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EARCH AN·O DEYliUbiPMENT OF MATERIEL

GUH'S SI~RIES GUN,S-GE'NERAL

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Best Available Copy

PREFACE

This handbook has been prepared as one of a series on Guns and forms part of the Engineering Design Handbook Series of the Army Materiel Command. This handbook is intended to serve as au introduction to the series on Guna. It presents the elements of which guns are constituted and the usual variations in form' ; these elements; surveys the current and recently used types designed to serve var. 'us military purposes ; defines a number of terms used in referpn"'" to guns and their operation; and introduces physical, mechanical 8!:d icgi •. · .,.;. problems encountered in design, for which specific procedures for solution will be presented in the other band hooks of the series.

The first draft of this handbook was prepared at Watervliet Al'S<.'ual of the Weapons Command. Assistar,ce by review services and the sup}}lJing of additional material was obtained from Springfield .Armory of the Weapons Command anti Frankford Arsenal of the Munitions Command. Final editing and arranging was by the Engineering Handbook Office of Duke University, prime contractor to the Army Research Offl\le--Durham.

Agt"ncies of the Department of Defense, baying need for Handbooks, may submit requisitions or official requests directly to the Publications and Reproduction Ag<!ncy, Letterkenny Army Depot. Chambersburg, Pennsylvania 17201. Contractors should submit such requisitions or requests to their contracting officers.

Comments and suggestions on this handbook are welcome and should be addressed to Army Research Office--Dllrham, Box CM, Duke Station, Durham:

North Carolina 27706.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraph Page

PREFACE .•................... , ,. " , . . . . . • . i

LIS'll OF ILLUSTRATIONS............................. vii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1-1 Scope of This Handbook.................................. 1-1

1-2 Early Development ............•.....•.••............•.•.. 1-1

1-3 Smooth-bore Era ............•..•.....................••. 1-1

1-4 Rifling Adopted ....................•..........•......... 1-3

1-5 Breech Loading Developed 1-3

l-u Early United States Developrvmts ..••. . • . • . . • . . • . . . • • • . . • . 1-3

1-6.1 Fixed Artiilpry ........................•••........... 1-3

1-6.2 Mobile Artillery 1-4

l·S.S Small Arms ..................•..•.••.••...•...•.•••.. 1-4

1-7 Development of Automatic Weapons.. . .•. . . . . 1-4

1-8 Guns and History •.................•... = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

1-9 Gun Termino)c/gy . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 1-5

1-10 Major Elements of the Gun............................... 1-5

1-10.1 Gun Tube or Barrel. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

1-10.2 Breech Olosure ......•..•......•..••••.....•.•........ 1-6

1-10.3 Breech Ring or Beceiver 1-6

1-10.4 Firing Mechanism .•..•.................•......... - . . . 1-6

1-10.5 Extraeting Mechanism.................... 1-6

1-10.6 Breech Operating Mechanism 1-6

1-10.7 Loading Mechanism 1-6

1-10.S 1tluzzl~ Devices ••............•••................. 1-6

2-1

2-2 2-2.1 2-2.1.1 2-2.1.2 2-2.1.3 2-2.1.4 2-2.1.5 2-2.1.6 2·2.2 2-2.2.1

CHAPTER 2 CLAaSIFICATION .A.J.~D DESCRIPTION BY MILITARY r.HARACTERISTICS OR USAGE

General " ..•.•...•... , ., " . .. . ••...••••.• 2-1

Gun (General) ,............. 2-1

Cannon (General) ...••..••...•.•.•........•.......... 2-1

Gun (Specific) 2-1

Alortar _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2-1

Howitzer ..........•..........................•••. 2-1 Reeoilless Cannon ................................• 2-5

Cannon (Specific) ....•.............•............. 2-5

Automatic Cannon 2-5

Small Anus ...• :.................................. . • • 2-5 Pistol .........•................•................. 2-5

ii

l'aragraph 2-2.2.2 2-2.2.3 2-2.2.4 2-2.2.5 2-2.2.6

3-1

3-2

3-3

3-3.1

3-3.2

3-2.3 3~.4

3-4

3·4.1

3-4.2 3-4.2.1 3-4.2.2 3-4.3 3-4.3.1 3-4.3.2

3-5

3-5.1

3-5.2 3-5.2.1 3-5.2.2 3-5.2.2.1 3-5.2.2.1.1. 3-5.2.2.1.2 3-5.2.2.1.3 3-5.2.2.1.4- 3-5.2.2.2 3-5.2.2.2.1 3-5.2.2.2.2 3-5.2.2.2.3 3·1).2.2.3 3-:;.2.2.3.1 1-5.2.2.3.2 :1·5.2.2.4 3-6

3-6.1

3-6.2

3-6.3

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

Shotgun .........••..•..•..••..•....•••••.••••.••• 2-5 Rifle .•.................•..•• _ ...•.. '" • •. . . .. . .•. 2-5 Carbine ........•••••....•.•...••.....•••.•.•. '... 2-6 Submaehine Gun •..••..••••.••.•...••••.•...•..... 2-6 Machine Gun •. ....•.•..•....•..•.....•....•..•••• 2-6

CHAPTER 3 CJJASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION BY DESIGN FEATURES

Common Features .........•.......•.................. _ • • 3-1

?liethods of Classifleation 3-1

Classification by Ammunition Type ..•....•.........•...... 3-1

Fixed Ammunition •.....•..•..•.•..••••.•.. ,., ...•• ,. 3-1 Semifixed Ammunition ................•...• ,'.... . . . . . . 3·1

Separated Ammunition ••..••...•.......•......•....•. 3-3

Separate Loading Ammunition 3-4

CUlSSification by Shape of Bore 3-4

Cylindrical Bore •••.••••••..•.•••••••••••.. e • • • • • • • • • • 3-4

Tapered (Squeeze) and Choke Bores. . . . .•.• .•.•.•.•• 3-5

Tapered (Squeeze) Bore 3·5

Choke Bore •......•..•..•..••.•..•.•...•...•.••.. 3-5

C'assification by Surface of Bore 3.f,

Smooth Bore .•........•....••••.....•••.•••••••.. 3-5 Rifled Bore .......•.....•.•.•••••.•.••.•••.••.••.• 2·5

Classification ;y Degree of Propellant Confinement ••...••.•. 3-5 Open-breech Closures (Becollless) ......••.•..•••••••.•• 3-5

Closed Breech .•..•.•..•..•••...••...•.....•••••••••.• 3-6 Permanent Closures .•...•......•...•.•••••..••.• ' . • 3-6 Mobile Closures ....••.........•.......•.....•..... 3-6

Plug-type Breeehbloek Closures. ...•...•...•.•. . .. 3-7

Obturation ..•.. '" . . . • . • . • . • . • . • . . . . . . . . . . • . 3-7

Locking Arrar,gement 3-7

Ignition ••.......•.................••..•.... a.s

Operating Mechanism ....••.••.••..•........• 3·9

Bolt-type Breechblock Closures ............•...... 3-9 Nonloeking Bolts (Blowback) •...•.....••..... 3-10

Locking Bolts ............•....••..••..•..•.. 3-10

Delayed Action (Hesitation) Belts .........••• 3-10 Sliding Breechbloek Closures .........•.......•.. 3·12 Cannon Applications .......•....••........• " 3-12 Small Arms Applications ..•............. 0 • " 3-12 Eccentric Screw Closures (Nordenfeld) ...•.....•• 3-13

Olassification by Degree or Self Action .•....•.••...•.••.•.• 3-14

){a~.ual ,............................................. 3·14 Au'..om .. tic ....••...•••..•....•..•.•••.•..•••••••••••• 3·14 Semiautomatic .....•...•.•• ,......................... 3·14

iii

Paragraph 3·7

3·7.1

3·7.2

3-7.3 3-7.3.1 3-7.3.2 3-7.4

3-8

3-8.1 !:l-8.1.1 3-8.1.2 3-3.1.2.1. 3-8.1..9..2 3-8.1.2.3 3-!U.2.3.1 3-8.1.2.3.2 3-8.1.2.4 3-8.1.2.5 3-8.1.2.6 3-8.2 3-8.2.1 3-8.2.2 3-8.2.2.1 3·8.2.2.2 3-8.2.2.3 3-8.2.2.4 3-8.2.3 3-8.2.3.1 3-8.2.3.2 3-t;.2.-l

4-1 4-2 4-2.1 4-2.2 4-2.2.1 4-2.2.2 4-2.2.3 4-3 4-3.1 4-3.2 4-3.:l M 4-4.1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (tontinued)

Page.

Classification by Source of Power Operation ..• ,... ....••.. 3-]4

Extt'rnally Powered ................•......•.•.•.•... 3·15

Gas Operation ...............•.•...........•.•........ 3·15 Recoil Operation .....•............................•.. 3-15

Short RA!coil ••....•........•...................... 3·15 Long Reeoil .••..•.•.•••.••.•...........•..••...•• 3·1f>

Blowback Operation ...•........................•....• 3·16

Claseifleation by Type of Peed 3-16

Cannon Pet-ding Methods 3-16

Nonautomatic Feeding 3·16

Automlltic Feeding and Loading '" .....•.....•.. 3-17

Powered Chain Rammer 3-17

Powered Hydraulic-spring Rammer _ . . . . .• 3-17

Power Rammer and Fuze Setter-Separate Units '" 3-19

FUZE: Setter _ . . • . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . .. 3-19

Rammer ...............•.•..•••....••....... 3·19

Combined Fuze Setter-Rammer ........•...•..•... 3-20 Magazine Type Loader-Rammer .......•..•....... 3-21 Automatic Loader for Clipped Ammu.nition .•..••.. 3-24

Small Armll Feeding Mt'thods 3-24

~Iallual Fee lin!! .•..........•.••.........••.....•.. 3-24

Magazine Fee~il1g :Methods .•..............•.••..... 3-25

Short 'fype Magazine 3-25

Long Type Magazitl(, 3-25

Tubular Ml'.gazine ...............•....•......... 3-25

Clip Feeding .••••...•.... _ • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . .• 3-26 Belt Feeding ••.. . • • . . . • • • • . . . . • • • . . . . . • . . . . . • . • . .• 3-26

Fabric Belts 3-26

lIIctalUc ~!ts . . . . • . . . . . . . . • • . . . • • . . . . • . . . . . . . . .. 3-26

Hopper Feeding ..•.........• ....•..•..•...••...•. 3-27

CHAl"t'ER 4

GUN INTERIOR REGIONS ANl> CHARACTERISTICS

Major Divisions and General Functions..................... 4-1 Chamber Charaeteristies .... _ • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Size ot Chamber ..•••....•.................•...••.••.• 4-1

Shape of Char,h1!r ...•.••.• _ •.••.•••..•••.•••• _ . . . • • . • 4-2

Effed on Propellant p .. rformanee ......••.•..•• _ . . • .. 4-~ Et!ect on GUD Structure ..•..••.. _ • • • • • . • • • • . • . . . . . . 4-2 Effect on Other Peaturee of Design .•..•.••......... 4-2

Bore Charactor.atics • _ . • • . . • • . . . . • . . • • • • . . • • • • • • • • . . • • • • . 4-2 Caliber •.•.•.. •.•••.••...•..••••••..•.••..•.• e • _ • • • •• 4-3 Bore Length ..•••.....•••.•.••..••••.••••••......•..• 4-3 Bore Surfa~e Detail ••..•••••••••..•..••..•••.••••.•.• 4~

Transition Region •....••.••......••.....•....•.•.....•.. 4-4

General Contoum and Functions .•• _ • . • • • • . . . • . • . • . • . • . • 4-4

Paragraph 44.2 4·4.2.1 4-4.2.2 4·4.2.3 4-4.2.4 4-4.2.5 4-4.2.6 4·4.2.7

5·1 5·2 5·2.1 5·2.2 5·2.3 5·2.4 5·2.5 5·2.6 5·2.7 5·3 5-3.1 5-3.2 5-3.3 5-4 5·4.1 E·4.2 6-5 5·5.1 5-5.2 5·5.3 5·5.4 5-5.4.1 5-5.4.2 5·6 5·6.1 5·6.2 5·6.3 5·6.4 5·6.':1.] 5·6.4.2 5-7 5·7.1 5·7.2 S·7.3 5·7.4

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

Details of Contour and Function 4-4

Forcing Cone ..•.....•.....•..•....•.........••••• 4-4 Bullet Seat .......•..•....•.•.......••..••••.•...• 4-4 Baud Cylinder .............•..••...........•.•.••. 4-4

Case Clearance Shoulder 4-5

Band Bear Slope .•.....•..•..•.•..•........•....•. 4-5 Centering Slope .•................•.......••...•••• 4-5

Chamber Front Slope ...•.••.........•••... ,....... 4-5

CHAPTERS INTER-RELATION WITH PROPELLANTS

General Considerations .......................•........... 5·1 Propellant Compositions and Characteristics ...•••• ,........ 5·1

Composition ... " ...•.••....•....•.•.. , '. • . . . . • • . • • • • • • 5-1 Total Energy •....•..........•.•..•....•............. 5·1

Burning Rate and Pressure , "....... 5·2

Stability ••...................•.•.................•.•. 5-2

Mechanical Properties •..•..•.......•.•....•.....•.... 5·2

Feasibility of Manufacture .••. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . • . • . . . • . . 5-2

Costs •..................••.•....•.....•....•....•.••. 5·2

Granulation •........•........ . . • . . • . . . . . . . • . • • • • . • . . • . . • 5-4 Purpose ...•........•.....•........•. '............... 5-4

Effect of Grain Fonn.......... . . . . • .. . .•..•..•...... 5-4

Effect of Web Thickness 54

Fonn of Charge •..•...•••...••..•..........•.••..••...•. 5-5 Cased Charges . • . . . . . . . . • . • . . . • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . • . . . . . • • 5·5 Noncased Charges .......•.....•• ......•...........•• 5-5

Ignition Systems ..........•.........•.•...•..•.....•...• 5·6 General ••........................•...•...••.•......• 5·6

Relation Between Ignition and Muzzle Velocity.......... 5-6

Pressure Waves ••..............•. '-' . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • . •. 5-6

Primers and Igniters . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . . . 5-5

Void.., ... "........................................ 5·7

Ignition As a Factor in Design 5·7

Smoke and Flash ..................•...........•......... :;·7 Causes .•............................................ :;·7 Disadvantages .•..•..............•.........•.......... b- 7

Correlation With Grain, Form, Charge and l'ul):> Design .. 5·7 Elimination of Flash and Smoke ....••...•...•.•••••••• 5-8

Flash "........................... 5-8

Smoke................... ......•......•........... 5-8

Fitting the Propellant and the Gun ,. 5·9

General Considerations 5-9

'General Procedure ..........•....•.................... 5·9

Estimation or Weight an~l Granulation of the Charge. ..... 5·9 Correlation With Chamber Draign .•...................• 5'·10

v

Pm"llllraph

6-1

6-2 6-2.1 6-2.2 8-2.2.1 6-2.2.2 6-2.3 6-2.4 6-2.5 6-2.6 6-2.7 6-2.8 6-2.8.1 6-2.8.2 6-2.8.3 6-~A9 6-2.10 6-2.11 6-2.12 6-2.13 6-2.14 6-2.15 6-3 6-4

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

CHAPTER 6

GUN DESIGN PP.OBI~EMS

Similarity and Variety of Design.. .. .....•..........•.••. 6-1

Problem Elements •.... ...•.••......••..•..........••..• 6-1

Energy Imparted to Projectile ........••..........••..• 6-1

Accuracy ...•.•......•..........••...•.........••.... 6-2 Yuw .•.••......•...•.....•..•....•.•••••••.•..•.. 6-2 'Nhip ...•..•......................•.. :. . . . . . . . . . • 6-2 Erosion ••..•..••.•....•••.••.....•••.......••••••••• 6-2

Firi.lg Rate ••..•........•....... " . •• . . . . •. . •. •..... 6-3 Weight................................. ........•.... 6-3 Safety •.••.•............•..••.••.....•••............ 64 Obturation ••............••...•..........•••••..••.•. 6-4 Blast and Flash ..•..•..•.•...•.....•.....•....•.....• 5-5

Blast •....•....•...•..••...•••..•..••.•.....•...•• 6-5 Flash •..•. > •••••••••••••••• " ••••••••••••••••••• 6-5 ?tluzzl£ Brakes ..•...•.....•..••.........••.......• 6-5

Bore Evacuation •••.••.. . . • . . . • • • . . . . • . . • • • . . . . . . . . • . . 6-5 Space Limitations •........••.••..••...••••.••..••.•.. 6-6 Temperature .•••••.•••..••••.•••..••...•......•....•• 6-6

Manufacturing Idmitations .......•............... . . . . 6-6 Strat~c Material Limitations .•.•••.•••..••..••.•••••• 6-6

Logistic Bequirements ...• ' . . . . • • . . • • • . . . . • . • • . • • . . • • . . 6-7

liaintenance Bequirementa ••••••••••••..•..•.••.••.••. 6-7

Balanced Solution .•.•••.•••..•.• • •.••.• -.. •. . .•• • .•. . •• 6-7 Reasons for New Weapons........ .••..•.....•. ....••...•• 6-7 GLOSSARY •...•....•..••.•....•......•... e • • • • • • • • • • •• a-l REFERENCES ..•••.....•....•.............•.•.•••.•... R-1

vi

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure No. Title Page

2-1 Typical Gun (Self-Propelled Mount) ........••....•....... 2-1

2-2 TYPIcal Gun 'I'rajeetories ..............................••• 2-2

2-3 Typical Smooth-bore ?If irtar 2-3

2-4 'l'ypieal Mortar Trajectory . , . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . • • . • • • • • 2-3

2-5 'i'ypical Howitzer (Self-Propel'ed Mount). . . .. . . .. . . ..... .. . 2-3

2-6 Typical Howitzer Trajectories ••. . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • • . • 2-4

2-7 Ty;,i<:al Reeoilless Rifle.................................. 2-5

2-8 '1'ypical Pistol •............••............•............... 2-5

2-9 Typical Rifle (Semiautomatic) 2-6

2-10 Typieal Machine Gun •.. '" '" •..•. '" .. .•. . .••..• . . .••.• 2-6

3-1 Gun Tube (Barrel), CartridlS'(' Case and Projectile-

Typical Features and Tenllinology ...•.......•......... 3-2

3-2 Typical Fixed Artillery Ammunition .•...............•.... 3-3

3-3 Typical Pixed Small ArD1S Ammunition ....••.......••...• 3-3

3-4 Typical Semifixed Artillery Ammunition ..••••..••......•.• a.a

3-5 Typical Separated Artillery Ammunition ..•..•..•...•... ,. 3-4

3·6 7;~i"ld Separate Loading A:-tille17 AmnAunition ..•..•.••... 3-4

3·1 ~iUetl Bore (Muzzie) 3-5

3-8 Plug-type Cannon Breech Closure=Btepped Thread,

Horizontal Swing- .....•.......•...........•..••.••... 3-7

3·9 Percussion Firing Mechanism for Cannon, Screw-type ••.•••• 3-8

3-!9 Cannon Firing Lock, Bleetric or Percussion Ignition,

Sliding-wedge Type ••...•.••.......•..•.••.•....•..•• 3-8

3-11 Bolt-type Br« sh Closure (AutoIuatic Gun), Bolt

Closing to Chamber the Cartridge ..•. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . • 3-9

S-l::! Bolt-type BI,I'Ch Closure {Automatic Gun}, Bolt Nesring

Closed (Firing) Position.............................. 3-9

3·13 Bolt-type Breech Closure (Aut,1matic Gun), Bolt Nearing

Full Opening, Ejccting Fired Case ..•....•..••...••.••. , 3-10

3-14 Typical Sliding-block Breech Closure, Cannon ......••.•...• 3-11

3-15 Typical Revolver, in Section, Cartridges Chambered

in Cylinder ..•.....•..•..•..•.•........••.•.•..•..••• 3-13

3-16 Typical Recoilless RiSe Breeeh, Breechblock Locking

Threads Partly Engaged 3-13

3-17 Bolt Unlocked to Permit Blowba.:k Opening ..••..•..•..•.•. 3-16

3-18 Ramming I\{c"han!sm, Chain Rammer, Hydraulic Power ..... 3·17

3-19 Rammer, Hydraulic-spring Type ..•......•..•....•••....•. ;J-17

3-20 Power Rammer, Arm Type, With Separate Fuze Setter

Unit, Single Electric Motor Driving Bath Units .•..•..... 3-18

3-21 Combinatiolll<"uze Setter and Rammer (Schematic) ...•.••..• 3-20

3·22 l\Ia~ine Type Loader-Rammer .••.....•...••.....••....•• 3-22

S-23 .. ~utcmatic !.JOader for Clip-held Cartridges ••..••..•...•.•.• 3-23

vii

Figu"e N3.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (continued) Title

Page

3·24 Automatic Pistol, Seetioned, Cartridge in

Mouth of Magazine ...•..••.•...•..........•......... 3·25

5·1 Pressure-Travel Curves. Indicating Shape Variations

Resuiting from Differing Propellant Granulations 5·3

5·2 Flash IIidE'r ....•...........•.................•........• 5·8

5-3 Flash Suppressor ..........•.•........................... 5·8

6·1 Combination Blast Deflector and Muzzle Brake,

With Bvaeuator Chamber 6·5

6·2 Sehematie Diagram of Bore Evacuator Operation 6·5

viii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1·1 SCOptl r.f This Handbook

This handbook deals with the general subject of guns. It highlights early developments, etassifles and describes guns according to military eharaeteristics and mage, and again, according to design characteristics. It deals Witll the major eomponents and assemblies in sufficient detail only to make clear their functions, their operation and their relationships to other assemblies and to the gun as a whole. It introduces problems encountered in design for which specific procedures for solution will be presented in other handbooks. A It is intended thai, other handbooks of the Gnns ~eries cover in more detail problems relating to gun tub.s (barrels), gun forgings, breech closures, breech rings, firing mechanisms, extracting and ejecting mechanisms, breech operating mechanisms, loading mechanisms and n.uzzh~ devices. Automatic weapons is intended as the subject of still another handbock. Carriages and .Mounts is the subject of a series already prepared. That series eovera cradles, recoil systems, top «arriages, .. bottom carriages, equilibrators, elevat:.,~ mechan~sms... tl'8versing mechanisms, ard cal ;·.ftges and ~oun·~-!geQeral.

