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True Stress (T)

True stress is the stress determined by the instantaneous load acting on the instantaneous cross-sectional area True stress is related to engineering stress: Aol o = Al Assuming material volume remains constant
T =
A P P Ao P = * = * o A A Ao Ao A
o

Ao +l l = = A lo lo

= + 1 = (1 + ) lo

T =

P (1 + ) = (1 + ) Ao

True Strain (T)



T

The rate of instantaneous increase in the instantaneous gauge length.


=

l dl = ln l l o


o o

l o + l l = ln ln l l o = ln( 1 + )

l l o

Strain Hardening Parameter (n)

T = K T

Strain hardening parameter

T T

d n = d

T T

0<n<1

True Stress-Strain Curve


F l T = ; T = ln( ) Ai lo

l lo F = ;= Ao lo

Instability in Tension
Necking or localized deformation begins at maximum load, where the increase in stress due to decrease in the cross-sectional area of the specimen becomes greater than the increase in the load-carrying ability of the metal due to strain hardening. This conditions of instability leading to localized deformation is defined by the condition P = 0.

P =

P = T A + A T = 0

A
A

From the constancy-of-volume relationship,

T T

V = Aolo = Ai li
so that at the point of tensile instability

l
l
n

A
A

= T

T =T T

But

T = K T

T T n 1 = Kn T = n T T

Instability occurs when = n

The necking criterion can be expressed more explicitly if engineering strain is used. T L / Lo L (1 + ) = T = = = = T T L / L LO

T = 1+

1 1+

Fracture Behavior
Ductile material Significant plastic deformation and energy absorption (toughness) before fracture. Characteristic feature of ductile material - necking Brittle material Little plastic deformation or energy absorption before fracture. Characteristic feature of brittle materials fracture surface perpendicular to the stress.

Steel Before and after fracture

Ductile Fracture (Dislocation Mediated): Extensive plastic deformation. Necking, formation of small cavities, enlargement of cavities, formation of cup-and-cone. Typical fibrous structure with dimples.

Crack grows 90o to applied stress

45O - maximum shear stress

(a) Necking, (b) Cavity Formation, (c) Cavity coalescence to form a crack, (d) Crack propagation, (e) Fracture

Scanning Electron Microscopy: Fractographic studies at high resolution. Spherical dimples correspond to microcavities that initiate crack formation.

Brittle Fracture (Limited Dislocation Mobility): very little deformation, rapid crack propagation. Direction of crack propagation perpendicular to applied load. Crack often propagates by cleavage - breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes). Brittle fracture in a mild steel

Intergranular fracture: Crack propagation is along grain boundaries (grain boundaries are weakened or embrittled by impurities segregation etc.)

Transgranular fracture: Cracks pass through grains. Fracture surface has faceted texture because of different orientation of cleavage planes in grains.

Stress-Strain Behavior of Ceramics


Flexural Strength: the stress at fracture under the bending tests. Its also called Modulus of rupture, fracture strength, or the bend strength

3-point Bending tests

fs = fs =

3F f L 2bd Ff L
2

R 3

Ductile

Brittle

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