EEE464

Wireless Communication Systems

Lecture 2
Fundamentals Review
Basic Communication System
Electrical communication systems are designed to send messages from a
source to one or more destinations.
The output of the source is not deterministic. If it were, there would be no
need for the message.










Originally described by Claude Shannon of Bell Laboratories in his classic
1948 paper A Mathematical Theory of Communication .
The representation applies to all types of communication system, whether
wireless or otherwise.
2
Figure. Architecture of a generic communication system
Figure. Architecture of a generic communication system
Basic Communication System (cont.)
Source: information signal (analog or digital).
Transmitter:
Converts information signal into form suitable for communication.
Translates frequencies to appropriate range.
Performs modulation, filtering and amplification.
Provides the radiation mechanism for wireless transmission.
Main components: transducer, amplifier, modulator, oscillator, power amp.,
antenna.
Channel: e.g. Cable, optical fiber, free space.
Receiver:
Its function is to recover the information signal from the received signal.
It performs: carrier demodulation, filtering, noise suppression, and symbol
detection.
Main components: antenna, amplifier, demodulator, oscillator, power
amplifier, transducer.
Recipient: e.g. person, (loud) speaker, computer.
3
Digital Communication System
4
Digital Communication System (cont.)
Continuous - time signal = analog signal/ analog systems/ analog
sources. Signal fidelity better controlled through digital
transmission.
Discrete-time signals -- digital communications.
Our communication system needs to be expanded to include
message signal discretization at the transmitter and message signal
synthesis at the receiver.
Source - outputs are bits.
Source encoder - represents the source in as few digits as possible.
Converts the output of the source into an efficient representation.
Channel Encoder - introduces controlled redundancy to overcome
effects of noise and interference in the channel. Trivial example
repeat each bit m times.
5
Digital Communication System (cont.)




Code redundancy = n/k, code rate = k/n
Digital Modulation - maps information bits into electrical signals.
Example: map digit 0 into signal s0(t), and digit 1 into signal s1(t).
To code B information bits there are M = 2B required waveforms.
Demodulator - processes the noise corrupted received information
and decides on the transmitted bit.
Binary decision - decide 0, or 1.
Ternary decision - 0,1, neither.

6
Channel
Encoder
K-bit sequence n-bit sequence
Digital Communication System (cont.)
Several performance measures used in wireless:
Frequency of errors in the decoded sequence: average
probability of error at output of the decoder .
Probability of SNR falling below a specified threshold - outage.
Digital communication stems from the work of Nyquist.
7
Data Communication System
Data - entities that convey meaning, or information
Signals - electric or electromagnetic representations of data
Transmission - communication of data by the propagation and
processing of signals
8
Data Analog and Digital
Analog
Video
Audio
Digital
Text
Integers
9
Signals
physical representation of data
function of time and space (location)
Can also be expressed as a function of frequency
Signal consists of components of different frequencies
classification
continuous time/discrete time
continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
10
Signals: Time-domain concepts
Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time
No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level for some
period of time and then changes to another constant level
Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that repeats over
time
s(t +T ) = s(t ) - < t < +
where T is the period of the signal
A-periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that doesn't
repeat over time
signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
signal parameters of periodic signals:
Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or strength of the signal over time;
typically measured in volts
11
Signals: Time-domain concepts (cont.)
Frequency (f ) - Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at which
the signal repeats
Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one repetition of the
signal --- > T = 1/f
Phase (|) - measure of the relative position in time within a single
period of a signal

12
Sine Wave Parameters
General sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier
s(t ) = A sin(2tft + |)
Effect of varying each of the three parameters of a sine wave is
shown in Fig. on next slide
(a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz, | = 0; thus T = 1s
(b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
(c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T =
(d) Phase shift; | = t/4 radians (45 degrees)
note: 2t radians = 360 = 1 period
13
Sine Wave Parameters (cont.)
14
Time vs. Distance
When the horizontal axis is time, graphs display the value of a signal
at a given point in space as a function of time
With the horizontal axis in space, graphs display the value of a
signal at a given point in time as a function of distance
At a particular instant of time, the intensity of the signal varies as
a function of distance from the source
Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single cycle of the signal, or
the distance between two points of corresponding phase of two
consecutive cycles
Frequency (f) and wavelength () are related
c = f
Where c is the velocity of light (3 x 10
8
m/s)
15
Signal Representation
Different representations of signals
amplitude (time domain)
frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
phase state diagram (amplitude M and phase in polar
coordinates)




Composed signals transferred into frequency domain using Fourier
transformation
Digital signals need
infinite frequencies for perfect transmission
modulation with a carrier frequency for transmission (analog
signal!)
16
A [V]