Ammunition and ballistics are' covered' In , other handbooks and this volume treats these' .subjeets only as necessary to provide II.n understanding. of the interrelationship between these: subjects and guns.

1·2 Early Develnp.l1eGt

In the pre-gunpowder period. man tried to increase the range of his weapons by using various types of catapults and ballistae, 'I'hese mel hods of projPcti;e propulsion W~l'1' nothing more '~an great slings used to hurl stones and other large, heavy objects for a. eonsidera'ile -Iistance.

The development of the gun came about tiS a logical sequence to the development of gunpowder (black powder), first described by the English friar, Roger Bacon, in the year 1242. This mixture uf saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal was nGt thought of as a propellant at that time, but rather WI an explosive which would cause terror among the enemy with ito bright flash and thundering noise. To Berthold Schwartz, a German monk, is given the credit for having invented, about 1313, a !irearm using black powder as the propellant. 'l'he first organised use of guns in open battle was by the English at the Battle of Crecy in 1346. Explosive mixtures and pyrotechnics are said to have been employed in China, India and Greece in very ancient times. There are early recorded uses of "Greek flre " and Chinese rocket-propelled "fire arrows."

1·3 Smooth-bQre Era

By the time of Columbus' voyages cf discovery, guns had become the principal weapons of the Old W orld powers and were destined to play a large part in shaping the history of the New World. Earlier firearms were crude, inefficient sud heavy, existing only as cannon, but by now hand guns had been developed from the crude cannon. A.n guns were smooth-bore and muzzle-ioaded, utilising' solid spherical projectiles and black powder propellant. It was to be several centuries before these gave way to the use of rifled bores, stabilised projectiles, breech loading and smokeless powder, Rifling had been tried but vas not VE'ty praeileal before breech loaders were d. veloped.

From the earliest use of firearms until about 1500, little was understood about the curved path taken by the projectile. Beyond pointblank range

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the gunner was never sure of hitting his tal get. E&l'ly cannon were made by casting the tube around a core. As cannon evolved, they were later cast solid and the bore drilled, a practice which improved the uniformity of the piece.

During the Hundred Years' War li399-1453) eannon eame into general use, Those early pieces wcre very small, made of iron 01" cast bronze, and fired lead, 'ron, or stone balls. They were laid directly on the ground, with muzzles elevated by mounding up the earth. Cumbersome and inefficient, they played little part in battle, but were quite useful in ~ siege.

Mohammed II of Turkey used gunpowder in his famous military conquest of Constantinople in ]453. The single weapon possessed by the Tllrks weighed 19 tons and h ... rled a 600-pound stone 7 times a day. It took 60 oxen and 200 men to move the piece, and the difficulty of transporting such hcaYy ordnance reduced its usefulness. It was responsible, however, for u stroying the city walls which had successfully resisted many attacks by other weapoas for more than 1,000 yeats,

Called bombards, weapons of this period were very lal'gc, but t!.:t: powder used was very weak and the pressures in the barrels were low. Even 80, barrels frequently burst. The early barrels were often made of staves and hooped like a barrel and derived their name from this construction,

An increased knowledge of gunpowder and an improvement in the art of casting caused the replacement of bombards with lighter cannon in the 16th century. From the time of their invention until about 100 years ago, cannon were of extremely simple eonstruetiou-ethey had a cast barrel, ~.t'dge elevating meehanism. and crude wheels and carriages, Such weapons were tim by igniting' ese gunpcwder by a live flre or match applied to the touch hole at the breech. The improved weapons were of decreased siz<- and were Soon cast iu Me piece of cast iron or bronze. At the be~-,~ning of the 15th century, east-iron balls had \'lade an appearance. The gl'cnter efficiency of t~e iron ball, together with an improvement in gunpowder, further eneouraged the building of smaller and !It:'l<Isger guns, Before 1500, the siege gun had ~1l the predominant piece. Now, forged-iron cannon for field, garrison, and naval service-and later, east-iron pieces-were IIteadHy developed along with east-bronse guns. Throll~'hont the

1500's, improvement was mainly toward lightening the enormous weights of guns and projectiles as well as finding better ways to move the artillery, The casting of trunnions on the gun made elevation and transportation easier, and the cumbersome beds (;f the early days gave way to crude artillery carricges with trails and wheels. About 1500, the French invented the limber Il11d standardized the calibers of their artillery,

The earliest small arm was nothing more than a short metal tube of large caliber mounted on a rod or stick. '1'h.> stick gradually became a stock which permitted firing from the shoulder, Ignition of the gunpowder charge was by fire or match applied by hand to the touch hole, as for cannon. When the match was later mounted on an S-sh$lped lever called the "cock," the weapon became the match lock. A later development, the wheel lock, used a serrated wheel 8{~ainst a. piece of iron pyrites, produeing a shower of sparka for ignition. The simpler flint look was developed in the 17th century and did not disappear completely until after the close of our Civil War, when the percussion syst .. m of ignition came into general use.

The first cannon were rolled along the ground but soon were placed on wagons or carnages for transportation. These early carriages BUPP0riOO the cannon at their center of balance and at thc breech. Adjustments in elevation were secured by a wedge under the breech. '1'0 move the barrel, it was necessary to move the eutire carriage.

Mobile artillery came 01: the field v. ith the cart guns of John Ziska during the Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1418-24). The French further improved fieJd artillery by using light guns, hauled ',;y the best of horses instead of the usual oxen. The maneuverable French guns proved to be an excellent means for breaking up heavy masses of pikemen in the Italian campaigns of the early 1500'@. The Germans under Maximilian I, however, took the armament leadership a.way from the French with guns that ranged 1,500 ya~ls and witb men wbo had earned the reputation of being the best gunners in Europe.

About 1525, the famt: ue Spanish Square of heavily armed pikemen lAnd musketeers ~lJ t.o dominate the battlefield. In the face of muRketry, field artillery declined. Although artillery bad achieved some mobihty, carriages were still cum-

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bersome. To move a heavy English cannon, even .. ver good ground, required 23 horses.

Under the Swedish warrior, Gustavus Adolphus, artillery began to take its true position on the battlefield in the 17th '!entury. It was he who combined the powder charge and projectile into a single cartridge to do aW&1 with the old method of ladling powder into the gun and so increased the rapidity of fire. Reeognizinr the need for mobile weapons, he made use of pieces which could be moved by only 2 horses aud served by 3 men. In th~ past, 1 cannon for each thousand infantrymen had been standa"ro. Gustavus brought the ratio to 6 cannon per thousand men.

About 1750 Frederick 11, King of Prussia, succeeded in developing artillery that was light enough end mobile enough to accompany the army and be readily maneuvered on the battlefield.

1-4 RWng Atopted

Tb~ principle (If stabilization of an elongated projectile! by rotation has been ~tDown a long time. HIlWEVel', difficulties in manufacture of the guns and ammunition retarded the development. In small anns there were some rifted muskets in use in the 18th century, utilizing projectiIt!8 which expanded at the base to fit into the rifting grooves of the muzzle loaders, T~e development could not be successfully applied to tlie manufacture of cannon and their ammunition until breeeh-loading was developed.

Early cannon were .. not made very accurntely, and their accuracy or-'fire was correspondingly low. These weapons conld not be made better than the tools which produced them, and good machinery capable of boring cannon was ilrst made about 1750. Rifling had already been applied to small arms. but mnchinery of the necessary 'aceul'8lly to make cannon in this fashim~ W!llt not amiable until about 8 century later,

In 18t6, Major CaveUi in Italy and Baron Walu-endorff in Germany independently produced rified iron breeeh-lcading cannon. 'the CaveUi gnn had two Bp~ra1 ~ves which fltted the %·inch projecting l~gs of a long projectile. About the ssme time, an. enterprising British industrialist, Jtseph Whitworth, developed me h~lical hexagonal. bore weapon. ThIs weapon was one of many used during the .AIIJeri!'.an Civil WeI' (1861.1865). It

was an efficinnt piece, though subject to easy fouling that made j,t dangerous.

The American Civil War began with smooth-bore muzzle leaden- and ended with rifled, muzzle leaders. When they wore out 01' were captured, smooth. bore weapons were replaced with rifted pieces. One specific weapon converted from a SMOOth. bore to a rifled bore :s noted in the Rodman gun. Developed by Capt. T. J. Rodman (United States Army Ordnance) in the mid.1800's, this smoothbore weapon was cast around a water-cooled eore. Its inner walls thus solidifit>d first and were eompressed by, the contraction of the cuter metal as it cooled more &lowly. By thi.'i process, it had maeh greater strength to resist explosion of the charge. The Bodman smooth-bore cannon, cast in 8-, 10., 15., and 2O·inch calibers, was the best east-Iron ordnance of its time. During the Civil War and after, a number o! the 10·inch Rodmans were converted into 8-inch rifles by enlarging the bore and inserting a grooved steel tube.

1·5 Breech JAacllilg l>e1'e1oped

The first sueeessful breech-loading; guns were made less than a cent\!r, ago. There were some breech-loading eanuon made over 400 y~rs ago, but judged by our standards, they were fa!' from. satisfactory and were not the fore:runnere at modern breeeh-loading guns.

The ueed for breech loading was obvious; to enable firin.g and reloading without t'.xpoaing the gunners to the enemy. Solution of the b~h l~ing problem depended primarily on finding a meehanism that would seal the propellant gas~ withiu the chamber. This was accomplished by using soft metal (br'J.'~ ) cartridge eases for tbe smaller guns and more complex expanding asbestos and metal seals for the larger cnes, The first gun that may be called modern and in the sense that it had all the features now in use was the "French 75. 't This 15-lllLl gun, model of 1897, bad modern sight4, bring mechanism, reeeil mechanism, and used cased ammunition. It was ih~ backbone of the ar~mery of the allied armies ir. World War I (1914-18).

1-6 Early lJDitec1 Statt. D.ft1opmt1lu !-6.t Fixri Anillery

Ilesign ch~!'8cteristics of United Btatta artillery ilave followed genenilly those of other natioill.

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Before the Civil War, there was little manufacturing of cannon in this country, and at the beginning of that conflict, it became necessary to purchase much of this equipment abroad. At that time, there 'were various models of various sizes of cannon for use in fortifications. These weapons included brass guns, brass mortars. iron guns, and iron howitzers.

A distinctly American development. in fixed or harbor defense artillery was reached early in the 20th cr ·tury with the adoption of the disappearing carriage. This enabled the gun to rise over a parapet to fire, but was Vri!hdrawn, by recoil forces, behind the parapet for reloading.

Another fixed artillery piece, the barbette carriage, 'Gas a permanently emplaced carriage which W8! eapable 0: traversing through large angles except ss Iimited by protecting turret or casemate.

1-62 :Kobile Artillery

The appearance of the French 75 in 1897 spurred American designers to a series of notable developments, and many models were made in 3-, 4.7-, 6-, . and B-inch calibers with various carriage and recoil mechanism arrangements. Little money was availab16. however, to sctually manufacture these guns for issue, so that, upon entering World War I in 1917, it was found desirable to adopt w'!&ponl for which production facilities existed. At that time, the French 7S-mm, model of 189?, and tbe American 75-mm gun. model of 1916, were adopted, They were followed shortly by a 75-!Cm gun of similar but British design, the model of 1917.

Similar action brought into our Armed Forces the French I5S-mm gun (Fmoux). Tb!s weapon was more familiarly known &S the G.P.F. after its Preneh designation Grande e Puiuance Filla"x (gun of great power). There was also a Fren"I. IS5-mm howitzer of Schneider design adopted.

In order to facilitate coast defense, the railway mount WI:\S put into service. Lafgf' caliber (.{1:ns up to 16 inches were mounted on specially built railway cars. The materiel WWI fired from t!le rail- 1Vft.1 car mountings after suitable supports and outriggers were in plaee,

1.0.3 Small ArDlI

The Bintlock rifle served the Amt'rican pioneer, the RevQllltionary Wai" soldier and, to some extent, the Civil War soldier. Most flintlocks were COlt-

verted to percussion locks prior to or during the Civil War. This W~ made possible by the in vention of the percussion primer, which in turn made possible the metal cartridge cast'. which provided effective obturation, which in turn resulted in adoption of the breeeh-loading system. Then the use of rifling became practicable in all guns.

As weapons improved and better ammunition became available, the magazine rifle was developed to meet the demand for increased firepcwer. The famous Winchester '13 was among the t'arly successful magazine rifles, It provided & magazine whic~ held several round; I)f ammunition, and means for transferring them to the ehamber, Reduction I)f caliber, improvement ia propellants which permitted use of smaller charges, and reduetion "f size and weight of cartridges simplified the problem .

.After the period of the Chit War interchangeability of parts was provided. This era had been ushered in by Eli Whittley (of cotton gin fame) who first applied the prineiple of interchangeable parts and mass produetion in the manufacture of a large number of rifles far the government.

The modern military rifle was perfected in all its essentials b: about 1890. Since that time details have been refined, smokeless powder has replaced black powder, improved ammuntiou has been provided, and better metals have become available. The trend has been toward highervelocities, greater fhepowcr, and less weight. As will be note-i below, Amerie.an inventors pioneered in the development of machine guns.

1-1' Development of Automatic Weapou

The development of antomatie features and of full autematic weapons was in response b the demand for increased firepower. The early weapons employed multiple barrels on a single mount, which could be fire<! simultaneously. Other arrangements which were developed permitted the firing of multiple barrels successively, or brought multiple chambers successively to a single barreL These did increase considerably the volume or rapidity of fire but aUlom&tk l~ing bad not yet been worked out. Mort'Over, they were very hea"" lUld cumbersome,

The development of antomatie wupons was hastened by the inventioo of the p-ceusslon primer, the adoption of breech loading, and introduction

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of the complete round assembled in a metal cartridge casco 'J'he first practicable machine gun was the Gatling, invented by Dr. R. J. Gatling about the time of the Civil WAr. Its adoption was followed by others of the same general type, which in effect combined in one mount a considerable nuziber of breech-loading rifles that could be loaded and fired meehanieally.

In 188t Sir Hiram Maxim, an American engineer, designed the first truly automatic machine gun. It effi~!t'yed a single barre! and utilized the principle of recoil operation to secure continuous and automatic functioning as long as the trigger WM held down. This weapon was an immediate sueeess , the soundness cf its design and principle of operation were immediately recognized. It revolutionized maehine gun tactics and stimulated the development of other automatic types. In modified and improved form it Wall still being used by the British, German and Russian armies at the beginning of World War I; it has appeared also among the variety of weapons used bv the eommunist forces in Korea.

The principle /)f gas operation, utilizing a small portio'} of the expanding propellant gas, was firsi: successfully employed by John 11. Browning, an American, who brought out the Colt machine gun ill 1889. Thi~ was follcwed by the Hotchkiss, employing the same system of operation. During the period covering World War I, Browning's short recoil machine gun, which was originally patented in 1901, reached the stage of developu.ent very much as it is toddy. The Browning } ... utomatie Rifle, (BAR), answering the need to combine the light weight and flexibility t)f the conventional rifle with the greater firepower of the machine gun, has served also through the two World War3.

1-8 GltDS ud History

Beginning with the formation of the individual American Colonies. guns of numerous typ-es and sizes have playeot & major role in the history of the United States. Although the United States is not pri'tl&rily a military nation, its fusion into a si%lg16 nation, the expansion of its borders, the settlement of its \tlld, its growth into the position or a 1ll&jor world power, and the kee!ling of law and order among ito; people have been closely linked with the stl)ry of guns, from the smallest pistol to the largest cannon. Similar statements could be made abont

oilier nations. Guna have now been &llgu!.-nted, and in some cases replaced, by rockets and other weapons j however, there is every indication that the gun, in various present and future forms, will continue 10 play a major role in the destiny of the world and its people.

1·9 Gun. 'l'erminology

Although one will readily recognize components and assemblies that perform Identical functions in Army guns of different types and sizes, it must be borne in mind that design, development and me of guns has, to a considerable estent and for generations, been speeialized according to types or sizes. A natural outgrowth of this condition has been the development of differences-in terminology and nomenclature; in fact, it is due almost entirely to orgauized efforts that the basic nomenelature shows any degree of uniformity. Recent efforts have included Federal cataloging and assignments of Federal item names with ide!ltifying definitions. This ef1'ort requires time to reach agreements within a servi:e, 1I0t to mention the necessary agreements between services. And even after 3.greements are reached and recorded, new names or new definitions for old names are not accorded general acceptance by users without a considerable period of reo education.

In dealing with the broad subject oi guns the authors have made every effort to use terminology which will not be confusing to the read"r who Jll&Y have only a limited acquaintance in the fielil of guns. The reader should bear in mind, however, that in some instances a single tern\ is accepted as 119,vfng cHterent meanings in the general and specific senses, or di4ferent meanings with respect to, say, cannon and small arml). The terms and defi· nitions given in the handbook. should be noted earefully in order to effect a clear understanding of the text.

1·10 .ajor Elesuata of the Gu 1·10.1 Gu Tube or Barre.

Thf: tube or barn'} its the main ~ Q! a gun.

It is essentially a hollew eylinder, uaua1Jy of steel, which surrounds the ho~ and guides the p,."jeetUe du~ing ihl aeeeleratlon. In most designs the chamber is an integral part of the tube, the revolver typt> bein~ a notable exception. Tube is the more gen~ral tenn and may be applied to all sizes, while Nn'el

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is the term more often used in connection with 1111&11 arms. The term barrel a'8~ .. nbl!l may be used for all calibers to denote the tU91 and parts assembled thereto.

1·10.2 Breech Closure

A breech closure, as the term implies, is '\ general term denoting the closure of the breech end of a gun. This closure permits the hot propellant gases behind the projectile to act on it so as to impart the greatP.IJt possible kinetic en~rgy for' a given propellant charge. A closure may be of the permanent type or the mobile type. The latter type remains closed d11ring the firing but JJlay be opened afterward!! to permit reloading from the breech. Permanent closures are app!icabl~ only to muzzle loaders, such ~8 mortars. Another type, known as the open-bi seeh closure, is used for recoilless guns. Breech elosures are discussed further and illustrated in Chapter a.

1·10.3 Breech Ring or Re<-.einr

The breech ring is & pri:l~ipru unit of gun construetlon, is att&ched to the gun tube at the breech end and aupports the bn-eeh ~.1osure and other parts of the breech mechanism. In cannon terminl)logy the term breech rin,. if commonly used, while the term receiver is 1ll\\~e .: 'equently used in relation to, small anns and auf !.'Ul.\tic weapons, T!:e terms are discUllSe'l furt~, r ':}) Chapte» 3.

1.10.4 Firing Keclwlitlfll

This is the mechanism whil. 6J 'S the primer to initiate propelling cha.rgt· it;~;~il>1l. The principal types now in use are designated. aceordlng' to the method of firing tbe primer, as percussion, electric, or combination pcreussion-electrie. Tile s~lbject is dill: ussed further at1c! several types illustrsted in C'.upter 3.

1-10.S Ez:tracting lIec:h.nism

This refera to the mechanism, in a gun using cartridge cases, for pulling the empty cartridge case or an unfired cartridge out of the chamber.

1·10." Ejecting ldec:1unllsm

This refers to the meehanlsm, in a gun using cartridge cases, for automatically throwing out an empty cartridge esse or all unfired cartridge from the breech or receiver.

1·10.1 Breech Operating Mechanism

This designates that part of the breech mechanism which must be operated to open or close the breech mechanism. This mechanism is discussed further ill Chapter 3.

1·10.8 LoadiDg Mechanism

This term ineludes all mechanisms used for placing the ammunition into the gun in posi~\rlD for firing. The proeees di1fern greatly, according to types and sizes of guns and ammunition. Thp tena includes feeding mechanisms, ramming mechsnisms and fuze-setting mechanisms whet. these are eonstrueted SO as to become part of the loading or ramming operation. The subject is discuseed further and illustrated in Chapter 3.

1·10.9 iluull' Deriees

Muzzle devices, ,lao called muzzle atta.clunE'l1ts, are used in Ii. numler of forms and for a variety of purposes. Devices presently in common use inelude flash biders (Fig. 5.2), ftash suppressors (Fig. 5-3), blast deflectors, muzzle ~rakes and bore evacuators. A combination of the last three named ~(\'iC(,8 is shown in Fig. 6-1 and & sehemstie diagram of the bore E'vacuawr operation is shown in Pig. 6-2.

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CHAPTER 2

CLASSIFICATION AND DES~IPTION BY MILITARY CHARACTERISTICS OR. USAGE

2-1 Gen.,ral

There are many ways in whicb guns are classifled.

The most generally used method is that of classify. ing aeeording to military characteristics or military usage. This involves sizes or shapes which are readily apparent to the eye and with which most military personnel are familiar. Because of dif· fering general and specific meanings for the terms " gun ,. and .. cannon, tv the reader should give special attention to the understanding- of these terms in both senses.

