & Y + V ( k +1) & Y + V ( k ) ( 21 1 23 3 ( * /

1 Q2
Y21 V1k
!$ 0.2 " j 0.0438 % ! # " ( "1.25 + j3.75 ) & (1'0 ) + ( ) * ! 1 V32 + Y23 V23 = & *, 1.0' " 0.5648 ( 2.9167 " j8.75) *V22 a* " "1.6667 + j5 & 0.9791' " 1.2218! + ( )( )/ .
Y22
V23 = 0.9991!0.4158! " V23a = 1.0!0.4158!


Bus 3:
V3( k +1)
"$ # % 1 ') P3 & jQ3 * ( k +1) ( k +1) ( = + & Y + V & Y + V 31 1 32 2 ! ( k ) ' ( Y33 ) (V ) * ., 3 /
P3
!$ "0.60 + j 0.25 % # " ( "5 + j15 ) & (1'0 ) + ( ) * ! 1 V23 a V33 = & *, 0.9799'1.0610 - Y32 + (6.6667 " j 20) * V 2* ! + " ( "1.6667 + j5 ) & (1.0'0.4158 )/ . 3
Y33
Q3
Y31 V1k
V33 = 0.9790! " 1.2575!


Check for convergence:
3 ! 0.9991 ! 0.4158 ( )
" V2
= V23 # V22 a =
Action: Stop iterating. The solution has converged.

= 0.0027 < 0.005 ! 0.9791 ! " 1.2575 ( ) 3 3 2 # V3 = V3 " V3 = " ( 0.9791! " 1.2218! ) = 0.0006 < 0.005
V23a = 1.0!0.4158! V33 = 0.9790! " 1.2575!
# (1.0!0.5648! )
Principles of Load Flow Control

Generator Voltage & Power Control
jX Ei!$
The complex power delivered to the bus (Generator Terminal) is
Vt!0
& Ei ') ( Vt '0 # Pt + jQt = [Vt '0]I = [Vt '0]$ ! jX % "

*
& EiVt # Pt = $ sin ' ! % X "
& EiVt Vt 2 # Qt = $ cos ( ' ! X" % X


& EiVt # Pt = $ sin ' ! % X "

Observations:
& EiVt Vt 2 # Qt = $ cos ( ' ! X" % X
1.! Real Power is injected into the bus (Generator Operation), $ must be positive (Ei leads Vt) 2.! Real Power is drawn from the bus (Motor Operation), $ must be negative (Ei lags Vt) 3.! In actual operation, the numeric value of $ is small & since the slope of Sine function is maximum for small values, a minute change in $ can cause a substantial change in Pt

& EiVt # Pt = $ sin ' ! % X "

Observations:
& EiVt Vt 2 # Qt = $ cos ( ' ! X" % X
4.! Reactive Power flow depends on relative values of EiCos$ and Vt 5.! Since the slope of Cosine function is minimum for small values of angle, Reactive Power is controlled by varying Ei
! Over-excitation (increasing Ei) will deliver Reactive Power into the Bus ! Under-excitation (decreasing Ei) will absorb Reactive Power from the Bus

Capacitor Compensation ~
p Ipq q + jQc PL - jQL
The voltage of bus q can be expressed as
Eq = V p !
X pqQq Vp
!j
X pq Pq Vp
Observations:
1.! The Reactive Power Qq causes a voltage drop and thus largely affects the magnitude of Eq 2.! A capacitor bank connected to bus q will reduce Qq that will consequently reduce voltage drop

Tap-Changing Transformer
a:1 q s p r
The $ equivalent circuit of transformer with the per unit transformation ratio:
1 y pq a
Observation:
The voltage drop in the transformer is affected by the transformation ratio a
1! a y pq 2 a
a !1 y pq a
Information from a Load Flow Study

BASIC INFORMATION " " " " " ! Voltage Profile ! Injected Power (Pp and Qp) ! Line Currents (Ipq and Ipq) ! Power Flows (Ppq and Qpq) ! Line Losses (I2R and I2X)
94
The bus voltages are: V1 = 1.0!0 V2 = 0.9990!0.4129 V3 = 0.9788!-1.2560
The power injected into the buses are: P1 - jQ1 = V1* [Y11V1 + Y12V2 + Y13V3 ] P1 - jQ1 = (1.0!0) [(19.7642!-71.5651)(1.0!0) + (3.9528!108.4349)(0.9990!0.4129) + (15.8114!108.4349) (0.9788!-1.25560) = 0.4033 - j0.2272
P2 - jQ2 = V2* [Y21V1 + Y22V2 + Y23V3 ] P2 - jQ2 = (0.999!-0.4129)[(3.9528!108.4349)(1.0!0) + (9.2233!-71.5649)(0.9990!0.4129) + (5.2705!108.4349)(0.9788!-1.25560) = 0.2025 - j0.04286 P3 - jQ3 = V3* [Y31V1 + Y32V2 + Y33V3 ] P3 - jQ3 = (0.9788!1.256) [(15.8114!108.4349)(1.0!0) + (5.2705!108.4349)(0.9990!0.4129) + (21.0819 ! -71.5650)(0.9788!-1.25560 ) = -0.600 + j0.2498
Line Currents
Ipq Vp
p

Iline ypo ypq Vq
q
Iqp
yqo
The line current Ipq, measured at bus p is given by
I pq = I line + I po = y pq ( V p ! Vq ) + y poV p
Similarly, the line current Iqp, measured at bus q is
I qp = ! I line + I qo = y pq ( Vq ! V p ) + yqoVq
97