I= M cos
Q = M sin
A [V]
t[s]
f [Hz]
Fourier Transform
Any periodic signal can be constructed using only sine and cosine
functions


c is the direct current component of the signal
a
n
and b
n
are the amplitude of the n
th
sine and cosine functions
Nth function is called nth harmonics
Frequency of harmonics increases with n and is a function of the
fundamental frequency f.
Bandwidth of the medium is limited, meaning the medium can
transmit only a certain range of frequencies (harmonics)
Transmitted signal can be considered as composed of one or
more sine functions.
17
1 1
1
( ) sin(2 ) cos(2 )
2
n n
n n
g t c a nft b nft t t

= =
= + +

Fourier representation of periodic
signals
18
) 2 cos( ) 2 sin(
2
1
) (
1 1
nft b nft a c t g
n
n
n
n
t t

=
+ + =
1
0
1
0
t t
ideal periodic signal
real composition
(based on harmonics)
Signals: Frequency-domain concepts
Fundamental frequency
when all frequency components of a signal are integer multiples
of one frequency, its referred to as the fundamental frequency
Spectrum
range of frequencies that a signal contains
Absolute bandwidth
width of the spectrum of a signal
Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth)
narrow band of frequencies where most of the signals energy is
contained in
Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a collection of
periodic analog signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes,
frequencies, and phases.
The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the
fundamental frequency.
19
Analog Signaling Digital Signaling
20
Analog Transmission
Transmit analog signals without regard to content
Attenuation limits length of transmission link
Cascaded amplifiers boost signals energy for longer distances
but cause distortion
Analog data can tolerate distortion
Introduces errors in digital data
21
Digital Transmission
Concerned with the content of the signal
Attenuation endangers integrity of data
Digital Signal
Repeaters achieve greater distance
Repeaters recover the signal and retransmit
Analog signal carrying digital data
Retransmission device recovers the digital data from analog
signal
Generates new, clean analog signal
22
What is bandwidth?
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that can be transmitted over a
channel (a general name for communication medium) without
significant loss of power
If a channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz, does that mean you cant
transmit a signal of higher frequency?
What is the relationship between spectrum, frequency, and
bandwidth?
Spectrum: a range of frequencies (e.g. I requested a 25 MHz of
spectrum from FCC, does it tell you what is my frequency of
operation?)
Bandwidth: an inherent property of a channel (e.g. Fiber has 10
THz of bandwidth)
Frequency of operation (e.g. wLAN using 2.4 GHz frequency)
23
How many bits can we transmit?
The actual number of bits transmitted in a medium is a function of
signal power, noise, source and channel coding, and bandwidth
So 1 MHz does not mean 1 Mbps!!
Bandwidth is limited by Regulatory allocation or the size of
unlicensed bands (such as ISM bands)
Signal power can not be raised beyond certain limit
Interference mostly is beyond your control
After a limit, how well you code your signal becomes useless and
then the upper limit of number of bits/second is determined by
signal power, noise and bandwidth (this relationship is also known
as Shannons theorem)
Bandwidth can be re-used in different places as in cellular/PCS
systems
24
Channel Capacity
Impairments, such as noise, limit data rate that can be achieved
For digital data, to what extent do impairments limit data rate?
Channel Capacity the maximum rate at which data can be
transmitted over a given communication path, or channel, under
given conditions
25
Concepts related to Channel Capacity
Data rate - rate at which data can be communicated (bps)
Bandwidth - the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained
by the transmitter and the nature of the transmission medium
(Hertz)
Noise - average level of noise over the communications path
Error rate - rate at which errors occur
Error = transmit 1 and receive 0; transmit 0 and receive 1
26
Nyquist Bandwidth
For binary signals (two voltage levels)
C = 2B
With multilevel signaling
C = 2B log
2
M
where M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
27
Noise
Noise is the unwanted signal inserted/added to the main signal
while it travels from the transmitter to the receiver
Noise is a major limiting factor in communications system
performance
Noise is divided into four categories:
Thermal Noise
Intermodulation Noise
Crosstalk
Impulse Noise
28
Noise (cont.)
Thermal noise - due to agitation of electrons
Present in all electronic devices and transmission media
Cannot be eliminated
Function of temperature
Particularly significant for satellite communication, received signal
being very weak
Amount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth of 1Hz in any
device or conductor is:


N
0
= noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth
k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3806 x 10
-23
J/K
T = temperature, in Kelvin (absolute temperature)
29
( ) W/Hz k
0
T N =
Noise (cont.)
Intermodulation noise occurs if signals with different
frequencies share the same medium
Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency that is
the sum or difference of original frequencies
Crosstalk unwanted coupling between signal paths
Impulse noise irregular pulses or noise spikes
Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or faults and
flaws in the communications system
30
Noise (cont.)
Performance of wireless systems is determined by the signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR). Sometimes referred to as carrier-to-noise ratio
To achieve required SNR at the receiver it is necessary:
Evaluate noise power
Transmit sufficient power
SNR is expressed in decibels (dB)


Typical SNR required: telephone 26 dB, hi-fi audio 60 dB, Cellular
wireless 14 - 18 dB
All electrical circuits generate noise:
SNR at the output is always smaller than SNR at the input.
31
N
S
SNR
dB 10
log 10 =
Noise (cont.)
Noise power at the receiver:


where (Boltzmanns constant)
(room temperature in Kelvin)
(noise figure, typical 6-10 dB)


32
Joules
0
kTF N =
K J k / 10 38 . 1
23
=
290 T K =
F
Receiver
in
SNR
out
SNR
1 > =
out
in
SNR
SNR
F
Noise (cont.)
Power is measured in

(B is the receiver bandwidth)
P watts are:










33
kTBF N
Hz Joules Watts
=
=
10
10log P dBW
10
30 10log P dBm +
Noise (cont.)
E
b
/N
0
- Ratio of signal energy per bit to noise power density per
Hertz


The bit error rate for digital data is a function of E
b
/N
0

Given a value for E
b
/N
0
to achieve a desired error rate,
parameters of this formula can be selected
As bit rate R increases, transmitted signal power must increase to
maintain required E
b
/N
0

34
TR
S
N
R S
N
E
b
k
/
0 0
= =
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in the noise
thats present at a particular point in the transmission
Typically measured at a receiver
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)


A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low number of required
intermediate repeaters
SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate

35
power noise
power signal
log 10 ) (
10 dB
= SNR
Shannon Capacity Formula
Equation:


Represents theoretical maximum that can be achieved
In practice, only much lower rates achieved
Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
Impulse noise is not accounted for
Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not accounted for

36
( ) SNR 1 log
2
+ = B C
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulation
Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz and 4 MHz ;
SNR(dB) = 24 dB




Using Shannons formula



37
( )
251 SNR
SNR log 10 dB 24 SNR
MHz 1 MHz 3 MHz 4
10 dB
=
= =
= = B
( ) Mbps 8 8 10 251 1 log 10
6
2
6
= ~ + = C
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulation (cont.)

How many signaling levels are required?









38
( )
16
log 4
log 10 2 10 8
log 2
2
2
6 6
2
=
=
=
=
M
M
M
M B C
Relationship between Data Rate and
Bandwidth
The greater the bandwidth, the higher the information-carrying
capacity
Conclusions
Any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth
BUT the transmission system will limit the bandwidth that can be
transmitted
AND, for any given medium, the greater the bandwidth
transmitted, the greater the cost
HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates distortions

39
Classification of Transmission
Media
Transmission Medium
Physical path between transmitter and receiver
Guided Media
Waves are guided along a solid medium
E.g., copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, optical fiber
Unguided Media
Provides means of transmission but does not guide
electromagnetic signals
Usually referred to as wireless transmission
E.g., atmosphere, outer space

40
Types of Mobile Radio Transmission
Systems
Simplex Communication is possible only in one direction, (e.g.,
paging systems).
Half Duplex Two way communication, but uses the same radio
channel for both transmission and reception.
User can only transmit or receive information (e.g., push-to-talk,
release-to-listen etc)
Full Duplex Allows simultaneous
two-way radio transmission and reception between subscriber and
base station.
Two simultaneous but separate channels (FDD) or
Adjacent timeslots on a single radio channel (TDD)

41
Frequency Division Duplexing
(FDD)
Provides simultaneous radio transmission channels for subscriber
and base station.
Separate transmit and receive antennas at base station used to
accommodate two separate channels.
Single antenna at subscriber unit with duplexer is used.
Duplexer enables same antenna to be used for simultaneous
transmission and reception.
A pair of simplex channels with a fixed and known frequency
separation is used.
Forward channel: used to convey traffic to mobile user from base
station.
Reverse channel: used to carry traffic from mobile user to base
station .

42
Time Division Duplexing (TDD)
Share a single radio channel in time i.e., some portion of time for
transmission and remaining time for reception.

Can store information bursts and appear as full duplex if users
transmission rate is slower than that of channel.

Only possible with digital transmission formats and digital
modulation and is very sensitive to timing.

Used only for indoors and small area wireless applications.

43