2-2 GUll (General)

For the purposes of this handbook, a gun is a projectile-throwing device, consisting essentially of a projectile-guiding tube with an incorporate or connected reaetion chamber. in whirb the chemical energy of a propellant is rapidly converted into heat aud the hot gases produced expand to expel the projectile at a high velocity (kinetic ene~). Guns in this general se!'&.!n are separated, according to cize and use, into the general categories of cannon and small arms. T..at:ucbers for rockets and missiles ate plllJY.l8ely excluded from consideration in this handbook.

2-2.1 Cannon (General)

A cannon is a weapon eonfl'rming to the generat gun definition, that is provided with a structure (mount) for meehanieal support during firing, and that has a bore diameter exceeding the limit assigned to small arms. (The small arms bore limit is prese .. utly administratively Sf't at 3Omm.) The general ('lltegor:: of cannon is further divided, in aeeordanee with ballistic characteri:rtiCtl and use, into gnus, howitul'S, mortars, and recoilless weap· ons, M follows:

2-2.1.1 C,tul (~~c)

In the specific sense used in ordnance supply, a gun is ~I complete weapon confonning to the general cannon definition; including the attached or closely related units neceseary for operation as intended (recoil mechanism, mount, sighting system, aeeesseries, but not ammunition), and designed for periormance characterized primarily by relatively long range, high velocity, and relatively little curvature of the projtcti~e trajectory within the intended rauge (see Figures 2-1 IlDd 2-2).

2-2.1.2 .omr

.\ mortar is a complete weapon conforming to the general cannon definition; including the attached or closely relaiM units necessary for opera· tion as intended (m»\lnt, sit!hting system, and accessories, but not ammunition), and designed for performance characterized primarily by relatively low velocity, short range, and a hlghly arched projectile trajectory at the rauges at which it is deSi~led to fire (see Figures 2-3 add 2-4).

2-21.3 llmtlel'

A ht.lvitur is .. Ct.mpip.te weapon conforming to the general cannon dennition; including the at-

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Fig"r. 2-3. Typical Smooth-bore Mortar.

FiVJre 2-5. Typicol Howitzer (s.tf-Plopelled Mount)

tached or closely related units necessary for operation as intended (recoil mechanism, mount, sighting system, accessories, ete., but not ammunition), and desigred for performance characterized by velocity, range, and trajectory eurvature intermediate between those of a gun and II. mortar (see Figures 2-5 and 2-6).

FiflCR" 2-4. Typlcal Mo:i:r Trajeclory 2-3

,... 24. T~ HW'ifzer T~ 9-4

2·2.1.4 RecoWea CODon

A recoilless cannon is a complete weapon eonformicg to the general cannon definition; including the attached or closely related units necessary for operation M intended (mount, sighting system, accessories, ete., but not ammunition), and designed to discharge the propellant gases in such a manner as to impart substantially no reeoil impulse to the weapon. Reooilless cannon in current usc are eonfined to recoilless rifles, designed to tire cannonsize projeetiles, with low to medium velocity and high &CCtlracy, from a weapon 01 relatively light \\eight and high portability (see F'igure 2-7}.

2·2.1.5 Cauon (Specific:).

The term "Cl\DDOn" is used in a specific sense to dencte Ute shooting part of 9. complete weapon (gun, howitzer, mor..ar or recoilless) oomprising only the tube and beeeeh structures and such meehanism as it supported ~~ereon for opening and. closing the breech and firing the propelling charge.

2-2.1.6 Au~matic: Cannon

No definite ilistinlltion, except M to caliber, is eatablishetl between machine guns and automatic cannon. The designation ,« cannon" i8 generally not applied ~o guns of bore di8lDe!er under the small arms limH. (3Omm).

3·2.2 SJDllll Arms

'the small arms CAtegQry of runs eompriees those wi'.h bore dianJeter )1I)t exceeding an arbitrarily 8S8igned limit (present limit :s ;;Omm). Small ann guns include hsnd guns (pist:>1s)s shoulder guns (rifles, carbines, shotguns, submaehiee guns) and