The branch currents are:
I pq = I line = y pq ( V p ! Vq )
I12 = y12 [V1 - V2]
I qp = ! I line = y pq ( Vq ! V p )
I21 = y12 [V2 V1]
I13 = y13 [V1 V3]
I31 = y13 [V3 V1]
I23 = y23 [V2 V3]
I32 = y23 [V3 V2]

98

Power Flows
The power flow (Spq) from bus p to q is
pq
=P
pq
+ jQ
pq
= V I*
p
pq
The power flow (Sqp) from bus q to p is
S =P
qp
qp
+ jQ = V I *
qp
q qp
99

The branch power flows are: P12 jQ12 = V1* I12 P21 jQ21 = V2* I21
P13 jQ13 = V1* I13
P31 jQ31 = V3* I31
P23 jQ23 = V2* I23
P32 jQ32 = V3* I32
RDDELMUNDO 100 EEE 103 AY2010-11 S2

Line Losses
The power loss in line pq is the algebraic sum of the power flows Spq and Sqp
Sloss = Ploss + jQloss = S pq + Sqp
= Vp I
* pq
! Vq I
* pq
= (V p + Vq )I
* pq

The line losses are: P12(Loss) jQ12(Loss) = (P12 jQ12) + (P21 jQ21 )
P13(Loss) jQ13(Loss) = (P13 jQ13) + (P31 jQ31 )
P23(Loss) jQ23(Loss) = (P23 jQ23) + (P32 jQ32 )

Other Information: " ! Overvoltage and Undervoltage Buses " ! Critical and Overloaded Transformers and Lines " ! Total System Losses
Uses of Load Flow Studies

Sensitivity Analysis with Load Flow Study
1) Take any line, transformer or generator out of service. 2) Add, reduce or remove load to any or all buses. 3) Add, remove or shift generation to any bus. 4) Add new transmission or distribution lines. 5) Increase conductor size on T&D lines. 6) Change bus voltages. 7) Change transformer taps. 8) Increase or decrease transformer size. 9) Add or remove rotating or static var supply to buses.
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute University of the Philippines RDDELMUNDO 105 EEE 103 AY2010-11 S2

!! Sensitivity Analysis Example
IEEE 14-Bus System

!! Sensitivity
Analysis Example
Removal of Line 4-5

IEEE 14-Bus System

!! Sensitivity
Analysis Example
Removal of generator at Bus 2

IEEE 14-Bus System

!! Sensitivity
Analysis Example
Removal of rotating VAR supply at bus 3
From 1.010 pu
111

IEEE 14-Bus System

!! Sensitivity
From 14.9 MW + 5.0 MVAR; V: from 1.035 pu Line 9-14: From 50% loading
Analysis Example
Increase in P and Q at bus 14

!! Analysis of existing conditions:
!! Check for voltage violations (undervoltage/overvoltage). !! Check for transformer overloading/line overloading. !! Check for system losses.
!! Analysis for correction of power quality issues:

!! Voltage adjustment at the delivery points !! Transformer tap changing !! Capacitor compensation:
"! Compensation for Peak Loading "! Check for overvoltages during Off-Peak conditions "! Optimize capacitor allocation and capacitor switching

!! Analysis for Expansion Planning:
!! Construction of new substation !! Addition of capacity to existing substation !! Construction of new feeder segment !! Extension of existing feeder segment !! Addition of parallel feeder segment !! Replacement of conductors in existing feeder segments !! Conversion of entire feeder circuits from one voltage level to another voltage level !! Addition of generators

!! Contingency Analysis:
!! Reliability of the Transmission, Subtransmission, and Distribution Systems
Reliability denotes that not only is the power system working, but that it is working properly. That is, no physical and technical constraints must be violated i.e., voltage must be well regulated and within acceptable range, load limits of the transformers and the lines must not be exceeded, and power balance must be satisfied.
!! System Loss Analysis:

!! Identification of lossy components in the power system.

EEE 103 - Load Flow Analysis

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EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

Power Flow Through Short Transmission Lines

EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

We calculate for the current I and its conjugate I* :

! (VS %! ) $ (VR %0 ) I = ( Z %" ) !# (VS % $ ! ) $ (VR %0 ) I = (Z% $" )

! !" SS = (VS #! ) $ I ! !" S R = (VR #0) $ I

EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

Looking at the ! sending-end !# complex power:

EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

Looking at the receiving-end complex power:

! !# S R = (VR %0) & I

! VS % $ ! ) $ (VR %0 ) ( S R = (VR %0) & (Z% $" )

Getting the real and imaginary (reactive) components:

EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

# VS % VR $ PR = & % sin ! ' ( X )

EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

2.! 3.! 4.!

EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

The Load Flow Problem

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute University of the Philippines

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EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

The Load Flow Problem

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

VR = 13.2 kVLL Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

The Load Flow Problem

1.1034 + j2.0856 ohms/phase

VR = ? Load 2 MVA, 3Ph 85%PF

How do you solve for:

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute University of the Philippines

RDDELMUNDO EEE 103 AY2010-11 S2

EEE 103 Introduction to Power Systems

The Load Flow Problem

V4 = ? P4 , Q4 = ? Bus4 Lumped Load A 2 MVA 85%PF Lumped Load B 1 MVA 85%PF

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before the proposed changes are implemented?

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POWER SYSTEM MODELS FOR LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

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