.~-

~~~~- :~~~~~ ~

:- ~ ""i~ - ~'

mechanically supported weapons (machine or automatic guns).

2H2.2.1 Pistol

A pistol is a Mort-barreled weapon held and fired with one hand, deslgned as 811 easily CArried short-range weapon for individuel use (see Figure 2-8). Current designs provide for rapid firing of six or more shots befnre reloading i& necessuy. Some models operate "JD'~ lautomatie.illy or automatically after t!:.e fi1st &hot (see pMagrapbs U.2 and a·6.3).

2-2.2.2 ShotgUll

A shotgun is a short-ran~ gtlll designed for firing from the shoulder, having a smooth bore mitable for expelling a group of peU~ il~ Army shot[,"Uns, which are used chiefly f~r guard or pollee duty and fClr training purposes, are of a magazine type, capable of ra}lid firing i)f a limited number of shots without reloading.

2-2.2.3 Rile

A rifle is a shoulder·fired .' un having & relatively long barrel with the bore helically grooved to Imllart a spinninG' mti'tlon to the :9rojectile about it5 longit.1.1dinal &xii, for improved stability in flight. The ride is designed to obtain relativelY high veloeity, loug range, and a high order of accuracy with a projectile {If wall diameter. Preeent Army rifes have f!lDall-capacity m~-azines, with semiautomatic or "utomatic operation (see p"ragrapk

2-5

.........

FiS1We 2-9. Typical Riffe (Semiautomatic)

3·6.2 and 3·6.a and Figure 2.9}. Some models capable of automatic fire are provided with a mechanical support to facilitate maintenance of alignment with the target while firing.

2-2.2.4 Carbine

A e a rhine !!: a sheulder-nred gun similar to the riOe, but reduced in weight, barrel length, and effective range. It replaces the rifle in uses where • aereased ease of portability is of greater importanee than the higher pt)wer had longer accurate range of the rifle.

2.2.2.5 SubmachiJle Gun

This term Lo; applied to a short-barreled, automatie-flriag weapon using a larger, heavier bullet than the shoulder- fired rifl{', but producing a relat:vely low projectile velocity effective only at short ranges. It L-; furnished with a stock and hand grip to permit firing either from the shoulder or from two-h&nd support at the Hide of the operator. The submachine gun employs a magazine of several times the capacity of. the standard shoulder-fired rifle, and ill used for rarid firing of & large number of projEI~~ile<l agains; ;>c)."SOr.nel at short ranges, where high aeeurscy of fire' is not essential.

2-2.2.6 Machine Gun

This term applies both to automatic guns of bore size, power and effective range comparable to the shoulder- fred rifle, and to more powerful automarie guns, when the mechanism is designed to extract successive cartridges from a belt or equivalent means of continuous feed, instead of from a magazine of limited capacity (see Figure 2.10). Partial or complete mechanical support !s provided, and the amount or support and type of supporting structure depending on the weight and power ~f the gun and the resultant aid needed by the operator for directional control of fire.

.-

---

--

FiflUre 2-JO. Typ!ccd Machi". Gun

CHAPTER 3

CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION BY DESIGN FEATURES

3·1 Common }~~~res

While development (,! guns for military uses has resulted in it. varied assortment of sises and types j)f construct-on and mechanism, a number of eonstruetional features .Ul.(l terms are common to many types. F'igur€ :1-1 illustrates and identifies some such features sud terms for gnu tubes, cartridge cases and projeetlles.

3·2 Ml"Jilioi,s nf Clusificatilln

In a previous chapter w(~ have taken up the classifleation of g1lilI'- i)y military chart! eteristies or usage. Guns are also fr.equently classified according to design features. S'lcb features include the type of ammunition far which designed, as well as characteristics of the bore, the br-eeh, and the operating mechanisms,

3-3 Classification by Ammunition Type

Since nerformanee results from iuteraetion of gun and ammunition, design and development of the two are closely interdependent. As a result of tbis relationship, there hove evolved several general types of complete round ammunition units for use in guns, and eorresponding appropriate gun designs, The gun design requirements differ, main I:;, in the types of breech closure. One method of classification of guns Is by d~ignation of the type of ammunition for which designed. Several typen of ammunition design, used for such c:lassification, are given below.

3-3.1 Fixed Ammunitioll (see Figures 3-2 and 3-3.) "'his term applies to ,'lmmunitiou of which all parts of each round are m1ltually attaehed, so that the round is handled and inserted into the gun as a

single! unit. All receut small arm guns 1a11 info tN& category; also current cannon of sneh size that tl.e assembled ammunition unit is not excessively unwieldy. In current breeeh-loading; weapons, the propellant and primer are contained iu a cartridge ease with rear end closed and front end erimped or tightly fitted to the Lase of the projectile. The case fit.s the chamber closely, and pressure of the ignited propellant espands it ng&inst the chamber walls to seal against J.~l\n'V&rd escape IJf gas. Hence, the breech-closing structure Qf the gun need not be gas-tight, but must support the case to prevent its rupture or rearward displacement, and must open to permit insertion of the rouud and rell1cyal of the case after firing. Means &1H,-.t be provided to fire the primer, and to remove the case.

3·3.2 Semifizcd Ammunition [see Figure 3-4)

For breech-loading weapons, semifixed ammunition differs from fixed in that the case is removably fitted to the projectile, so that the latter may be removed to adjust the quantity of propellat:t in the case, then reassembled prior to inse~Oli of tho! round into the gun. Guns utilizing this ~ of ammunition are such cannon as require VSrOoOl quantities of propellant for effectivf tf.rlng mto variously distant zonf''s. Breech \'lOOUte lequirements are similar to those for axed -&lLDlunition.

A ,'ariant Qf semifixed ammunition is used it! muzale-loadimj mortars ;ncorporoting a permanently closed hreech. This round usea no cartridge e&So'! about the propellant, but embodies a primer fixe<J in a rearward-extending; axial boom en ih~ proj(;CuJe, and a series of ~ cont&inil'g ddnite quantities of propellant, each separately and remtlvably attached to the "rojectile boom. For this

3-1

.......... #If 9alCCII &eaIIII ...,. tlII1IlU

-'Ie .. teOQCt --"'

----- ....... -

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.. C ... IMALL AMI

..,..., ...... , !If". @ wee GIDJI

~,tG~

tt S!MU..'~L t'C.

3-2

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I .' • '"

- .

.-7::

Figure 3·3. Typical Fixed Small At,.,. AmlfH.lttifion

ammunition the breech closure must be gas-tight and provide means for firing the primer.

3 3.3 Separated Ammunition (see Figure a·Eo)

In this t~'pe, the propellant and primer are sealed ill a cartridge case, separate from the projectile,

for separate handling of propellant and projectile when these units are of such Slte that a fixed round would be excessively unwieldy. This construction permits either separate manual loading and rammillg of the projectile and case, or placement of the ease behind the projectile on a loading tray and insertion of both into the gun by one stroke of III powered mechanical rammer. Breech clc>sul'e re-

.. ,,-

Fig;,7e 3·5. Typic..J1 SepDtafed Artillery Ammunition

quirements are essentially simiiar to those for fixed ammunition.

3·3.4 Separate Loading Ammuniticn (see Figure 3.S)

This term denotes ammunition of which eaeh round consists of a projectile, propellant in one or more bags, and a small metal-cased primer, all separately inserted into the gun, This type of

anmunition is used where size and weight of the components precludes use of a fixed round. For breech loading, the closure must open for insertion of the ammunition components, and provide a gastight seal when closed. Necessity for removal of a large metallic cartridge case is obviated, but provision must he made for insertion and support of the primer, and removal of its case a4.ter firing.

3-4 Classification by Shape of Bere

Guns may be classified according to the shape of the bore, as (a) cylindrical bore or (b) tapt:rl;d bore (incll/ding squeeze and choke bores). Most military guns fall into the first category.

3-4.1 Cylindrical Bore

This classification includes those bores of basically circular cross section. having the same size at all cross sections from the chamber to the muzzle. (The size anu contour of the chamber ale not eonsulered.) Longitudinal grooves for control of projl'ctile rotation are disregarded; hence, the eylin-

Fifllft 3-6. Typical $eparafel00Jing Arlillerr AmlllWlition (Primei' Hot Shown)

drical bore elassifleation is considered to include both smooth bores and riiled bores. At p~~t, all U. S . .A l1U] standard guns using bore-fitting projectUos are of the cylindrical-bore type.

3,4.2 Tapered (SqlOoeze) and Choke Bores

Tbese tenns designate guns in which the bores are tapered in the whole or some portion uf their length. The tapered portion may be imennediate between two cylindrical sections I)f unequal diameter. Such bores may be smooth or rifled, or part rifted and !l8rt smooth.

3-4.2.1 Tapered (Squeeze) Bore

This term is used to denote a bore incorporating a taper designed to reduce the diameter of a boretitting projectile as the latter passes through from breech to muzzle, This form of bore has made a favorable ahowing in some aspects of performance in experimental high velocity guns. For a given diameter of projectile as expelled from the muzzle, a greater area of projectile is acted upon by the propellant pressure through the earlier pm of travel through the bore.

3 .... 2.2 Choke Bore

The term is commonly applied to shotguns in whieh the bore is cylindrical except that, in a sh'ort portion near the muzzle, the diameter ia slightly rednced by taper (choked) to lessen toe lateral spread of the group of pellets after they have left the bare. Comme:cialiy, the degree (If choke is measured by the percentage of pellets of a standard load striking within .. g~-:::eh d!!llJlp.ter circle at a range of 40 yanh., and denoted as foilows:

Full choke 65% to 75% Improved modified 55% to 65% Modified (IA ehoke) -45% to 55% Improved cylinder 35% to 45%

3-4.3 Chlssification by Surface of Bore

Categories under this clas.."ification ere (a> Imoolk bore GIld (b) rifted bore. The latter category includes the majority of military guns (see ai~ par. 4-3.3).

3-4.3_i Smooth Bor!

This term denotes a bore tllat is without grooves, lands, or other contour intended to produce 0"eontrol rotation of the projectile. Smooth bores, replaced for decades by rifted bores, t',Xeept in shot·

Figure 3-7. Riffed lore (Muule)

guns, mortars and certain signal-projecting devices, have been used in a number of experimental high velocity gnus for projectiles incorporating fins for stabjlli.ation in flight.

3-4.3.2 lWleet Bore

This type of bore, used in the great majority of recent cannon and small ar.ms=, is characterized by grooves cut in the bore mrface, each groove follow. ing a helical path about the !!::lis of the bore, for the purpose of imparting spin to the projectile about its longitudinal uis for ato!\billiation.in 1light. The helical path of the grooves may be either right. hand or left-hand, and the twist m .. y be un.tfOl'Ql or increasing as it approaches the mazzle. Current practice generally employs right-hand twist, which produces a clockwise rotation of the projectile as viewed from the rear (see r.'ignrP. 3-7).

3-5 Cluaification by Degree of PropeJJut CGahemeat

This means of clasaitication acool'ding to dtgree Gf proIX"lJant confinement, or degree of breeeh closure, is U8t-' to distiuguish ~illesi (openbreech CI08U!'e) guns from the more conventionrJ (elosed breech) guns.

3-5.1 Open·bret~.h CIOlUl'es (Recoilleu)

The open type 01 breeeh closure is employed on recoilless weapons. In these weapons a contl'CUed IUrward ji8('barge of propellant gases is employed to giYe the gun a forward impulse opposing the rearward recoil impulse ineurred in discharg-! of the projec!ile, and so to virtually eliminate transmission of recoil forces to the gun mount. A typical reeoillesa ri1Ie (see Figures 2-7 and 3-16) 11IeI fixed ammunition with a perforated cartridge ease

having a nonpedorated l111~r (see botton, illuetration of Figw-e 3-2). Thp round is supported at. its forward and rear ends m alignment with the tube bore, in a chamber cor~derably iatger in diameter t\1an the case. On firing a portion of tht> propeUaut gas is driven tbro. the perforations of the C\'Ie into the annular space between the ease and chamber aide wall, and thence' through orifices in the chamber rear wall to the atmosphere behind the weapon. The breeehbloek is a sectored and thl'f.'aded cylindrical plug that eloses the central cartridge insertion opening in the rear of the chamber and bloob rt>Arward movement of the ease. It hoUIeIJ the firing pin in a central bore an.d carries the immediately relatA:d firing mechanism parts. The breechblock is supported in an arm hinged to luga on the exteri..or of the ehamber forging and W swung l"'!&I'Ward and away from the gun &Xii in opening. An extraetor hook earried in one side of the block extracts the case as the breech is opened. The clearance channels in breeehbloek and chamb8r are contoured to form gas discharge vents when the hreeeh is closed Md loeked, The vents are inclined alightly from Ii normat through the rear' wall, 10 the reaction from the di9Charged gases '!rill counteract the rotating force exerted on the rifi~ tube by the moving projectile. Opening and clO8ing of the breech is aeoomplished manually by means of an operating lever fulcrumed at the breech block hinge pin and suitably linked through the breechblock supporting arm to e-«ect rotation and awinging motions ot lite breechblock in the proper sequence. .An alternative anangement for rECOiUeaa operation utili&es a chamber fitting the cartridgt' case throughout its length, re&r'4rd disehuge of the necessary portion of the propellant pses being effected through the base of the cartridge and a noale centrally located in the gun breech.

M.2 CIoIec1. Breach

In order to impart t~ the projectile the greatest poo..'lible kinetic energy from a given charge of propellia.n~ it is naual pr&etice to provide for complete elosnre of the breech of the gun, so as to confine the hot propellant gues behind the projectile until the latter is expelled. VarlQua means and methods are employed for breeeh closure, in aeeordanee with the funetiomng and operating charae1.eriaties ffiluired. Closures are either permanent or mobile.

!,1).2.! Pemu.ullt ~losurel

A ~rmaneL\t or fixed closure is a str'llcturally closed i.~eecb that remains closed throughout gun operation, ~Qough it may be removable for maintenance ~~. repil.'r It may be obtained by securing a plug or cap h. or on the rear end of 111e bored tube, The round of ammunition is necessarily inserted through the muzzle. In nresent praetiee, a percussion primer is fixed in the round, and l\ !orward projecting pin t.r stud is suppcrted in the breseh structure, aligned with the primer. The pin may be fixed, in which case the primer is initiated by impact when the round drops to the breech (drop fire); or the pin may be retractable, spring driven, trigger- or Iever-operated, to permit a time interval between loading and firing. In some ezperiznental weapons, a spring-actuated pin with a locking device provides an option between drop firing and lever firing. Soce early designs used a small vent hole for ignition by fuse or heated rod. Formerly widely used, permanent eloeuree at present appeal" in only .-elatively small muzzle loading smooth-bore mortars .. for use with the noneased type of semifixed amm'Wlition.

3-5.2.2. Mobile Closures

The numerous advantages of breech loading induce the U8t.5 :>f a movable elosure, i.e., one operable to elese for conta!mnent of pressurt> while the round is fired 'and to open for remu~al of any residual ammunition eomponents and ~rtion of the uext round. The mechauism for opening and. closing, termed the breech mechanism, is eonsidered to include any necessary cartridge ease extraction mechanism and firing mechanism. While a wide \ariety of mechanisms have been devised for closure and the related functions) t.lte majorjty may be appropriately considered as employing either of two types of action: one in which the elosing' or opening is accomplished principally by moving the closing member forward to or into the chamber opening; or one in which e108ing or opening is effected principally by moving the clO8ing member at right angles to the chamber axis, to cover or unoover the chamber opening. FfJr either of these methods, the c1csure is usually supported on a major gun eomponent known as thf; brete! rifl{1 (cannon) or the ,utiver (smell atms). These terms denote a principal unit of gun construction that is joined to the rear of the tube or barrel for

Figcn 3·8. 'IuQ'type Connon Breech Cloture-Stepped

Thr.od, Horizontcrl Swing

support or housing of the closure and other parts of the breech mechanism. The term breech ring is commonly used in reference to nonautomatic cannon, while receiver applies to the corresponding part in automatic cannon, in machine guns, and in most types of small arms. The member nsually serves also as a principal or supplementary suppor~ of the tube or barrel in its mount or stock, and in some esses reinforces the tube wall about the chamber against internal radial pressure. The common feature of an types is a bore or socket to receive the tube; otherwise the shape varies widely, iu aeeordanee with the purposes served and the design of the mechanism supported.

Mobile closures may be classified into types u (a) plug, (b) bolt, (c) sliding breechblock, and (d) eccentric screw.

3-5.2.2.1 Plug .. type Breechblock Closures (see Figure 3-8)

This type is often called the itcterntpfed screw or the ,rotted strew type. Closures incorporating plug-type breechblocks are applied to cannon employing separate loading anu&anition. In th~ type an opening (breech recess) is formed in the tube at the rear of Ute chamber, or plUily in the tube and partly in the breech ring, for ammunition insertion, The opening is closed by a closely fitting plug, which is ...:..u'1'ied axially (or nearly so) to a nearly seated pot.itioJl, zhen rotated to complete the closure. The rotation enNes mating interrupted threads on the plug and within the recess to seat the plug .and l't'tain it in position against the pressure developed l,y the propellant.

~.2.2.1.1 Obturation

Gas leakage past the plug is prevented, in current designs, by an obturator, consisting of a

resilient circular pad (gas check pad) mounted between the Bat front face of the plug and the head or a muahrccm-ahaped obturator spindle whose stem extends rearward, ;ilitiabiy sUi>ported in an axial ba re in the plug. Propellant gsa pressure forces the head of the spindle rearward, ('.om· pressing the pad against the JlCl8e of the plug and thereby forcing the pad to expand radilllly against the inner surface of the tube. 'the peripheral sealing surface of. the pad is protected at the front and rear edges by st~el l"~plUlcling rings.

3-5.2.2.1.2 Locldng ArrangtllUellt

To obtain sufficient strength in the breeehbleek threads to withstand propellant pressure, to avoid excessive size arid weight of the breeehbloek, and to minimize the motion required to seat the block, an Interrupted, or sectored, thread is employed. That ill, the exterior of the breecbblock and the interior of the breech (breech recess) are formed with equal numbers of threaded arcs alternating with longitudinal clearance channels. Alignment of the threaded ares of the breeehblcek with the elearanee ebannels in the recess permits msertion or withdrawal of the breechblock by simple forw8!d ('J~' rearward movement and locking or unlocking by rotation through a fraction {)f one turn to f ngage or disengage the threaded areas. Loss of 8trength incurred by lack of threads in the clearance channels is compensated by increased length 01' increased diameter of the threaded a!e& of the breeehblock. In the Bofors brecchblock ine-eased thread.\!d area has been obtained by mRking the breechblock markedly larger at t.be rear and giving it a conical or ogim taper forwanl. This construction presents an advantage in reduction of the straight line retraction needed betcre the b~hblock esn be swung out of the recess on a pivoted carrier. Howe ... c .. , &~ut praetiee favors the Welin or stepped. thread type of eonatruetion (Figure 3-8), in whie}the radii of breechblock and recess cross sections are increased in a series of stepa in -suceel8ive geetors, each series being repeated an equal number of times in the cireumference of both members. In each series, all breechblock sectors are threaded except the one of smallest radius, which is small enough to clear the smallest radius aeetor of the reeesa; and all recess sectors are ttreaded exeept the one of lal'8~ radiua, which is large enough to C!lear the largetlt radi1ll sector ot the breeehbloek.

3-7

The increment of radios between threaded steps is such that each threaded sector of the breeehbloek will engage a corresponding SEctor in the process, but has clearance in the adjacent Hector; hence, rotation of the breeehbloek through an angle equal to one sector serves to lock it, 01' disengage it for withdrawal. Thus; on a breeehbloek having three stepped sectors (two-threaded) in each quadrant, nearly two-thir-ds of the eireumferenee is threaded, and rotation of slightly more than 30 degrees is needed to lock or unlock.

3-5.2.2.1.3 Ignition

In current weapons with plug-type closures, ig-ution of the propellant is eft'ectt'd by use of a cannon primer, resenlisH!l!:! in appearance a small anus blank cartridge, and which is chambered ill the rear portion of an axial bore piercing the obturator spindle. The primer, when fired, discharges hot gases through the spindle inro the gun chamber. The primer is fired by either a percussion mechanism, an electrical circuit, or a combined arrangement enabling use of either percussion or electrical firing. (Electrically fired primers are fired by heat generated in a resistive eonduetcr element within the case when an electric current is passed through it. Percussion primers are fired by a sharp blow of a firing pin on a pr.mer cup containing a sensitive mixture, the uuxture being thereby crushed against a firm metal fa.ee termed the anvil.) Firing mechanisms, or firing loess, used for insertion, rear support, firing and removl!.l of the primer cartridge case after firing, include screw- and sliding.hlock or sliding-wedge types as fo!lows:

Figvre '·9. PetCVaion Firing Mechanitm lor Cannon, ScnJW.type

(a) The screw-type firiu~ mechanism (see Figure ;J.g) includes un externally threaded eylindrieal firil\g mechanism block, having a socket holder at the forward end to support the base of the primer case, and a firing pin behind the socket. The block is seated ill a threaded l'('CO'S in the rear of the breeehbloek, "0 load, the firiul!' mechanism block is unscrewed and removed manually from the breechbloek (2 radial arm with knob facilitates the operation)" and the pri-ier is illse1.1e\l into the holder of the firing mechanism block, Then till; block and prir 11.'1" are inserted into the broeehbloek as a unit, thus s eating the primer in its chamber. The block latches when fully screwed in. Firing is effected by a pull Oil a lanyard attached to a hammer pivoted 011 a bracket on the breechbloek, the hammer sh'iking the firing pin to drive it against the primer. TIll' firing mechanism block is al!'ai, removed, rhus withdrawing' the attached primer case, and the empty ease is manually rc· moved from t he socket, Suitable interlocks prevent insertion or removal of the firing block, 01' impact of the hammer on the firing pin, while the gun bresehbloek is not fully closed or locked.

figI}!'. 3 ·10. Comon Firing Lock, Eledric or Percuuion IgnitiQn, Sliding-wedge Type

(b) One sliding-block type of firing lock is shown in Figure 3-10 and ccnsists of a small sliding-wedge mechanism attached to the rear of the gun breechblock. Its housing provides a longitudinal o}>":iing fl,· insertion and withdrawal of the primer and supports a eliding block, which is moved trans-

versely (hozizontally or vertically) to cover and uncover the primer chamber opening, The block is operated manually, by suitabJy connected knob, handle, rod, or lever, and on opening actuates an extractor lever to withdraw the primer case. fer. eussion firing is effected by a firing pin eerried in the block, actuated by a spring-impelled striker controlled by a sear and trigger mechanism manually cocked. For electric firing, insulated eonductors and contacts sre incorporated to provide au electrical path ~hro\lg'h the fir;n:r pin, also insulated. to the primer. Firing is effected by closing the eleetrieal eireuit : l,ellct.>, eoeking' of the striker is omitted, and the flrmg pin i" moved into contact with the primer without significant impact. In older designs, for use of combined eleetrie and friction primers having a protruding, insulated, frietion wire with bart' terminal button, the striker is omitted from the design, and a firing leaf in. eorporated. TIl(' 1t'81 is a pivoted plate actuated by a lanyard and incorporates a slot and insulated clip to accept the covered wire and its bart' terminal button, respectively. For friction ignition, a pull on the lanyard rotates ~lte plate to pull the friction wire and so ignite tne primer. For electric firing a conductor is plugged into the insulated clip and connected to a power source through a eireuit breaker. Ignition is t'ffccted by closing the circuit.

3-5.2.2.1.4 Operating Mecbadism

In cannon of recent uesign, the interrupted. thread (plug) breeehbloek is mounted on the earrier (see Fi~N! 3:8), a combined housing and support mezceer hinge-connected to exterior lugs of the breech ring in such a manner 88 to swing the breeehblock rearward out of the breech, The type shown uses a horizontai swing. Some types employ a vertical swing. The breechblock support comprises a hollow cylindrical stud projecting from the carrier into the rear of the axial bore of the block. A lateral shaft supported in the carrier carries II crank and erosshead st its inner end to rotate the breeehbloek to locked and unlocked positiona. An operating lever attaehed to th~ outer end of !he shaft provides fo:;' manual rotation of the sbaft, and for swinging the carrier to open and closed positions. In some designs separate handles are provided foi' swinging the carrier, and the operating lever is used only to lock and unlock the breechblock. A spring-loaded eounterbelanee meeh.

anism is erank-connected to reduce the manual effort needed to swing the carrier, and the crank passes over center to secure the earrler in open position. Various inter'oeks are provided to insure that the hreechblock is 1'O!llt.,d to the correct unlocked position before the carrier starts its oJ't'ning swing, that the breeehblock L<S secured against roo tation until it is again carried into the reeess to proper depth for meshing the locking threads, and that the fh';n~ mechanism ean operate only while the breeehblock if; elesed an(} looked.

Figure 3-U. Bolt.type 8rHch CloroRe (Ac.tomatk Gun), Bolt C/olfng to Chamlw the COItridllfl

Fi,.".". 3-12. 8oIt.~". 8reecIt CIowre (AufoIllO,jc Gun), Bolt Necm'ng CJo.d (Firing) POIition

3-5.2.2.2 Bolt-type Bw..ablock CIOlRlfes

Bolt-type closures are widely used on small arms rifles, machine guns, and on automatic cannon of smaIl 001'2 diameter. Fixed ammunirion is employed. In this typc (see FigurC!S 3-11, 3-12 ana 3.13), the opening and closing of the breech is ('ff'!ctt'd principally through rearward and f07WaM

movement (pntoallel with the gun 00)1:) ()~ HIe bolt, A sliding t'4)mp .. nent ·,ariall.l:lly shaped. !.mt g~nenlly elongated in tile, '.lire:ltion of m~ih':I. At elosed position, Cle bali blocks, but does not seal, the rear opening of the cham her; to open, it is moved rearqat .', suftieie'Jtly for e..:.traciio:J of the fil-ea case and- in&ertie4 of the next ca.~ridgt'. Forwal'tl move~t ther, &et'.t$ the cartri'~l1e in the ehaisber. Obtu1'tl.tion is provi~<:II by ~xpUlsion of the eart.rid«e ease against the chmoor wall by propellant preaaure. Movement of the bolt is guided and confined by a heusing' snd aupport component t,med the receiver. Pp.T c 'U.;sion firing of the eartridge is effected by a. firing pin carried within the bo)t and actuated oy a I'prillg or spring-loaded hammer, controlled by Ifl.CaDu311y operated sear-andtrigger meehanisra, or automatically released; or by inert.ia of the pin (anj other weights sliding with it) 88 the bol- is stopped at the end o! forward traveL Electrica.Uy primed cutridges are fired by the closing of an eleetrieal circuit that includes an insulated B'ring pin. Where used, tile firin~ spring is:~mpressed by the movement (If the bolt, a typical anangemellt comprising a cooking lever pivoted on the bo~t arid actuated by a cam surface in the reeeiver, 'Withdrawal of the fired case is ettected by an exb'actor (hook or equivalent rim) on the bolt front end, which engages the rim or groove at the base or the cartridge case to draw the case &S the bolt moves rearward. Ejection of the empty case it aeeomplished in some automatic meehanisms bylatel'lll displacement by the inl!Oming cartridge; in o~her llesigus a spring.loaded ejeo!tor lever on the bolt or in the receiver presses or strikes the base of the cartridge ott center to tilt the case tre~

!rom the grip of the extractor and throw it from the receiver &8 the bolt moves resrwved. Bolts may be elassifled as twnwcking, 1.ocking, or dela.yed action, in accordance with the method of operation.

3.5.~.2.2.1 lforuockiJlg Bolts (Blow~ek)

While not widely applied, bolts that do not lock in the closed position have fuuctioned reasonably satisfactorily in some automatic and semiautomatic weapons using relatively low power ammunition. In this method, the rearward pressure of the propellant on {he cartridge ease impels the bolt through its rearward travel, but the weight of the bolt js such that inertia delays the' movement 80 that the projectile has Jeft the gun muzr.le before the breech it unsealed. In itA rearward movement the holt eompzesses a spring that. returns the bolt to closed position to complete the cycle. To interrupt the firing, release of the trigger permits a sear to retain the bolt. in retracted position.

3-5.2.2.2.2 toc:ldng Bolts

Bolts are looked it, position by various means.

Typical methods used inelude : rotation of the bolt through a smali angle as it completes forward travel, to engage corresponding lugs, or lugs and grooves, on and in the bolt and receiver; tilting (If a member hinged to the bolt, to engage a recess in the receiver as the bolt reaches closed position; lateral or vertical movement of a bar carried in a rearward extension member attached to the barrel, to engage a recess in the bolt; and slight tilting of the barrel to ette'!t engagement of ribs on the rear end of the barrel with grooves in a forward extension of the bolt.

3·5.2.2.2.3 Delayed A.ction (Hesitation) Dolts

Not in current use in U. S. Army weapons, the delayed action bolt lock was formeriy employed in some automatic weapons to prevent excessive rapidity of fire. These arrangements provide no positive lock of the closure, they permit the bolt to be moved rearward by propellant pressure, but delay the movement by forcin~ tae pressure to overcome a mechanical disadvantage other than inertia. Delayed action bolts include:

(a) Crank.fype. 'rhe bolt is linkeri by a eonneeting rod to a crank pivoted in the receiver, so that f'e<!iprocating movement of the bolt produces oscillation I)f the crank. At closed bolt position,

3-10

t ~ , _

: (a) 8lidi","~~.

~"'------.. , !"

3-11

the crank &l'll1 and conneeting rod art' nearly align~, 80 that rearward pressure on the bolt produces a very IIn'all rotational component ot force at the crank pin snd lnitia! rearward movement (If the bolt it impeded.

(b) Bolttng-eontact-type. This is a modification of the crank-type, in which the end of the erank arm and the crank end of the connecting' red are rounded abutting surfaces held in contact by an additional link. 'l'he effect of this modification is to retard the increase of the rotational component of force on the crank arm during the initial stage of l'ou.tion, and 80 to produce a greater delay tban the simple crank device.

(c) Inclinea-contaci· or wedoe-type. In closed position, the bolt and receiver (or- barrel) are connected by mating interrupted threads, or by a transverse sliding bar, with the engaged surfaces inelined at such an angle that " positive lock is not obtained. When the propellam pressure acts on the bolt, rearward movement is impeded until the small component of force parallel to the inclined 8ulface.'l rotates or slides the opposing members out of etlgagement.

3-5.2.2.3 SJidiDg Breechblock Closures

This term, through custom, applies .0 those tlesigns in which opening and closing of the breech is accomplished prinllipally by movement of a block in * direction normal to the axis of the chamber; i.e., across the face of the opening. Sliding breechblock types in service to the present. provide no gall seal, obturation being effected by use of a cartridge case.' Movement of the breechblock is guided by suitable slide surfaces in the supporting breech ring or receiver. Generally the bearing surfaces are inclined slightiy to obtain a wedging action to ensure full seating !)f the cartridge, heuce, this type of closure is often called ,!iding wedge.

3-5.2.2.3.1 CamloJl AppUcatioDS (see Figure :-l-14}

Tn cannon, the typical sliding closure consists of a block (weage) of roughly rectangular outline, which slides in a corresponding recess through the rear portion of the breech ring. The motion may be horizonb11 or vertical; however, the vertieal, or drop block, arrangement is currently more genersUy used. Mating ribs and grooves on the block and within the breech ring recess are inclined alightly to wedge the cartridge forward into the

chamber as the block icoves to elcsed position, and the front edge of the lead;'lg end ot the block (when closing) is beveler, to push torward an incompletely inserted cartridge. 'Phis en, I .)f the block is also cylindrically grooved from fr')nt to rear to provide a ~uiding trough for the en tering cartridge. A central bore in the block houses the firing pin (usually percussion type) and its immediate COlitrolling mechanism. The artillery primer, as this type primer is called, is permanently inserted into the cartridge case at the loading plant and requires no sepr rate action for insertion or removal at the gun.

Extractor levers pivoted or fulcrum-mounted in the breech ring recess are actuated through their intc:1.!t'81 follower lugs, which bear slidably in ineliued cc:>uming grooves in the breechbloek. Where closing is ac=omplished by spring action, the extractor lugs en(;':!~e offset seats at the ends of th cam grooves to 10";" the breeehbloek in open position, Unlocking is tht:!! accomplished by insertion of the next cartridge, its rii.rt striking the extractors to unseat the follower lugs and -estore them to the camming groove. lI()~ion of the bre-chbloek is customarily effected by partial rotation of an ,,~'erating shaft carrying the breeehbloek crank whose erank pin slides in an inclined slot on the breeehbloek to slide it in opening and closing travel.

3.5.2.2.3.2 S"JlAll Arms Applications

Applications of the transversely sliding breechblock principle in present Army small al108 are limited to revolver-type mechanisms. Former applications, U. S. and other, military and commercial, include the following:

(9.) Drop Blnck

A closure in which the breech block slides upward to close, downward to open, guided by grooves in opposite sides of the receiver and actuated by suitable linkage connecting to an operating lever beneath the receiver. The lever handle is shaped to form a trigger guard. Typically, a sp-ing-loaded pivoted hammer is released by the trigger to striir:e a firing pin carried in the breeehbloek,

(b) HoUing Block

The block swings rearward and downward about a transverse pivot bel~w the chamber to open the breech.

3-12

(e) Risi11g Block

A closure in whiei, the b.oek )0; pivoted on pins at the sldes of the barrel, forward from the breech face, and is swung upward .ind forward to expose the ehamber opening.

(d) Palling "Block

A closure in which the block is pivoted rearward from the breech face and is swung downward 1.0 open the breech.

(e) Standing Breech, Hinged b'rome

This arrangement, used on some eommereral designs of revolvers and shotguns and in. military pyrotechnic pistols, presents a breeehbloek faee formed as a fixed part of the gur: frame, to which the barrel is hinged on a transverse pivot forward "f and below the chamber. Opaning is effected by manual release of a securing la',c~ or bar, and swinging the rear end of the barre upward, A percussion firing pin is carried in the breechblock, and the frame houses the hammer, trigg~r and remaining parts of the firing meehunirm. Typically, the swinging of the barrel to open automatically actuates an extractor to partially withdraw the cartridge case(s) from the ehamberfs),

....... Figule 3-15. Typical R,.,olver, in Section, Cartridges Chamber«l in Cylil'lcler

(f) Standing Breech, Solid Prame

In this eonstruetiou (see Figure 3-15), used in commercial revolvers and formerly in military revolvers, the breechblock face is formed as a flsed part of the gun frame: and the barrel is rigidly mounted ahead of the brcechblock face, with suffieient intervening space to receive the cylinder. The latter contains six chambers, squally spaced about the longitudinal axis, which is positioned below and parallel to the bore of the barrel, so that

Figure 3-J6. iY!'ical Recoil1 ... Rifre Breech, llHChhlodc Lucking Thre..-d. Pcrlty £"gagftCI

on rotation of the cylinder each chamber is suceessively aligned between the breechblock fact' (willi firing pin) and t.he barrel. The frame houses a spring-driven hammer and suitable mechanism -for romti,r.g the cyHllder and looking it m successive positloas to fire the cartridge in each chamber, all actuated by pull and release of the trigger. The pivot on whieh the c!1Hnder rotates is hingemounted en the frame, and breech opening is effected by swinging the cylinder sideward and downward parallel to the breechbloek face, to expose the breed) ends of the chambers. Except fl)r close positioning of the parts, no antileak provision is Incorporated uetween the rear end of the barrel and the forward end of the aligned chamber, and the resulting loss 'Jf a fraction of the propellant bases at the llnSE'a!('~ junction necessitates use of relatively low power cartridges to avoid severe erosion of metal at the junetion and escape uf ~ and unconsumed particles of propellant at elet:.."'sively high temperature.

3-5.2.2.4 Eccentric Screw Clotures (Nordenfe1d). ';,'his type of etosure, little used at present and applicable only to cannon of relntively IImall bore niameter employing fixed ammunition, in~orporates

a-l:l

& threaded cylindrical breech block screwed inti) a cylindrical, internally threaded recess in.the brooch ring. The block diameter exceeds twiee that of the chamber, and its axis of rotation, parallel to the c.bamb'!r axJ.s, i~ below 'the eireumference of the chamber opening. A deep U-shaped groove is cut from bac!t to front of the block to provide B channel for insP.rti;:.n of the ammunition. Botation of the block through approximately % revolution then covel'S the bAlle of the cartridge, the pitch of thread advancing the block to fully seat the cartridge. At the dosed position the percussion firing pin, housed in the breeehblock diametrieally opposite the loading channel, is in line with the chamber axis, in position to st. ike the primer when driven by the firing hammer. Wbel\ the reverse rotation is applied to open the breeen, u forked (,x tractor lever, pivot-supported in the breech ring, is aetu ated by a cam groove in the forward face of the breechbloek to extract and ejed the cartridge case as the loading cnaanel reaches alignment with the chamber.

The large sire and weight of the breecbblcck and breech ring necessary for this type of closure is an unfavorable iactor 'where spaee and weight limitations ere importanl"

U CluIUication J" Decree of Self Action

Guns may be classified in thiR manner as (a) manllal, (b) automatic, and (c) .e.niautomaiic.

306.1 Kuut

This term indleates a type of gun in which the energy required to operAte the breech mechanism through thfl movements necessary for loading, closing, firing, opening and case ejection is supplied by the operator. If the mechanism is designed tor insertion of multiple rounds aud sueeessive feeding. positioning and firing of these rounds by manual eperatier, or the mechanism, the weapon is termed a repeating type; if each successive round must be canually inserted into the mechanism after the previous one has been fired, the weapon is termed a lingle ,ltot type.

3-6.2 Automatic

The term applies to firearms in which the mechanism. after firing is initiated by the operator, extractIJ or is fed sueeessive rounds from a belt, bopper, or other suitaD1e IIOUrct, and continues to fire

until stopped by manipulation of s. control device by the operator or by failure of the ammunition supply. l'he energy for operating the mechanism to eject the empty case and insert and fire each successive round is derived from the tiring of the precl:ding' round. Preliminary insertion 9f the first round and eoeking of the mechanism to fi~ the first round are accomplished by moving the mechanism through a portion or its cycle by bnd or other outside power. Th~ term automatie is sometimes erroneously applied to firearms that 8J'e not fully automatic; e.g., those requiring a manual trigger .1,,11 to fire each round, the remaining portion of the cycle being automatic.

3-6.3 Semiautomatic

'.{,his term is somewhat loosely applied to guns in which some portions of the cycle of insertion of ammunition, closing, firiDg, opening, and ejection of fired cases are automatically accomplished, and the remainder are performed manually or by external power manually controlled. In the field of small arms and cannon of rell\tively small bore, the term semiautomatic g-:nerally indicates thl\t the mechanism, on firing a round, operates antomatically through the functions of opening, ejection and insertion of the succeeding round, but does not fire the latter round nnless the trigger or other tiring control is agaln manipulated hy the operator. In reference to cannon in gen~r&1, the term may indieatc automatic functioning; through some smaller portion 01 the complete cycle_ A typical example is the medium caliber gun with vertically sliding breechblock, in which breech opening, ejectian of the case, and cocking of the firing mechanism is accomplished through cam action during counterreeoil movement of the cannon. The breech then remains open (locked by the extractors) but closes automatically when a round is inserted into the chamber with sufficient force to strike and unlock the extrsetors, The firing mechanism remains eocxed after the breech closes and is released to fire the round I)nl) b~ separate action of the operator.

3·7 C1uI:!ficatiOll by SouTee of Power OpentiOJl Suc1l elasses include (a) u:teNlGlly pmcerM, (b) fJlI~ opertltion, (c) recoil operation, and (d) bwlOOOck.

3-14

3·7.1 B:dernally Powered

Th:s t'lasaification comprises guns in which meehanieal ~r electric power is used to operate the breech meehanism through all IJr a portion of the loading, «losing, firing, opening, tUl~ ejection cycle, the power being from 8 source O~h(!l' rhsn the prop('lll'.!11, used tli discharge the projectile, The principal use of ex~er:nal power in recent practice has been to attain rapidity or firiI1~ not possible with propellant powered operation. By application of powered meehanism for reeding, fuze setting ramruing (ehembering the ammunition). breech opening, ete., operation of the wsapeu may be as f'on:!llett'ly mechanized as the intended use may justify. In some uses, such ali 111 tanks O!" sireraft, more efficient operation may he effeeted by application nf external power to one or more phases of operation than by dependence 011 prnpellant})O" ered meehantsm alone

3-7.2 Gu Operatiun

Tills method. employed in automatie rifles, semi. auiomati,~ ~fteE, earbiues and for urlocklng 20mre automatic guns, eonsista of diversion of a minor quautity of propellant gas from the bore of the tube into a suitable Bmat! ~'Ylindp.r, where it drives a piston eouuseted to \l1e breech meehsnism to aeeomplish the desired operation. In tile rifle and carbine this action unlocks the bolt and drives it rearward to withdra-v and eject the fired case and compress a spring which returns the bolt to closed position. Aitel' the bolt reaches its rearmost position, the next cartridge is pushed into a position ahead of the bolt. The bolt, when it moves forward, drives the cartridge into the chamber and rotates itself by cam aetiou to look the closure. The weapon is then ready to fire.

3-7.3 R~ Opefati'lD

This method, employf'u in machine guns, ..cmiautomatic pistols and ahotg!ms and in ehe opening of sliding' breeehbleek eaanon, utilizes tbl' reY)ii lUtd rounterrecoil movement of the gun, tlr pam thereof, relative to nonreeoiliug' parts, to operate the breech meehanism. Interaction l>et~e{:n the movhlg and staticnary parts to produce the necessary motions is obtained either as the recoiling parts a~ moving rearward or w!.ile the recoiled part."l are being restored to the forward position by springs or gas compressed during recoil, or

during both movements. Recoil operation is further classified as short recoil or long rer.oil according to the relative distance recoiled by the barrel.

3·7.3.1 Short Recoll

This system is widely used in Army machine guna and semiautomatic pistols. In the machine gun application, the barrel, on firing, is permitted to recoil a short distance into the receiver. In tile first part of this movement the bolt remslaa locked to the barrel; in the latter part thp bolt is unlocked, the barrel is stopped, and t~c bolt continues rearward with sufflcient momentum to extract the fired cartridge esse, withdraw a cartridge from the feed belt, eoek the nring mechanism, and compress the driving spring, which returns the bolt forward to closed position. As the bolt moves forward it actuates the belt feed lever to advance the feed belt, operates the extractor to align the cartridge previously withdrawn frow the belt and e~ect the fired case, "rrikes the rear of the barrel to ehamber the cartridge and took itself thereto, then drives the barrel forward to firing position and releases the firing tube, Breech ring and breech mechanism recoil lUI a unit in sliding ways in the mount. An interposed recoil meehanism dissiplltes a portion {If the ~nergy of recoil, but stores a sufficient portion (by eompression of a spring or eonfined gas) to l?!1ll'Il the recoiling unit to ita starting (firing) position. A camming device is so loeated in the stationary mount that, as the recoiled unit moves forward in counterrecoil. ~he cam enge.ges the operating crank of the breech mechanism and r0- tates it to slide the breeehbloek to open position. This movement of the breeehbloek o~ratts the extractor levers anil. cocking iever to remove the fired case, reeoek the firinlr mechanism, lock the breechlcek in open positio», and store energy in the breeehblock closing spring. The breech is thus If'ft open for insertion of the next round.

3-7 .. 3.2 Long Recoil

In this Systetll the barrel and the breeehbloek or bolt recoil the entire distanee together. The bolt is then held open in the reeciled poaition as the barrel goes forward a &Ufliclent length of time to permit extraction of the iipent case and relcading. Tht. rate of lire is necessarily slow and ~e method bas little application to present military design.

3-15

3·7.4 Blowback Operatio.ll

The blowback principle, currently used in submachine guns and some automatic guns, derives energy from the pressure of the fired propellant on the cartridge C8lo:C, causing its rearward projection. to drive the boJt rearward from the barrel. During this rearward movement, the bolt com- 1'N8ge8 a spring that, on eompletion of the recoil travel, returns the bolt to the closed and locked (firing) position. The barrel remains fI.xed in the receiver. The initial rearward movement of the bolt is delayed until propellant pressure in the barrel hill dropped to a safe magnitude by inertia of the b ilt, by meehanieal disadvantage (see Delayed Action Bolts, paragraph 3.5.2.2.2.3), or by a positive lock. In a 20mm gun application (see Figure 3-17). a breechblock lock engages a fixed

tn'G88 member of the receiver (breeehbloek key) to Iateh the bolt-type breechblock in closed position. Sliding members in the breechblock (breechbloek tlicies) bar disengaging movement of the look. When the fired propellant has moved the projectile forward past a small lateral port in the bore, gas passes through the port to drive a piston rearward, this movement being transmitted by push rods to move the breeehbloek slides rearward and so permit disengagement of the leek. The lock. bearing on the breechblock key at an unfavorable angle, is forced upward out of engagement by rearward pressure of the breeehbloek, and the latter is then drivE'n rearward by the residual propellant pres!Ute on the cartringe case. In the submacbine gun application, a bolt look is not used, as bolt inertia p:ovides suftlcient delay for adequate drop in pressure of the Telath~ly low powered propellant eha~U8ed.

3-8 ClasaificatiOD by Type of Feed

Because of variations between cannon and mall arms in size and type of ammunition used, and in their current charucteristic types of closure and breech operating meehanisms, feeding and loading methods and mechanisms for the two classes are considered separately.

3-S.1 ~OD Feed~ )(eth~ds 3-S.1.1 Nonautomatic Feeding

Where complete rounds of fixed or semi fixed ammunition, or the individual components of separated or separate loading ammunition, are 110t excessively large or heavy, the entire series of operations necessary to feed the gun successive rounds may be performed manually by the operator or operators, with the aid of hand manipulated tools or accessories where needed. The simplest operation is required to load a round of fixed ammunition, requiring no fuze adjustment, into a gun having a vertically sliding breeehbloek (Figure 3- 14), a procedure consisting of sliding the round forward through the channel in the top of the breech block and into the chamber with sufficient force to trip the extractors. (The breeehbloek then rises by spring action and the gun is ready to fire.) Where justified by size and weight of the round, a loading tray or trough carried by gun crew memo bers may be used to transport the round and plaee it in pcsition behind the breech ring, whence it is pushed into tht -hamber by a loading rammer in the hands of the gun Cl't:>;". The hand loading rammer is a straight shaft with A ?~'lindrical head sufficiently concave on the forward faee !o avoid contacting the cartridge primer, Where sepsrated ammunition is used, tbe projectile and ease are similarly handled in successive operations, Separate loading ammunition requires successive insertion and ramming of the projectile, insertion of bags of propellant, and manual replacement of a fired primer case by an unfired primer in the primer block. If a projeetile requiring fuze adjustment is used, the fuze is manually adjnsted (using an appropriate wrench) to the proper interval before the projectile !s inserted. The elosing of the interrupted screw-type breech used with separate loading ammunition is also initiated by manual operation o! a lever,

3-16

3·8.1.2 Automatic Feeding and Loading

Various powered mechanisms have been devised to obviate or minimize the manual effort required in feeding and loading operations for eannun. He. cent d('"igns ill service include power operation in: meehauieal ramming" of the project ill' only (for separate loading ammunition ), meehanieal fuze: set tin!! and ramming of the projectile and ease (for separated ammunition), and automatically controlled mechanical feeding and ramming of fixed ammunition. The latter combines with tile automatic actions of vertically sliding breeehbloek guns or of bolt-type breech mechanisms to provide continuous overall cycling (automatic firing) or eyeling complete except firing (semiautomatic fir. inz). (The continuously cycling weapons should be termed automatic only 1f power for all the mechanism is derived from the ~ropenant, by recoil, or other means, see paragraph 3.6.2.) Geueral features of typical meehanieal ft>eding, loading or combined devices are as follows:

Fig'.Jre 3·18, Ramnaing M.c:honirm, ClIoin Romnw, Hydr.Jvlic Power

3-8.1.2.1 Power~ Chain Rammer

A typical arrangement (Figure 3.18) suitable for large bore cannon using separate loading am. munition rams the projeetlle only. Its prineipal elements are a chain eaaing of straigbt-sided loop profile, with pedestals foi' fixed mounting, serving as support for the operating parts; a rammer ehain with a buffer head, meshed "it-It a sprocket sup. ported in the rear end loop of the casing; a reo yersible hydraulic motor attached to the ehain easing and driving the cha::. sprocket to push forward, and to retract, the chain end buffer head; a hydraulically operated folding trough hinged to the forward end Gf the casing to guide the projee-

t ill' into tho chamber; and suitable hydraulic eontrol piping and valves to j,t'l1wrn the sequence of extension of trough, advaneemeut and retraction of rammer chain and head, and folding withdrawal of the trough to clear the path of gun recoil. Hydraulic pressure is supplied l)y the ~Ull elevating system. Thc upper straight section of the chain casing' is open and channeled to guide the raw-mer chain and head in line with the gun bore , the trough, in unfolded position, forms an extension of the guiding channel, The rammer chain links ale so hinged together as to prevent buckling when pushing the head in the straight channel, but to permit meshing with and flexing downward around the sprocket, so that Oil retraction of the chain, ih rear end slides forward in the lower section of the chain easing. The rammer head incorporates a hydrospring-type buffer to reduce shock at the end of the rammer stroke. A system of shaft, clutch, stops and rods connected to the rammer operating mechanism provides £01' automatic cut-off of ramming force at a preset length of stroke. The ramming and withdrawal strokes are initiated by manipulation of a control handle. For placing heavy projectiles in tne trough, a manually operated winch and davit are used. The propellant is manually inserted after the projeetile has been rammed.

3-8.1.2.2 pl)w~red RydrauUc-sprlng :ummel

A typiea\ hydraulic-spring rammer (Figure 3· 19) comprises a hydraulic C!ylinder and piston that

3-17

:;~ ~:" ~."

.' ~ ~

> "

""'J

3-18

force a ramrod rear ward against a spring, which, 011 release of a :;.~: :: that engages the extended ramrod, drives the ~·.'\mrod forward to propel the projectilp. into the cannon bore. Hydraulic power is provided by au electric motor, hydraulic pump and reservoir tank. The cylinder and ramrod are mounted above the gun breech; the ramrod moves parallel tv and above the axi~ of the bore, carrying on its rear end a rammer head. This head consists principally of a folding arrangement of Iinks, yoke and arm that extended downward terminates in a pad aligned with the gun axis, in position to drive the projectile forward into the bore. Folded, the head clears the space back of the gun breech. In operation, a hand-carried tray is positioned in the breech recess and the projectile placed upon it. One swneh is thrown to start the motor-driven pump and a second to open a solenoid-operated valve and admit pressure to the cylinder. The pressure moves the piston, ramrod and folded head rearward to sear engagement. A lever on the head is then operated manually, to unlatch the folded member and extend the projeetile-driving arm downward to latched-open position. The sear is then disengaged by hand lever to permit the spring to drive the ramrod and head forward. As the head completes its forward travel, the latch holding the head extended is automatically tripped and the head f(lido into retraeted position. The propelling charge is then inserted by hand.

3-8.1.2.3 Power lW..'U1ler ~Ild FlUe SetterSeparate Units

An arrangement of tll~6 type (Figure 3.20) has been used for inseriing the two units of a round of separated ammunition, i.e., a time-fuzed projectile and a cartridge C&Se containing primer and propellant, The rammer and mechanical fuze setter ere individual units, eaeh having a speed reduce .. , eluteh and appropriate controls, but driven by a single electric motor, and with control mec.lwlisms intereonneeted to enable the two units to be operated SEl,a:ately or In combination. A gun of the vertically sliding breeehbloek t:Ype, with rammer and fuze setter units as indicated below, requires manual operations to place the ammunition components on the tray. to engage the fuze setter clutch, and to fire the weapon.

3·8.1.2.3.1 Fuze Setter

'rhe fuze setter housing is mounted above the gun, near the breech, on ways that permit it to slide rearward to encircle the nose of the projectile (held on the rammer tray) for rotation of the timesetting ring on the projectile, then slide f~rward to free the projectile for alignment with ant! insertion in the bore by the rammer unit. The rear· ward end forward movement of the fUR setter is effected by a cam mounted ahead of the fuze setter and operating through an adjustable connecting rod. The CaJr is rotated by the driving motor, through a speed reducer and clutch, the latte:o having a combined automatic and manual engaging and disengaging mechanism. On manual engagement of the clutch, the cam is rotated through Ii half revolution to push the fuze setter rearward, then is autA:lmaticaJly disengaged until the projeetile fuze has been set. Full entry of the projectile nose into the reeess of the flUe setter closes a eireuit to ~ne!'git"'· the fuze setter and so rotate the fuze setter ring in accordance ,nth data received fro:n the director. On completion of the fuze setting, a solenoid automatically opera~ to effect re-engagement of the can:. cluteh to rotate the cam a half revC11ution, then disengagement of thP. clutch. ThE: cam action withdraws the fuze setter to for. ward (rest) position, and the clutch disengagement completes the cycle. A brake interlinked with the clutch prevents over-rotation of the CND and holds the fuze setter firmly at each extremity of travel.

3-8.1.2.3.2 Rammer

The essential (.'omponents for receiving, aligning and ramming the ammunition are a tray supported on trunnions parallel to the gun bore and a sur· mounted, pi.oted nunmer &l'ID that sweepl t\e tray surtace. The tray, in its idle position, is !pproxil!iF".' .' level laterally and is situated rearward, ''IN.e, and to the left of the breech ring of the:un. Its inner edge is bounded by a ttflugh-ahapect rim projeding upward, into which th~ ammunition it laid manually with the projectile. placed foremOllt, against suitable locating stops, where it is held by a spring-loadui hold-down levtr. The projectile in this position is behind &Dl\ in ~ent with the fuze setter Nld ia ~ held un!il the fuze letter has completed its operation. On ita forward "ithdrawal the fuze setter aetu&tee eDgagtlDtnt of the rammek" ('.l\\t.eh to conneet the c!riving motor,

3-19

.1' t ough the rammer speed reducer, to the tray(!>(!rating cam under the tray. A partial revolution of the cam swings the tray sideward and downward about its trunnions to align the projectile with the gun bore. The tray then dwells while the rammer arm, pivoted on the outer front comer of the tray, swings across the tray and sweeps the cartridge, and the p-rejedile ahead of it, forward into th~ gun chamber. Entry of the cartridge trips the extractors to permit the elostng spring to raise the breechblock and to close the breech. The completion of one revolution of the cam then effects return of the rammer arm ana tray to starting position, and actuates a linkage to rliseng"ge the rammer clutch. A brake and positive lock arrangemeut prevent over-rotation of the cam and accidental repeat CYCW1g.

3·8.1.2.4 Combined Fuze Setter·Ramm~r

Another typical example (Figure 3-21) ,,: powered fuze setter-rammer combination (for timefuzed fixed ammunition) presents 1& somewhat closer integration of the fuze setting and ramming operations, When applied to a vertically sliding breechblock type of gun, the combination effects automatic operation through the cycle for each round, with manual operation required only to place the round in the feeding trough to slide it forward into engagement between the rammer rollers, and to trip the firing mechanism after the breech closes. A manual fuze secter release are ravgement is included to enable use of ammunition nc+ requiring the fuse setting operation, and manual Ioading is feasible 1.1 case of malfunction of the power rammer mechanism.

Figure 3·21. ComlNnafioit Fuze SeIfer and 10".",., (ScMmofk) 3-20

(a) Arrangement a11d Functioaillg

Power for all mechanical operations is provided by an electric motor, through a transmission ease, both mounted above the gun, forward of the breech, on the ncnreeoiling' recoil cradle. A housing sup. porting the ammunition-eontaeting parts of the fuze setter ali ~ rammer, final drive gears and shafts, opening and closing devices, operating control rods, and a feeding trough is attached to and partially encloses the breech ring. A drive &haft and control rod for each unit (setting and ramming) extend forward to appropriate connections with the transmission case, the connections being arranged to diser-gage as the gun recoils and re-engage at completion of counterrecoil. The feeding trough is aligned with the gun bore, sufficiently behind the breech ring to accommodate the fuze setting and ramming operations in the intervening space. The ramming is accomplished by gear-rotated hourgJa. ... a-shaped rubber rolls, mounted on pivoted arms, on cpposite sides of the gun line of bore, immediately forward of the trough. A spring-cushioned plunger linked to the supporting arms governs lateral distance between the rolls, release of the plunger on gun recoil increasing the reparation. and depression of the plunger, on the gun's return to battery nar-

. '

rowing the space to eartridge-grlpping distance.

The increase of separation provides clearance for fired case ejection. Ttio automatical!v shifted speeds of ro!l rotation are provided: lilo~ i:lr feeding the cartridge into the fuze setter and fru.f: for subsequently propelling it into the chamber. '.1'he fuze setter presents, forward of the ramming rolls, a gear-driven ring witll internal retractable jaws to seat the nose of ti:~ round and rotate the timefuze ring to the desired setting. The fuze setter and ramming roll drive ai.afts are connected by a differential mechanism in t~e transmission case, and the amount of rotation }"'ermittc!Ci the fuze setter is governed by a data reeeiv=r en the side of the case. This un. ,."rates througr, suitable linkage to disengage a elute ... on the fu~-dl ~ving transmission shaft when the fuze has been set. Retraction of the fuze setter jaws then provides clt.·u·ance for the cartridge to pass through the ring int€. the gun bore. Rf!traetion and closing of the jam ;8 effected by a rack shaft (control rod) actuated from the fuze setter shaft in the transmission case. The jaws remain retracted (open) from completion of

fuze setting until the gun returns to battery after recoil.

(1;) Sequence of Operatitml

Starting with the gun breech open and the fuze setter-rammer motor running, the procedure is as follows:

(1) The round is pJaced manually nose forward on the loading trough and pushed gently forward into the slowly rotating rammer rolls. (2) The ramming rolls move the round forward to seat the nose firmly in the fuze setter jaws. When the round is seated the rolls are stalled,

(3) Stalling of the rammer rolls actuates operation of the differential in the transmission to produce rotation of the fuze setter drive shaft and set the fuze,

(4) Completion of the fuze setting actuates the fuze jaw retracting rod to open the fuze setting jaws and shifu. the rammer rolls into higb speed. (5) The rapidly driven rolls impel !l}e round into the chamber, tripping the extractors, and the breech closes.

(6) The firing control is artnated by hanfi. (7) The gun recoils snd the ramming rolls open.

(8) The gun returns to batteq, opening the breech, ejecting the fired case and cocking the firing mechanism. The final action actuaten shift of the rammer rolls to feeding position and slow speed, and the closing of the fuze setter jaws. The gun is then ready for the next round.

3-8.1.2.5 HagadDe Type Loader.Rammer

This type (Figure 3-22) of powered feeding device has been developed for vertically sliding breechblock eannon using fixed ammunition. It transfers the round from a previously leaded magazine, ram" it into the chamber, and actuates the firing meehanism, requiring only that the operating control be retained in the firing position. A typical design combines a scroll-shaped magazine above and rearward of the gun breech, feeding rounds sideward from either right. or left to the center; a centrally located rammer my, crank 8tll'ported, that receives each sueeessive round from the magazine, lowers it to alignment with the gun bore. and impels it into the gun by means of an endless chain rammerj and a cased motor driven transmission u~'it centrally mounted above the gun, forward of

3-21

Figure 3·22. MaUQ,,;ne Type locxfw·Rcrm/IW 8-22

lA PO 13I2M

the magazine, that provides pl'\"('r operation for tooth magazine and rammer tray mechauisnm, These nrineipal units are all mounted all the noureeoiling I~Ull cradle. General eonstruetion and fuuetioulng' /I., as follows:

(a) Transmission

The stub shaft driven by the motor rotates, .hrough helical gears, a longitudinal shaft ineorporatiug a Iiniited-torque safety clutch and a worm. The \\'01'111 drives a worm gear incorporating a selfreleasing' pin clutch carried on a transverse cam shaft, Tht' clutch, when engaged, drives the cam shaft one complete revolutiou, then disengages itself, Plunger» linked to the gun breech mechanism prevent re-engagenu-ut until the gun has completed its cycle and is in battery, breech open, ready for the next round. T})(' cam shaft carries three (;a~i1S; IJIlt· e-eillates an arm 011 the J ight exterior of the «ase, to actuate the lowering and raising or tile rammer tray; a second oscillt.ttps an arm on the left exterior of the ease to drive the rammer chain ; and the third oscillates a gt'J:.r sector that drives the groups of pawls employed to f!Oed rounds from the magazine into the rammer tray.

(h) Magazine

A eylindrieal skeleton frame, with axis parallel to the gun bore, is mounted 011 each side O}.' the gun cradle. An axial shaft ill each cylinder carrips front and rear star wheels that support the rounds witu their axes parallel to the gun bore. Rotation of the wheels feeds the rounds from the lower side of the cylinder into a horizontal frame that guides the rounds laterally to the centrally located exit into the rammer tray. Feeding is accomplished by laterally reciprocating racks earrying spring-loaded pawls, the racks sliding in the horizontal frame and driven by gear train frcm til£' cam-operated gear sector in the transmission box. Spring-loaded pawls prevent reverse travel of the rounds. .A manual lever actuates a shifting device in the transmission to effect feeding from the right or left half of the magazine, as desired, When one side is emptied, the shift is el'fected automatically tc feed !rom the opposite side. Rounds are inserted into the eylindrieal sections of the magazine by removal of the top half 01 the cylindrical frames, or singly by unlocking the circular retainer plate at the r'!ar of the cylinder, and rotating the plate until its loading aperture is aligned with an empty notch in the star wheel.

(t·) t'n'!' :'lId Rammer

TIlt' tray iH a flat-sided trough with the bottom formed !Jy au endless chain running over sprockets at the front and rear ends, The chain carries supporting blocks for the cartridge and a head for pushing the bast' of the case. Chain drive is through the rear sprocket, which is mounted on a t ransverse shaft connected, by gear train, gear S('('tor and eounecting rod, to the cam-actuated oscillating arm on the left side of the transmission enSt'. The tray is supported by the sprocket shafts ill journals lit the outer ends of two parallel arms pivoted on the side frame of the loader-rammer, below the horizontal section of the magasine. When the supporting arms extend vertically below their pivots, the tray is alignet! with the gun bore in position for ramming action by the chain; when the arms are rotated upward 180 degrees, the tray is thereby lifted to the exit of the horizontal (cross feed) section of the magazine, where it comes to rest embraeing the next round to be rammed. R0- tation of the rams from upper to lower position and return is effected through a spur gear on the pivot shaft of each arm, both being meshed with

Figure 3·23. AufoIftOlic l.tJocW for Clip-lteld CarlrId,t.. (l.If~.ear ViIIW).

• gear sector connected by roo to the cam-oscillated arm on the right side of the transmission case.

3-8.1.2.6 Automatic: ",oacler for Clipped

AmmUHtllD. (see Figure 3.23)

For drop bloek cannon of relatively small bore diameter using fixed ammunition in clips, ourrent practice is represented by au automatic feeding and loading device, operated by movement of the gun in recoil sud eounterreeoil and by action Qf & spring compressed during eounterreeoil. The mechanism reeeives the cartridge in dips, disengages the cartridgef. from the clips, ejects the clips, feeds one c~rtrlf.ige d a time downward to a loading tray affixed to the gun breech ring, and rams the eartridge into the chamber after eounterreeoil, thereby tripping the extractor to effect the closing of the breech. A hand lever end suitable linkege are provided fer manual operation of the rammer to initiate the autom~tic cyc)':! or for single-shot operation when desired.

(a) Loading Tray

The tray is a trough rigidly attached to the breech ring in alignment with the gun bore. The trllY sides incorporate cam grooves that impart a vert.ical reciprocatiDfl motion to ammunition feed rods as the tl'llY moves with the gun in .. eeoil and counterreooil. E8~h side of the tray features also a cam slot for guidance of the two rammer levers that are supported in the rammer shoe and extend through the slote to clasp and drive the cartridge forward during the ramming motion of the shoe.

(b) Rammer

The prineipal puts of the rammer, contained within the housing in the under side of the tray, anl a rod and helical spring, fa shoe attached to the rear Pond of the rod and siid&bly supported in longitudinal grooves in downward-extending side flanges of the tray, and the two rammer level 0, which are pivoted in the shoe and extend upward through the cam slots in the sides of the t\'8y to clanp the rear end of the cartridge with a tone action. The upper ends of the levers are grooved for straddling engagement of the cartridge rim. As ~hf! gun recoils, the rammer is carried rearward by zhe tray. .A~ the gun eounterreeeils, the rammer d1~ is retained in the rearward position by a cateU lever mounted on the stationary breech housing. The lot"tard movement of the tray then com-

presses the rammer spring. The next cartridge Is meanwhile fed downward into the tray, its rim resting iI! the grooves of the rammer levers. As the tray terminates its forward motion, it trips the rammer catch lever and the rammer spring drives the rammer rod forward, pulling the shoe, levers and cartridge. When the rammer shoe nears its forward limit oi travel, the cam slots swing the ramming levers outward sufficiently to releese the cartridge, which is carried into the chamber by its own momentum.

(c) Feeding Mechan~m

'l'he feeding device, which serves also as a smallcapacity magazine, is supported in the nonreeoiling breech casing above the tray and rammer. Front: and rear frame members are channeled to guide the nose and base of the cartridge downward into the tray in propel" poaition, with the rim of the base entering the slots in the levers of the cocked rammer shoe. RiKht and left side frame channels house the upper portions of the reciprocating feed rods, which carry spring-loaded pawls to pull <he cartridges downward as tbe cam grooves of the tray, in engagement with the lower ende of the rods, force the rods downward. Also in the side frames are fxed pivot pawls to hold the cartridges downward while the feed rods return to upper position. The rear frame member incorpcrates a cam that disengages the hooks of the cartridge clip from the rim of successive cartridges as the latter are pushed down and deflects the fre-ed elip into an ejection chute. The lower end of the feed mechanism, jost above the rammer tray, incorporates two parallel, longitudinally disposed feed rollers, each having four cylindrically eoneave sides. The space hetween rollers is such as to permit one cartridge at a time to pass downward between them onto the tray, by rotation of the rollers toward each other through 90 degrees. An Interlocked catch system limits roller rotation to one sueh quarter- turn in each recoil cycle of the gun and to that period when the feed rods are pulling the stack of cartridges downward.

3-8.2 Sauill Arms FfteCling Methods 3-8.2.1 KaIlua! :"'~

~"<lause of the growing demand tor increased. . ~~ of firing, the simple manual method of placing .uch successive round in the receiver, in position

3-24

for ('hamilerillg' by the operation of dosing the breech, has been superseded by meehanleal methods. Current small arms goans for uses ill which rapidity of fire is of no particular ll(h'lIl1t!!;:!' {:;igiinl pistols, for IIIstIUl('e) IIr{' designed for manual insertion of the round into the chamber and feeding, ill the sense indicated above, is not an individual action in operation uf the gun. The multiple chambers of a revolver are also filled by hand, either individually or ill groups of three held by a thin flat curved clip, or enarger, which supports the cartridges parallel and properly spaced to enter three adjacent chambers of the revolver cylinder.

3-8.2.2 Mag:1Zine Feeding Methods

One means of continuous supply of cartridges to a rapid-flrinz weapon is the mapaziue, This Is essentially a container, with all outlet so located or with such post-outlet mechanism as to place sucees .. ive cartridges in position for ehr.mbering. In various forms, it may be incorporated in the gun structure, may consist of a unit affixed to the gun, or it may be II unit for insertion, filled, in a receptacle in the gun and removal \' hell empty. Energy for movement of cart: iJ~\~s through the outlet and to pre-chambering position rnay be provided by the gun, by an external power source, or hy a spring within the magazine. compressed in the process of eharging the magas'ue. Examples of several arrangements follow:

Fisur. 3-24. Automatic Pitfc,;. Sedic,ned. Carfliclgtl in lI.outh of Magozine

3-8.2.2.1 Short Type 1tIaglU.in~

The magazine used in the standard automatic pistol (Figure 3-24) is a relatively short flat-sided metal tube that is loaded, then inserted upwardly into the handle of the pistol and latched in position.

In the closed lower ehJ i~ seated a wiled wire spring capped by a follower plate. Above the follower plate one column Hf cartridges is inserted, depressing the follower and eompressing the spring. The mouth of the magazine, at the upper end, has inwardly curved lips on the sides to prevent upward ejection of the top cartridge. ana is cut away at front and rear to permit the lower fron t faee of the slide of the pistol, in eounterreeoil, to ::.t!,j\.re the upper portion of thl! cartridge base ami pU.lh the cartridge forward axially out of the mugasine mouth, up a short rsmp and into till! ehamber, When, on firing, the slide again recoils to clear the magazine mouth, the spring' and follower raise the cartridge stack to place the top remaining cartridge in the magazine month, ready for chambering, A variation or this type af magazine, for' automatic ritles, USes t ~'O columns of cartridges, &tk~~get"t>d and fp.pding alternately into the mouth of the mszaslne,

3-8.2.2.2 Long TJJpe lIfagazine

Magazines used in various automatic or semiantomatlc rifles operate similarly to the short mageair ,- but differ in having II greatt'r length and resulting greater cartridge ca:/seity. Variations include an arc shape lor more compact containment of tapered cartridges or adrum enclosing a spiral or helical arrangement of cartridges, with a spiral spring actuating the follower.

3.8.2.2.3 Tubular Magazine

For a limited number of cartridges the tubular magazine is usually an int'!gral part of the gun, positioned below and substantially parallel to the. barrel, The cartr.dges, axially aligned: base to nose with noses ffJ.·ward, are fed by a compressed. spring to emerge endwise from the tube into the lower part or the receiver, On emergence, the cartridge is below and behind the chamber, approximutely parallel to it and resting on a carrier Iever pivoted at the upper rear of the receiver, As the bolt reaches rear position, the carrier is actuated to swing upward and lift the cartridge sufficiently to be engaged by the bolt and pushed into the chamber as the holt moves forward. The closing movement of the bolt releases the carrier, which is re turned to it'\ lower position by spring action for reception of the next cartridge released from the magazine.

3--25

3-8.2.2.4 CUp r ~

The clip method of feeding, exemplified by the U. S. Rifle, Cal. .30, MI, presents a compromise between the wh"lly integral and the separate unit magaslne, The clip ecmpromises a thh, spring. steel casing bent to a fiat·based U, forming (as iuserted in the gun) two sides and rear wall, all vertical. The free forwp. i e. .. ' ~ Gf the sides press mward to clasp the si-. f, t·, ',,yo vertical columns of fou\' horlsontal cartr.":I!;e8 each, staggered, with bases against the rear of the clip. The cartridges project from t':!' open front and are retained at top and bottom by inwardly curved lips on the sides. T~e loaded clip is inserted downward througii the top of the gun receiver into a recess in the lC'N~r part "f the receiver, depressing the spring-loaded follower within the recess. The follower presses upward on the group of cartridges so tbJ~t each time the bolt moves rearward sufficiently !o clear, the topmost cartridge is moved upward into the mouth of the clip. In its subsequent forward mov=neut, the bolt then pushes this top cartridge forward lengthwise between the lips of the clip until free of the clip and on into tile chaIl. '')Cr. Wh<!D the last cartridge of the clip has heen fired the empty clip is ejected on completion of the rearward travel of the bolt.

u.2.3 Belt FeediDg

For continuous feeding of a greater TtUmOOT ot cartridges than can be contained in a magazine (,f pra\rt.ica1 size, a belt system 1£ used, Belts are usually made either of fabric:: or of metal. The belt consists of two ll\yerg of fabric strip stitched together transveraely at. intt-r'\'si!!, to form a RUI!· eession of loops to carr: eartridges parallel to eseh other and al. rigM angles to the length of tht' belt or of a 8'lCCCS!llOll of articulated meta! links formed for transverse insertion i)f eartridges to provide a chain of rounds I)f the desired length. In a typical &Pplicatioll the belt is mechanically fed through the gun receiver, -.vhere the cartridges are sueeessiveiy extracted fro~ the belt and pushed into toe chamber by the reeiprecating bolt. Individual operations of belt feed and cartridge extraction from the belt are eil'ected by lever and pawl mechani~ms at.tached to or setuated by the moving bolt. In a vaeiation from this system, the bel~ Iii fed through a separate f~ing mechanism attached to the gun receiver, Tile mechanism advances tlte

belt, extracts the eartridges and feedri them sueeessively into the gun receiver in front of the ft· traeted bolt, whence they are chambered by the for'."al'd bolt movement, The fet>d mechanism may be powered. by gun recoil or by a separate power source.

3·3.2.3.1 F~~bric Bolts

Practical use of 1\ fabric belt neeessitatea a meebanism that will withdraw the cartridge rearward from the celt then move the round at right angles to its axis to clear the belt and align with the ehamber prior to ramming action by the bolt. In a typical mechanism, the movement of the belt eenters the incoming cartridge over tne closed bolt, with the base groove of the CSRe engaged under a hooked extractor lever mounted on the bolt. As the bolt moves rearward, the extractor pulls the cartridge from the belt then is caromed downward to push the cartridge base into a vertical tee slot in th- fl'Qnt face of the bolt. In the' same bolt movement, the fired eaee, with its base engaged tower in the tee slot, is withdrawn from the chamber. As the bolt. returns forward the extractor is eammed downward further to push tl.e live eartridge down to alignment with the chamber, lis plaee the fired case and eject it fr'Jf.l the bottom of the tee clot,

3-8.2.3.2 Metallic Belts

Permanently linked metallic belts may be operrated in a manner similar to that indicated for fabric belt. However, by rodul::i:.g the cartridge. holding loops to a C.shape with sligb$ly more than a half-eirele of gdp, and di~posing the loop open. ings on ths side of the belt nearest t1.2 bolt, the bolt can be arranged to push the cartridge forward out of the loop and into the chamber in the eounterrecoil movement of the bolt, This permits desirable simplifieation of the mechanism and scncn. The open-side 1001' also permits lateral removal of the cartridges from the belt, a method advanta("cons when used with a disintegratmg' belt.

The diaintegrating; belt is one in which each link, as its cart .. -idge is removed, is disconnected from the following portion of the belt and is individually rejected through a suitable chute, ~hil~ the eartlidge is guided into ramming position. III a typi. -sal disintegrating; belt, a cartn.'ge functions as the hinge pin to provide an articulated joint between

3-26

each link and the next: removal of the cartridge breaks the connection. To provide satinfactolj' ahcraft use of guns designed for magazine feed, a disintegrating belt with lateral extraction of eartridges is used with an attached feeding mechanism 0.1 some 20mm automatic guns. In this application the cartridges are fed downward by twin star whe-els into the feed way in the top of the gun receiver. Prior to the entrance of the cartridge into the receiver, the link is separated from the cartridge by stationary :fingers over which projecting ears or the link ride 88 the cartridge is forced downward. The- pressure on the cartridge forces the open side of the loop to spring open

sufficierrdy to release the cartridRfl. an.j the 1in~ \a shunted into the rejection chute of the feedbr. While links of disintegrating belts once used may be serviceable for a second feeding, they are generally eonnidered expendable, except for practice firing.

3·3.2.4 Hopper Feeding

The use of a simple hopper to !eed loose cartridges into the gun feedway has not to date proved satisf8(ltory for rapid-firing guns. Current weapons utilize some form of power feeding to obtain (IOBitive action and maximum freedom from undesired interruptions.

3-27

CHAPTER 4

GUN INTERIOR REGIONS AND CHARACTERISTICS

-+.1 Major Diviaio~ and General F1iDc1loDS

The interior of a. gun tube (Fig. 3-1), with a few C3:'Jeptions noted below," may be considered to consist of three general divisions, identified by use or function as follows:

a. 'l'he chamber: The inclosed space in which the charge I)f propellant is placed and ignited to generate pressure for driving the pn .. jectile.

b. The bare: The passage through which the projectile is driven by propellant pressure. The bore provides confined space for expansion of the propellant gases during aeeeleration of the projectHo and guides the projectile to exit.·

c. The tra.mition region: The eonneetmg passage between the chamber and the bore, with contours designed to insure correct entry af me -,rajectile into the bore and to provide such sealing suI'faces against the projectile and cartridge ease as are required to prevent leakage of propellant gases,

4-2 Chamber Char.~rlstics (References 5, 9 and 12)

4-2.1 Site of Chamber

The volure to be provided in the chamber is based on its service as a eombnstion chamber and

• Bet&uee of the eoaxial poait.!o::la and eontinuity of the ilIelGlCd apaee. of the claamber, tranaition repoI!, Illd bore, the term bore 18 IOllUltimea UIed to del&ote the entire hi~or 0: th6 tube or burel. However, the %Mtdeu·1 m~ iudicated in b. tbo~ it preferred, except ill ref"renee to certain dMipa t1l'i1\Qd by the muule-loaded 1DICM>th-boie mortar. In lUeA mortars the ebamber IIld the projeeWeruidlnc portion ~f the bore are mereJ,- lOuea of ~ UDiform l71:ndrieal bore, aD~ 110 !rauition rqion is needed. For uu. t1P8 of WNP01& the tlauition featunle dc- ..... rH.oed in lI11~ent ~ph. do not apply. aDd nriatiou in ebamber P1OpOrtiou are praetieall1 limited to Ute nria· limit in lenath tbt may be made without exeeaiYe de~Qre from optimal:! ehltnber YOlume.

as s portion of the propell&nt's working expansion space. Pertinent factors include the energy required to be transmitted to the projectile; the maximum propellant pressure permitted in the gun strueture ; the rate !)f reduction and total ~uotion of propellant pressure as the projectile adyances f !trough the bore '~Q the muzzle; and the quantity of propel!ant to be burned to impart tnt' required velocity to the projectile and supply all 10llQ. (The losses include projectile engr&ving, friction, acceleration of gases, acceleration of the guu in ~e~;l: heat loot to the gun, gas leakage, and hl'.at remaining ill the propellant after thc projeetile emerges from the gun lI1U,1~.)

For a given quantity of propellant, the enamber size may be n.li~ somewhat to obtain desired modUiP,atiooB in the shape of the pressure-travel curve. (Typi:!&J pressure-travel curves are shown in Fig. 5-1 and are discussed in Chapter 5.) In current praetiee, however, the density of i9ading (number of grams of propellant per cubic centimeter of chamber Cltpa.:ity) is generslIy limited to .. maximum of 0.75 for cannon, and 1.0 for small arms, to avoid the increase of pressure vari&tion resulting from small differences in loading density when tbe above figures are exceeded. Reduction it.. loading J.enaity 11M a reducing effect on the maximum pressure produced, bU.t extremely 10. loading densiti~ also tend to Induce non uniformity of maximum pressures. Bence, both extremes art; avolded whelever practicable, in order to J3mit round-to-round velocity variations to thOle ImJIting from unavoidable variations i"l gun and ammunition manufacture, or those uc:easionally resulting from abnormal and unpredictable circUDlltulCt'6 encountered in service,

4.-1

4-2.2-.Bupe of C1wDi»er

Optimum chamber contours are established through appn'priate consideration of the effects of chamber &tape on propellant performance and on gun structure, and of the details of contour best suited to the type of round to be used and to the manner of Ii{){l~·.i(ln of the gun meehanism. Where various f&cUlrs t.xert opposing influences, a compromise is determined in accordance with the relative importance attached to the opposing facto~ in the specific gun being designed.

4-2.2.1 Etf~ on PropeUut Perfonnuco

Round-to-round uniformity of. propellant action requires uniformity of propellant ignition, combustion, ana resultant pressure generation. The requisite rapia and complete ignition of &11 portions. of the proVell&nt is promoted by a compact shape of chambe)", which shortens the necessiary travel of the igniting &me from Its origin to the remotest portions of the propellant.

While breech loading requires that the chamber diameter exceed the bore diameter 8uffir.jently to permit insertion of the projectile, comparative tiring tests indicate that projectile velocity is in-

_ creued somewhat by making the chamber diameter sub.tantially larger than the bore. Ratios in use rlinge up to roughly 1.5 to 1. The Cfll1Sideration't favoring lar£e chamber d:ameter IDlli' be reconciled with opposing factors indicated below.

4-2.2.2 Beet OD Go Structure

For safe containment of a given pressure, the larger the chambet' I1rosa section, the greater the required wall thickness in the breech end of the tube or barrel and m the breech closure. The resu1t.3nt greater weight in the breech closure also nl!Ce88itatea the use of greater fbrce in opening and cl.ocing the breech. Influe.nce of these factors tends to limit the ma:timum diameter of tbP. cham.l-er. Oppcaing this consideration, in some cannon designa, is the desirability of limiting the length of gun 9trocture behind the supporting trunnions, to minimize tha elesranee ~uired for loading &n'l tiring e.t high angles of elevation, or to reduce toe requi-:oed "izc of an enclosing turret.

4.2.2.3 E"'~ on Olut: F.eatur. 01 Daip

(1) In gaDa uaing ca. 'Tidge cases (excepting lOne reooiUeaa weapons), the ehamber shape must

conform to that o~ a manufseturable case, and be tapered as required tc facilitate extraction or the esse after tiring.

The determination of Iength-to-diameter ratio of chamhers for cartridge eases should include due consideration of the effect of the case proportions en practicability of case manufacture, suitability of ammunition units for storage and transportation, and ease of handling the rounds in tiring operations.

(2) In guns using separate loading ammunition, the main cavity is commonly cylindrical, with a slight tlare near the rear end to provide a. conical seat for the obturating parts on the nose of the breechblock. If the diameter of the chamber substantially exceeds that of the projectile, the rear portion of the chamber may be conically reduced to near projectile diameter to permit use of a smaller obturator and breeehbloek. Such a eonieal reduction of the chamber is d('8ignated as the chamber rear .lope (see Fig. 3-1(B»), and the resulting restriction of diameter is termed a choke.

(3) In recoilless guns, the required shape of chamber may be such as to tit the cartridge closely throughout, or to 11t only at specifted zones, the requirement being dietated by the dMign of the ease and the intended path of gases to the breech nozsle or nozzles. While enrrent designs are based on a maximum propellant pressure substantially lower than that employeil in closed-breech gnna, the chamber retains its function as a preesure-containing vessel, and is subject to essentially the same mechanical design considerations as sre closed breech chambers. :lence, the chamber is basically cylindrical or modelately tapered. The ratio of diameter to length, degree of tap'dr, and details of contour of front and rear emir, are subject to the requizements t!8tablished by the interior ballistics designed to obtain the desired projectile acceleration, accompanied by hl.,nced forward and l'P.a..-ward impulse on the gun.

4-3 Bore Characterfstica

The basic bore ftmetion.c of tmiding the initial movement of tbA projectile and providing expansion space 1m: t!.It prop!llant to perform ita W?~ ! 1 &ecel~ration_ w.J.icate that 'the bore should, in all cases, embody the closest. practical Ipprouh to providing: (1} at any (,;l'OI8 section, a bel need distribution of croaa seetional U"e& about a Itraight

longitudinal axis; and (2) a continuity and smooth- 1ll'SS of bore surface to enable maintenance of an effective seal against escape of propellant gas around the projectile before the latter emerges from the muzzle. Other bore eharaeteristies, subject to variation in aceordanee with the intended UHe of the weapon, are (a) caliber, (b) bore length, and (c) bore surface detail.

4-3.1 C.Uber

The term caliber denotes the diameter of the bore, exclusive of rifling grooves if such are prec-ut, (It ;s also used tc indicate the nominal diamet=r of the projectile.) III former U. S. Army design practice, caliber was usually expressed in inches and decimal fractions thereof; in recent practice, the measurement is expressed in millimeters and decimal fractions thereof, (The significance of caliber as the bore diameter dimension should not be confused with the practice of indicating the length Qf bore or gun iu calibers, for example, a .. 6 Inch 50 caliber gun" indicates a caliber of 6 inches and a length of 6 X 50 = 300 inches.)

The caliber, as a determinant of the sectional area of the projedile exposed to propellant pressure, is a major factor in projectile acceleration, and in the rate of change of propellant gas volume as the projectile moves through the bore.

Caliber may be characterized as follows:

(1) Consiant Caliber (Cylindrkul Bore). Constant, or uniform, caliber denotes a bore having the same caliber throughout its length. This is the prevailing type in current military gun design (see also par. 3-4.1).

(2) Decrea&ing Caliber (Tapered Bore). In some experimental designs, bores having a larger ealibor at the rear than at the front have been used for attainment of high vel~ity. In such designs a deformable ring or skirt is used on the projectile 1(\ seal against propellant gas 11 ISS, and this is compressed or collapsed to smaller diamett\~ as it moves through the bore. The rednetien in bore size may be continuous through lre bore leIJgth or confined to some forward portion of the iength. The larger area subjected to gas pressure in the zon~ wheN, pressure is at or near pc~ pressure effects an increase in acceleration of the projectile. A slight teduction in ca1iner (ehoke) ncar the mussle of some shotguns is used to reduce the lateral spread

(scatter) of the pellets after they have left the bore (see also par. 34.2).

+3.2 Bore Leugth

The length of the bore, from chamber to muzzle, combines with the bore diameter and chamber volume to determine the ratio of eapanaicn (final volume/Initial volume) of the propellant gases during their acti;,n of propelling the projectile through the bore. All these factors, as well as lrojllctile weight and the amount and rate or presSUTe production hy the propellant charge, must be considered in various combinations to obtain the propcrtlena for a new design of gun to meet most satisfactorily the specified performance, dimensional and weight requirements.

+3.3 Bore S1irface DftWl

Bores are fsenerally designated in accordance with surface eharaeteristies as follows:

(1) 8mfJOfh Bore. This desils'"D&tion indicates "Jat the bore is circular in cross section, without any pattern of grooves or ridges designed to produce rotation of the projectile. Ita chie' military use at present is in muzzle-loading mortars (see also par. 3-4.3.1),

~2) Rifted Bore. This designation indicates that the bore contains multiple, parallel grooves following helical paths about the bore axis, designed to engage the periphery of the projectile (or & band fixed thereon) and so impart a desired rotational velocity to the pro:ipctile as it ia propelled through the bore (see Fi~. 3-7). The rotation serves to maintain the axis of the p1"Ojectile closely coincident with the direetion of projectile travel, to reduce the amount and. variations of air resistance, and to insure a nose-first impact on the target.

The number :>f and cross section of riffing grooves must be made sufficient to provide the bearing area neces&ary to impart the required l)roject.ile rotatior, without excessiv~ stl'el!S in the materiru .• (If the bore snd projectile, in order to avoid n;!,id wear and the poBSibility of stripping (shearing) the lands (ridges) of either projootile or bore. T>e needed number and s!ze of grooves increases with increases in the weight of projectile and in the rotatiOllal aeeelerstien nece&1&1'y to attain the rotationa] velocity required for stability. - )taigns in current U. S. Anny use show the numbe!" of fJ'OOvea

and depth of gl'OOVI.'S roughly proportional to caliber,

The pitch of the helical path of the rifling grooves, generally ex pressed as "one turn in (applicable number) calibers, " may be uniform through the bore length, or the rate of turn may be inereased from a low value near the origin to the required final value at or near the muzzle. The Increasing twist method reduces the rotational loading 011 the rear portion of the bore, which is subject to more severe erosive condition than is the portiO'l naarer the mnzsle. However, increasing twist & )(Juires alteration 0:' the angle of the engraved grocves in the projectile as the projectile moves forward, iliad this limres the width of rotating band that may be used without undesirably increasing the force required to engrave the projectile. It also increases the rotation-aeeeleratlng forces to be applied by the rifting- in the forward

. portion of the bore. U. S. Army design practice at present generally favors uniform twist in cannon and inereaaing twist in small arms guns {see also par. 3-4.3.2).

44 Trauitio21 ReciOD

This region comprises the forward portion of the chamber, from the rear of the ehamber front slope (set Fig. 3-1) through the forcing cone.

4-4.1 Getleral CO:D.toun and FunCtiCll1S

The transition region consists of a series of tapered sections (one or more cylindrical sectioue may be included) connecting the f'.)rward section of the principal cavity of the chamber with the rear section of the main bore (rifted or smooth). The general functions of the contours are:

(1) To eentsr the projectile at the entraxee to the main bore, so it may enter the bore in proper alignment, without undesired deformation, and with the uniformity of round-to-round resistance neeesr~ry to maintain uniform development of pro ;H-llant pressure and resultant muzzle velocity.

\2) To provide for such seating of the projecth'!, in loading, as 'Will prevent l,\akage of proFeU-;.,t gases past the projpctile into the bote before the projectile has ·.ompleteri its entry into the bore under propellsnt pressure.

4-4.2 Details of CODtour and FUJ.I.ction

Typical transition contours of breech-loading guns are shown in Fig. 3-1. Their desiguetlons and functions are as follows:

4-4.2.1 Forcing COD"

(1) This tapered section, immediately back of the bore, is d-eigned to accomplish a centered, gassealing entrance of the rearward section of the projectile jacket or bana into the main bore, by forcing a slig'it reduction in diameter as that section of the projectile enters the bore. In loaded position the n.. is sufficiently snug to provide an initial seal, except In some small arms using bullets designed to be expanded to sealing' diameter by initial pressure of the propellant. In cannon using separate loaning ammunition, the taper must he gradual enougl, ~ ... retain the rammed projectile in proper firing position as any angle of gun elevation at which the weapon may he fired.

(2) For rifled boTC!S (except recoilless rifles) the forcing cone etft¥..!ts a distribution of the work of engraving the ~rojecti1e (or its rotating bend) over an appreciable' length of projectile travei, thereby reducing the propellant pressure required for initial movement of the projecrile.

(3) For recoilless rifles, the rotating bands of the projectiles are preengraved (grooved in manufacture) to fit the rifting of the bore in order to minimize the propellant force required to start tile projectile. The rotatlng' hand is inserted into the rirling in the loading operation. Hence, the forcing cone is replaced by an abrupt taper or shoulder at the origin of rifting, to facilitate the manual alignm=nt ah<l insertion. The taper may be preceded b.. an p..iigning cylinder, which, in turn, may be preceded by a guiding ta}1er.

+4.2.2 Bullet Seat

This is a eylindleal section immediately back of the forcing cone in small arms weapons, serving to support the bullet centrally at the entrance to the forcing cone.

...... 2.3 Bmd CyUllder

This cylindrical section. a feature of some separate loading cannon, supports the rear o,f the projectile rotatmg band in central position while the

front edge of the band is pushed into the forcir.g cone.

4-4.2.4 Case Clearance Shaulder

This feature, appearing in some small arms, comprises all increase in diameter immediately back of the bullet seat to clear the mouth of a cartridge case crimped onto the bullet as the n-outh expands to release the bullet. For some noncrimped eartridges, the shoulder form!; " seat for the ear tridge mouth, and stops the case at the correct depth of insertion when the cartridge is chambered.

4-4.2.5 Band Rear Slope

This is a tapered section used in separate loading cannon, immediately back of the band cylinder. 1t serves to guide the rotating band of the projectile being inserted ><i the central position required for entry into the band cylinder.

4-4.2.6 Centering Sl,.,.pe

The centering slope is a tapered section immediately to the rear of the band rear slope (artillery) or-ease etearanee shoulder (small nrms). It serves to guide the projectile, eartridge case, or cartridge being inserted toward eoneentrieity with the bore. In guns usine conventional cartridge CIl'JeS, tbe taper i.l~ slight, and the section, closely encireling the neck of the case, provides the surface Ilgajnst which the mouth of the case is expanded by propel. lant pressure to seal against rearward eseape of gases,

4-4.2.1 Chamber Front Slope

This tapered section accomplishes the reduction from the main cavity of th» chamber to a suitable size for. the centering slope. For some small arms cartridges, this slope fOrn:.3 a seat for the shoulaer of the case, and so stops the cartridge at the proper chambered position.

CHAPTERS

INTER-RELATION WITH PROPELLANTS

S-1 Ge1t.erll COIlIideratioDS

The motion of the projectile at departure from the gun muzrJ6 is the net result of tbe forces applied to the projectile by the propellant, the mertia of the projectile, and mechanical interaction between the gun and the projectile 118 the latter p888eS through the bore. The summation of the foJ'e{'-.a applied by the propellant is dependent on (I) the quant.ity of gases produced: (2) the rate and amount of hea, evolution; (3) the volume and -,~te of change of the space in which the gases are eonflned while exerting pressure on the projectile; al1d (4) the Cl'OSll sectional ares of projectile on which the gases apply accelerating pressure. From the combination of propellant properties and gun geometry involved, it if apparent that the problems in gun and ammunition design are mutually dependent, one upon the other.

Generally, for a ... equired weight of projectile, a number of eomblnation» of gun ~metry and propellant chart{e mAy be found to satisfy the muzzle velocity requirements; then a pl-eferred combination may be selected on the basi.~ of appropriate eonslderstions of weight, sizE-, producibility, reJiability, operability, material availability, cost, and such other factors as may be pertinent ira the individual case.

Various properties and eharaeterlsties of propollants and eonslderatiens of gun-propellant relationships that affect tJle performanee obtained from tbe combination of gun snd propellant are presented bIiefly below.

5-2 PropeUaD.t Composit!on altd Charscteriatica !-2.1 ClIDpoIitiO!L

The formulation and design of propeUant charges are covereO in other handbooks of the ~erie&. In

this handbook discussion is therefore limited to such consideratioIlfl 28 may serve to clarify the relationship of lr1n and propellant dedgns.

Propellants for guns are classed as low explosives, Le., explosives whlcli, when used under the mtended conditions, hum rather than detonate. A detonation produces a destructive &ht)Ck effect and chaWlterizes high explosives. Prc!lellallt charges may contain high explosives for increased power, but the properties of the final mixtr,re must permit eombustion of the mixture without subjecting the gun and projectile to the shattering effect of detonatbn.

Quite a number of propellant compositions have been standardized for U5e in Army (fUDS. The propellants ell~ntiy most used in Army guns include : single~base propellants, cnnsisting principally of nitrocellulose;' double-base propellants, basically nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin; and triple-base propellants, basically nitreeellulese, nitI"'Jglycerin and nitroguanidine. Standard eompositions contain minor quantities of other ingredients for desired effects on varions characteristica, including chemical stability, hygroscopicity, heat of explosion, rate of combustion, muzzle dash, erosion, smoke produetion, residue, eleetrieal conductivity, mold ability, &trength o! RT8in structure and facility of manufaeture,

5-2.2 Total Energy

The total energy developed through combustion of a propellant in a gun is expended as follows:

(1; In expansion of the produced pse!I, to: (a: accelerate the pro.1tctile to exit velocity; (kJ) aceelerste the gun (and other recoiling ,arts) to t},e velocity of recoil; (e) translate the propellant gIWe.<C (and any resi(\ue); (d) perform the work of

5-1

ptojectile en~"ing and overeoming friction of prejectile travel in the bore; and (e) overcome friction and other resistances tu movement of the g\!Il in reeoil,

(2) In hest 100t by: (8) raising the temperature of tbe gun, projectile and case (if used) j and (b) discharge of hot propellant gases (and any residu.e) 011 exit of the projectile from the muzzle.

Crnsideration ()f the expenditures of energy mdieated above, with the factors given in para~9ftlph 6-1.1 affecting the energy spent on the projeci;i~, emphasizes that the propellant eharaeteristics and tbe dimensions of the gun chamber and bore. in eombination, determine: (a) the kinetic energy imparted to the projectile j (b) the maximum temperature and pressure developed j (C) the p.xit temperature of the propellant gases: and (d) the total energy that must. be evolved to obtain the required projectile motion. Hence, for optimum overall results, it is imperative that gun snd propellant chal'gf! designs 00 fully coordinated.

5.2.3 BtmliJlc Rste and Preuure

When combustion uues place in a closed space, as in a gun, the eombustioa rate inereases rapidly as the temperature and pressure of the eonfin-d gases rise. }o~or effective designing of guns to <lll~jD prescribed performance, weight ant} size charaCteristicb, the rate of pressure rise and the maximum pressure must be restricted to appropriate li)J1ite. The propellant designer controls these effects by: selection 9f basic propellant constituents; addition or combustion retardants j selection of siu and shape of propellant grains; and esteb&bment of the chamber .olume to be provided in designing the gun.

5.2.4 Stability

~ffective service performance of the gun-propel. lant eombination requires that the propellant action on firing shNl not vary appreciably as tl result of storage between ml)Jlu£acture and firi'a~. Hence, chemical stability must be considered a major obj~ve in the desiltu of a propellant,

The ni~\)cel1ulose compounds used as basic ingredients of currently used propellants have less inherent stability than is desirable, but materials having their desir&ble properties plus greater stehility are not adequately available. The stability

of nitrocellulose if; made.' adequate by addition of various other materials, as coatings 0': dispersed ingredients. The stability requirement .. necessarily aJtects, to some degree, the volume of the chamber. 'Most of the additions commonly used for stabiHty are abo helpful for other purposes, such as reduction of flame temperature, erosion and flash, or simplification of manufacture.

5·2.5 Keclw1ical Properties

The time required to burn &. eharge of propellant depends, to a significant degree, on the size and shape of the propellant grains. Bence, the grains should not only be strong and tough enough to endure the loads and impacts incurred in transportation and handling befc=e firing, but should with. stand the pressures, motions and impacts developed in the chamber and tube without shattering before burning has been virtually completed.

5-2.6 Feasibility of )(anuiacture

The propellant designer's choice of materials is limited by the necessity for production of large quantities of propellants during national emergencies. The manufacturing proeessee should be as simple and reliable :.s possible, and capable of application to large qumtity production without compromise in quality and uniformity of product. All operations should be as nearly free from hazard as possible. As far as practicable, products and manufllcturins processes should be similar to those normally used i -. induf'~ry, so that production may be more readily expanded where necessary.

5-2.7 COlts

The cost of a propellant should be the lowest consistent with provision of the required behavioc characteristics. .A. relatively high cost may be caused by limited supply of basic material or by complicated and costly processes of manufacture. However, when comparing propellant COSVlj the designer should '!CJMider costa per unit of usable energy ratber than pel" unit of weight. Further, differencES in temperature, pressure and expansion spsee required for best use of various compositions ,n/!.y entail such diff\irences in the weight and cost of the required gun structure as to substantially affect the ehoiee of propellant en an overall eost G..'Ulis.

5-2

T~AVEL OF PROJECTILE

~------------------- ---------------~~

D I fiECl I ON--'

COHD IT t ONI :

A • FAIT-IUR"jN8 CHAR.E

a • eU~NI~1 AATE LOWE. !HAN A ' 'IO.I'SSIYE GRAIN FO~~ C • IUINING RATE LOW" THAN a • 'R6GRESi'Y£ GRA1~ 'O~M AREA UNDER CURYESI A • abe FOI £OUA~ NUZZLE YtLOCITIIS

5-3 GruuJation 5-3.1Purt*e

'i'he purpose of establishing a definite ~ize and shape of granulation is to so control the rate of combustion (gas evolvement) that the requisite energy will be applied to the proieetile wit hout exceeding permissible pressure (and temperature) at My stage of the projectile 'tl travel through the barrel.

5-3.2 Effect of Grain Form

G!""...in form is m;OO to influence the quantity rate at which the propellant burns, Since combustion takes place only at the grain surface. the amount of propellant burned per unit of time, at a given linear rate, is directly proportional to the surface area of the burning grains.

The surface area of grains of solid seetiou (rods or strips) decreases as burning progresses, thus exerting a decelerating influence 011 the quantity rate of combustion, Propellants of such grain form are termed degrr-lsive.

To effect other than degressive burning, perforated grains are employed. Cylindrical tubular grains have one axial perforation (typical form for U. S. small arms) maintain nearly the same area of surface until practically consumed, since the inner periphery increases as the outer periphery decreases. A propellant that maintains a uniform quantity rate of burning' is termed Nlttral.

A.a increasing rate of burning may be effected by using multiple longitudinal perforations through a grain with cylindrical or fluted exterior. (Typical U. S. cannon propellants have a cylindrical grain with seven perforations, one axial and six equally spaced about tl:e center, at mid-walt) With more than one perforation the interior surface increases more rapidly than the outer surface reduces, so that the quantity rate of combustion increases as burning progresses, A propellant with grains formed so as to e~t an accelerating burning rate is termed prQ[Jre.ssitJe.

If a degressive grain is used, the maximum rate of: combustion will be reached quickly after completion of ignition, and a decreasing rate will follow. With a progressive grain, the maximum rate of eombustlou oceurs somewhat later, when the projectile is farther forward and advaneing :nore rapidly. Gra~hieany, the eff ~ t. is that the deeliniog portion of the pressu re-traeel curve is !es. s steer'

for progressive than fur degressive propellants (sec Figure 5-1). If charges of the two types of granulations are to impart the same muzzle velocity .to t:.· projet.!tile, the areas under the resneetive pressure-travel curves must be equal, If tl,e lengths af travel arc alsc equal, the pressure curve of the progressive propellant, having a more gradual decline, will have a lower maximum. T-t:~';':t'ver, the slower reduction of pressure (a •• d temperature) exhibited by progressive propellants results in slightly higher gas pressure (and temperature) at exit frem the muzzle. This signifies a lower efficiency, i.e., a smaller portion of the energy generated by the propellant is transmitted to the projectile. Hence, for the same mussl: velocity, the quantity of propellant required is somewhat larger for progres s ive than for degressive propellants, An alternative to increasing the quantity of propellant is to increase the length of the bore, and so utilize a greater length of the declining pressure curve. In general, the effect of shifting from degressive to progressive granulation is to reduce structural strength requirements in the chamber region and increase strength requirements near the muzzle. The resulting alteration of the gun temperature curve corresponds to that of the pressure curve.

5-3.3 Effect oi Web Thi~ess

The web thickness is a most important factor in the control of propellant eombuztion to obtain a desired shape of pressure-travel curve. Web thickness is defined as the least thickness of propellant material between opposite surfaces on which burning occurs. The geometric shape of the grain affects comparative rates of burning from ignition to completion (all burnt), while the web thickness affects the total time required to completely consume the grain and, hence, the time required to completely burn the propellant charge. A web too thin will permit completion of combustion before the projectile ean be moved a sufficient distance forward in the bore, with resulting excessive pressure and temperature. .A web too thick will delay the development of the peak of pres s ure until the projectile is too far forward, so that the maximum pressure ia undesirably low, subsequent expansion is therefore less complete bef'·-e exit, and ga. s pressure and temperature remain undesirably high at diseharge from the muzzle.

S-4 Form of Charge

The propellant charge is t ubjeeted to several variations in fonn for adaptation to the type oi gun and the performance eharaeteristie required (sec also paragraph 3-J and subparagraph. s there under). T!u: following principal forms an! lueluded,

5+ 1 Cas-td Charges

These charges are eontalned in a cartridge case, including a primer extending fo~"Ward from the rear end of the CR..--e sufficiently to obtain satisfaetory ignition. An ignition cbarge may be included to aid in speeding ignition of tJI nortions of the propellant, For closed-breech gun the case eontour closely fits the gun chamber and the case provides obturation against. rearward escape of propellant gases. Variations include the following:

(1) For fixed ammuntlon, in which tile ease is firmly attached to the projectile, the charge is enclosed without provision for subsequent disassembly.

(2) For semifixed ammunition, in which the case is loosely fitted to the rear of the projectile, the propellant is bagged in portions or otherwise separated into a basic charge and increments, the -latter removable to adjust the propellant charge for zone firing.

(3) For separated ammunition, in \\,~jch the case and projectile are separate units, separately handled until chambered in the 1~1Il or inserted into a mechanical loader-rammer, the full cbarge of propellant is securely sealed by a plug in the forward end of the case. No provision fCir zone firing is made.

(4) For open-breech gun. s (recoilless types), in which rearward discharge of a portion of the propellant gases produces recoil-neutralizing forces, a path must be provided for gas {low to the vents at the rear of the chamber. Present praetiee includes two methods, indicated below:

(a) The cartridge case is of smaller diameter than the gun chamber, except at the forward end, where the case is confined in the transition from chamber to 1;6ed bore, and the projectile rotating band is fitted into the rifling of the bore. The metal case walls are perforated to permit escape of gas into the annular space between case and chamber wall and thence to the orifiees at the

rear of the chamber. 'rhe perforated portion of the metal case is sealed by sn unperforsted combustible liner until the liner is destroyed by firing tbe round.

(b) The cartridge ease ill not perforated, and fits tl, .. • contours of tbc gun chamber. The rear end wall (base) or the case, instead of all-metal ecnstruetion, incorporates a disk of a composition that disintegrates under the heat and pressure of the prcpehant gases, and so permits rearward escape through a central Qrinee. A further varlation combined with this design of case is the formation of the propellant charge by stacking a large number af thin washer-like fiat disks of propellant behind the projectile on the axial boom that carries the projectile stabilizing iins. Each disk has udiJp_ ples" embossed on one face to space tilt> disks and expose both surfaces tor ignition and eombustion, The outside diameters of the disks are substantially less than the inside or the base and are progressively smaller toward the rear, to reduce obstruction of gas flow to the rear orifice.

5-4.2 Noncased Charges

These are contained in one or more combustible bags instead of a cartridge case. (hns utilizing these charges must provide for obturation against rearward escape of gases by features built into the gun breech (see paragraph 3-3.4). Variatiorut inelude the following:

(1) Complete propellant charge in one !lag.

This arrangement may be used where the resulting sise and share is suitable fo.- handling and loading. One 01' more elements of ignited material (ust:ally black powder), formed as end pads or as a central core, are fixed within the propellant bag to augment the primer flame in e.ffecting thorough igni. tion of the entire mass of propellant The propellunt bag (sometimes termed cartridge bag) eonstitutes one unit of separate loading ammunition, in which the projectile, propellant and primer are separately inserted into the gun.

(2) Propellant eharga in two or more bags.

(a) This arrangement is used in separate loading ammunition either to divide the propellant into portions more easily handled in gun loading, or to provide a basic charge and increments fOl' zone firing, An ignition charge may be ineluded in the basic charge only, or in the increl'.l~nt

5-5

cJuuoges also as may be neeessary for satisfactory ignition.

(b) Separa'rely bagged (or l\7&pped) basic charge and Inerements sre also utilized as components of scmifixe<i arumunitien for zone firiUb of muzsle ... loading :~m1w-s. In this use the separate portions or the complete charge are attached to the fins or fin shaft of the projectile, with the increments readity removable in the field to reduce the rallge from the maximum to the zone desired. .! primer eartridge is carried in the rear <'f the firs shaft of the projectile.

(J) Grain arran~nt. Generally, whether cased <'1' bagged, propellent charges composed of the commonl:; used shapes of grain are assembled with the grains in random positions, However, where large rod-shaped grains are used in a package of large length-to-diameter ratio, improvement in compactness, rigidity and uniformity may be obtained by orderly arrangement of grains, end to end, with axes parallel to the axis of the container, A charge thus arranged is termed a stacked charge

s.s IgDitiOil Systems 5-5.1 General

The release of the propellant's high energy in a very short time interval, with the necessary roundto-round uniformity, requires that the propellant be ignited by the quickest possible propagation of high-temperature gas to the largest possible fraction of the total surface of the propellant, with the least round-to-round variation that ean be praetiCJ11l:; attained. (Th.- idea! performance would be instantaneous ignition of the total surface of the propelJant.) The 1!ffectiven~ of the means of ignition, therefore, eonstitutes an importent factor in the effectiveness of propellant performance, Some effects of inadequate ignition are indicated briefly below.

5-5.2 Relation Between Ignition ud JltUzle Velocity

Th~ uniformity of the projectile muzzle velocity effected by the propellant may be represented by uniformity of the area under the pressure-travel curve (Figure 5..1). If the elapsed time between the beginning and completion of ignition of all surfaces of the propellant varies from round to round, thc early rate of burning and the total time to complete burning of the propellant will vary cor-

respondingly, with rest lting' variation in the shape o~ the representative pressure-travel curve and in the muzzle VeiNar :)f the projectile.

5-5.3 Pressure Wl\vo>;S

If au iusuffleicnt fraction of th propellant is ignited initially, the difference in progress of combustion in various parts of the chamber tends to produce severe surging or the produced gases and irregular rise of pressure. The resulting pressure waves may cause unpredictable variations ill the height and location of the peak 01 the pressuretravel curve, with resultant variations in muzzle velocity. There is also the possibility that the pressure peak may occur at such loeaticn as to subject a portion of the tube to pressure higher than is permissible at that section.

5-5.4 Primers and Igniters

The primer, alone or supplemented by OUI! or more ignition charges, is the means by which the burning of the propelling charge is initiated. The primer contains an explosive mixture designed to he highly sensitive to impact, friction, or other shoek, mechanical or electrical, in accordance with the means of firing provided by the gun. On activation by the firing mechanism, the primer projects a quick, hot flame against the propellant (or a supplementary igniter charge) contained in the more forward portion of the case. For the relatively small quantities of propellant eontaiued in small arms cartridges, the primer ignites the propellant directly; for the larger quamitles of propellant (and, generally, slower burning granulations) contained in cased artillery ammunition, the primer ignites a quantity of quick-burning bla=k powder (igniter) so placed IlS to distribute an igniting flame to all portions of the propellant in the least possible interval of time. Elements of the igniter charge may extend to the forward end cf the propellant charge. For large caliber guns using bagged propellant (without cartridge case) a relatively small primer is used, to project a jet of flame through a passage bored on the axis of the breechblock into the gun chamber, to ignite additional igniter units acaompanying the propellant. The additional igniter charges are generally contained in, or attached to, each bag or increment of propellant, to further the rapid propagation of the igniting flame,

5-6

5-5.4.1 Veins

A device to aid the igniter charge or charges ill i!fft:<:ting rapidity ami uniformity of propellant ignition consists in the provision of voids within or around the propellant cha~e in the eartzidge ease or gun chamber, The unobstructed spaee permits the igniting flame to spread more freely to all portions of the propellant charge.

5·5.4.2 Ignition As a Factor in Desigu

The necessity for uniformity of ignition for uniform round-to-round propellant action compels consideration of ignition requirements RS well as propellant space requirements in eoordinstfon of the design of the gun chamber with the propellant charge design. The determination of ammunition type haying been made (i.e., fixed, semiflsed, separated, 01" separate loading), the ammunition designer assumes the task of designing suitable propellant and ignition elements, and specifying the necessary chamber volume, For optimum results, the gun designer must cooperate by providing, within the limits imposed by other gun design requirements, 11 chamber of adequate volum« and sufficiently low length-to-diameter ratio to enable a satisfactory solution of the ignition problem.

5-6 Smoke and Flash 5-6.1 Causes

..

Combustion of the propellant does not progress

to completion in the gun tube or barrel. The available oxygen in the propellant is insuffident to complete the combustion reaction with all the remaining elements. For example, the major portion of the carbon may be converted to carbon monoxide, but not to carbon dioxide.

Depending on the quantity and eharaeteristies of the propellant, the geometry of the gun tube, and size and weight of the projectile, various effecta may be produced as the propellant gases emerge from the muzzle:

(1) If the initial combustion persists at emergenee of the propellant, flash will result.

i2) If gases are not cooled below ineandeseenee before exit, flash will result.

(3) If the products of incomplete eombustlon (notably hydrogen and carbon monoxide) are not belo= ignition temperature at emergence, contact with atmospheric oxygen will effeet a renewal of combustion beyond the gun muzzle. This action

produces what is termed seeondary tksh, of greater btiUance than that indicated in (2) above,

(4) If unburned solid particles {notably carban ~ below i{;'l.tion temperature are ejected with the propellant gases, smoke will be produced, Particles other than carbon may contribute to visible smoke or vapor, through visibility of the particles, or by reaction with the atmosphere to produce condensation of water vapor. Materials added to the propellant £Ol' combustion or erosion control and metal iJarticles abraded from the gun bore or projectile are considered possible causes of the reaetion.

5-6.2 Disadvantages

Both smoke and flash are objectionable in that they reveal to the enemy the location of the weapon and operating personnel. Further, smoke may obscure the operators' view of the target area immediately after firing and so reduce the effective use of the weapon.

5-6.3 Correlation With Grain, Form, Cbarg·e and Tube Design

From the discussion in paragraph 5-6.1 it follows that the production of smoke or Bash is affteted by the form and dimensions of the propellant grains. Grains of degressive form produce their peak of temperature and pressure relatively quickly and, for a given energy yield. within the gun, are reduced to relatively lower temperature and pressure before exit from the muzzle. This action presents a reduced tendency to flash, as compared to neutral and progressive forms {perforated types), which produce a lower and later peak (If temperature and pressure, but show higher temperature and pressure at the muzzle for a given energy yield wit.hin the gun.

The composition of the propellant charge will affect the production of flash or smoke through its effects on , total heat evolved; rate of combustion; temperature of flame produced; the proportion of nonburnable gases evolved; the quantity of nonburning solids (included f(l; control of combustion rate, temperature, erosion, stability, or other purposes) and Q~gen balance. With the same gun interior. Ram" projectile and same maximum pressure limit, increases in muzzle velocity necessitate persistence of near-maximum pressure and tem perature into sections nearer the gun muzzle. This

5-1

condition 12SUlw ill higher g1U temperature at exit, '~jtb attendah! increase in dasb. "!it! effect oi the tube design ou the production of :'Uoke and flash becomes ObV!UUl from the diseussion of the cau. s es in paregRph 5-6.1 The tube and propellant charge, witb some eoutribntien by the projeetlle, are jointly responsible f9r the conditions represented hy the eentour of tbe pressure-travel eu-ve, ~nt luding the eompoeit.i~a, condition, and state of the propellant ebrgt! nlf.tfri.'l at exit fx:cm the gun muzzle. Tber-t att~ibutes of the diseharged material, in turn, sub:iitantially determine the oecurrenee or absence of smoke and both primary and secondary dash.

5-6.4 Elimiut10n of ~lash and Smoke

S-6.~.1 Fluh

FJuh may be most effectively reduced by such combination of barrel, projectile and propellant designs as will cause the combustion of the propelIant to be completed while the projectile is still near the breech, so that subsequent expansion will suffi. ciently cool the propellant gases before exit from the muzzle. While this is feasible in some small arms, it is unsuitable for mauy weapons because of the opposing demand for obtaining high projectile velocities from guns of least practical overall size and weight. Consequently. where needed, other methods of minim~ing ftlllih are used, with varying degrees (\f effectiveness.

Chemical methods iutroduce additional material into the propellant charge. One approeeh adds material to evolve quantities of nitrogen or other nonexplosive or partiaUy combustible gases to absorb heat and so lower the exit temperature of the propellant gas mixture to a point below the ignition temperature of the combustible gases contained. The resulting dilution of eombustible gases may further reduce the likelihood of occurrence of secondary flash. Toe temperature re<: 'let; '0 effected by this method l!l~y entail some loss of energy. Another approach is the addition of certain salts which have beef}. found effective in preventing re-ignition of hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the ejected propellant gas. This method, while suppressing flash. generally produees smoke.

Mechanical means of flash reduction include muzzle attachments designated as flash hiders or flash suppressors (Figures 5-2 and 5-3;. The flash hider consists of a conical tube with its small end

~.'..t~ .. ~s;),".....-~~~-... _

"~.J!t"'~

figure 5-3. Flash Suppr"l$SOl'

attached to the muzzle of the barrel, and serves to conceal the emerging flash {rom sideward view. but is ineffective against observation from positions well forward of the gun. The flash suppressor eomprises a muzzle attachment providing several forward-projecting prongs extending from a collar on the gull muzzle. This device eliminates or reduces the flash resulting from a secondary burning of the propellant gases at the muzzle. The reduction is due to the cooling set ion on the emerging gases.

5-6.4.2 Smoke

Means of minimizing the production of visible smoke are the subject of continual investigation. One approach is aimed at avoidance or reduction of smoke-producing eom« ':l~cl~ in the propellant ; another has the objeeti , of reducing thc visible products of incomplete combustion by improving the co-ordination of design of gun and propellant, so that desired ballistic perfonuance can he achieved with (a) propellant charge composition and combustion processes that will leave a praetical minimum of smoke-producing elements or compounds ill the discharged ga.<;('S; and (b) ejection

5-8

of the gases, vapors and particles resulting from eombusticn and projectile passage in a eondition as unfavoruble as possible te undesired stmospherie reaction.

5.7 Fitting the PropellaDt and the Gun 5·7.1 Gfo.neral CoDSideratioDS

The interdependence of gun design and propelIant charge design can hardly he over-emphasised. Within limits, the design of either may be adjusted to accommodate the chaeacteristies of the other, so a number of coordinated eombinations may be fo.md to satisfy :1 given projectile velocity requireme-it. The rang'{' of possible combinations, however, does not present an area for uncoordinated choice by either gun or propellant designer, Rather, it provides a measure of latitude for joint effort to combine, with the required velocity, other characteristics (as light weight, short barrel, facility of ammunition handling, for example) to the extent found praetieable and desirable in the intended use of the weapon.

5.7.2 GMerti Procedure

The iwtial re~uirementc; for a new design of gun usually include rue desired ealiber, type and weight of projectile, muzzle velocity or range of firing. and overall limitar inns on gun length and weight. Since the velocity of the projectile i.e; imparted by the pressure of the propellant while confined in the gun chamber and bore behind the accelerating projectile, the initial step in the design of the gun is the calculation, by the ammunition designer, or combinations of chamber volume, bore leugta and propellant charge that will impart the req,)ired velocity to the projectile without exceeding temperatures and pressures suit &LIe for gun desigu. In view of the stated weight, dimensional or other limitations or desired characteristics, the apparently optimum combination is selected and the pertinent data, including the pressure-travel curve (see Figure 5-1) and recommended chamber dimensions, are transmitted to the gun designer. The latter then designs the gun in accordance with the data. If the gun designer desires any changes in the data to improve the mechanical design, th~ proposals are suhieet to agreement by the ammunition designer before adoption. On concurrence in the tentative design, one or more guns of t.his design are built, and propellant chllrges are prepared with

such inodifleations or refinements as are deemed nf:c~a;.· or desirable by the a:nmunition dcsigne:-_ Test Srings are then conducted to determine whether the desired pt:.~ormlU1ce and other chemcteristies have been attained. If the tiring kat results indicate the desirability of further modi1icatlons in the gun or llrop~llant charge, or both, the Indicated changes are eoerdinated anti accomplished, and the results cheeked by further test firings. The modification and test procedures are repeated until a satisfedory combination is ebtained,

S-7 .. ~ &timation of Weight and Granulation of the CiJarge

Tl>e details of methods and procedures oi designing a propellant charge are covered in other handbooks of ..: c Series. The following diootl:J&!on indicates only the basic elements and procedures, The weight of propellant charge must be such as to provide the energy to (1) accelerate the proposed projectile to the desired muzzle veloeity (translations and rotation~); and (2) supply all energy losses incurred in the firbg of the round, with the charge burning under confinement by the gun and advancing :;rojectile, and the !'eSulting gases and residue ciu'dunging to the atmosphere M8 the prcreetlle leaves the muzzle. The losses indude the following:

Energy remaining in the gases ejected from the gun;

Energy expended in heating the gun and projectile;

Energy expended iu moving the products of eombustlon and unburned remainder forWArd behind the projectile;

Energy expended in separating the projectile from a cartridge ease (bullet pull), in engraving of the projectile or rotating band (in rifled bores), and in overcoming friction of projectile pa&aage through the bore; and

Energy expended ill etreetii~i': recoil of the gun.

As Indicated in paragrepb 5-1.1, the characteristics of the gnn end propellant charge are interdependent in imparting the desired motion to the proja:tile. Tile interdependenee of the various faewlS Jilay be expressed mathematically by a aeries of equatiens, but aimultaneons solution of the equations become extremely complicated and Ia-

5-9

bericus unless simpiif..ed by v.irious assumptions that M';'i; b-_~11 fouu.d to be reasouably in harmony with experimental ru:..it.... In tbe development of a r.ew gun, the simpli'ioo equatious are used in s. trinI·and-er:cor pl'OCt'.1h:., with assumed quahtity, co!:.p'-"SitJl.. .. , and gnw"lation of propellant, anu several alStllllCi! chamber volume-bore length eombinatic"", to obtain an approximation of the total upansion volume n~eh..-.ry to effect required ve· iClCity of the known projectile, without exceeding a maximum pJ"P'iSure aeceptable for gun or ammunition design. I! a maximum permissible gun length is speelfled, a 1!0ITl'..of'. "ding bore length may be i&;:lud~ in the oIi¢nal ealeulations, as sueh a reo strietion will ilill:olle a eorresponding minimum volvtne on the chamber.

When trial ealeulations indicate that the assumed chamber and weight of charge wiU produce 8 fair appl'l>X!imat:on of required velocity with permi.. .... sible pressures, several more calculations are made, using the same chamber volume, but ·,arying the weight of charge and "quickness" (burning rate/ web thickness) of the assumed propellant, to lind the optimum eombination for maximum velocity at the desired pressure limit. Repeating this procedure with several variations in chamber size will indieate the most desirahle combination of chamber size, wejght of propellant chal6.:! and l)li)pe!lant granulation to meet the specified requirements with the least possible incurrence of undesirable eondit:OWl or characteristics.

The number of trial calculations necessary to approach 8 satisiactory final solution is reduced by the use of tables compiled from the results of numerous approximate calculations, showing relations between velocity, loading density, gun diniensious, and pressure.

S-1.4 COrrelatiOIl With Chamber DesigD.

The calculations referred to in paragraph 5·1.3 enable the iuterior ballistician to determine the optimum chamber volume for a gun that is to llatisfy a. given set ?f zequirements, The shape of the chamber to provide the required volume then becomes a matter for eoordlaation between the gun designer and the ammunition designer, and the deter ruination of the most ~ .. tisfactory compromise where opposing preferences occur.

In the gun designer's interest, principal consideratlous include the following.

The chamber diameter should be kept as small as possible, to reduce the size and weight (·f gun breech necessary to withstand the propellant prsssure.

The chamber length should not be such as l~' require a cartridge case or propellant bags ~i length unwieldy to handle, or necessitate undue length and elearanees for mechanical loading or ramming devices,

In the ammuuitlon designer's interest, considerations include th ': following:

Bxeessive lp'lJgi.h·to~i.l\Dleter ratios should be avoided to minimize ~,yriltjon difficulties, handling and storage problems, and difficulties of manufacture (If cartridge cases, if used.

'Wh,!re metallic cartr'dge cases are used, excessive taper of main cavity should be avoided to reduce problems of manufacture of eases, llain u ,ity diameter and !.aper, and transition and mouth proportions, must be suitable for effecting proper obturation on firing and subsequent elastic reeover of case to permit satisfactory extraction,

Wbere obturation is provided by a cartridge ease, the contour of the chamber, which must closely encircle the C8 ,,~, is ll~ncipally determined by eonsiderations of uesirable case contour and length. to-diameter ratio. However, to avoid unnecessary gun weight, all oossible eonsldeeation is given to keeping the ratio of chamber di« neter to projectile diameter at a reasonably low value. Modifications for advantage in gun design must be iully coort!i· nated with the ease designer anr >lcorporate:1 only on determination that a C83£l to -uit the proposed chamber will f'Juction satisfat·tor;l., and is praetieal to manufaeture.

In reeoilleea weapons, the chamber and closure must C!(\wbine an accurately determine i degree of propellant confinement with a precisely sized and proportioned nozzle outlet, in order to produce not only the required projectile velocity but .. ~ective reeoil-neutralieing forces. It is, therefore, of prime importance that the chamber and nozzle ir" ~rior aise and shape be as specified or approved by the interior ballistician.

5-10

CHAPTElt6

GUN DESIGN PROBLEMS

6-1 Similarlty and Variety of Da' '. ~

Ohspters 2 and 3 indicate substantial differences between guns for Army purposes, in size, t~pe <sf construction and mechanism, and method .,f o;:eration. The extent ~f size and weight differences is illustrated by the following tabulation of eharaeteristies of three guns of current design.

Weapon

Pistol (semiautomatic) Ca.\'bine

Heavy Cannon (28On:.m)

Lf'ngtk

8% in 21'tll% in 45ft

Variations in structure and mechanism. aide from mere sise and weight, stem from di1ferenees in type of projectile to ~ fired, length and height of trajectory, required rate of fire, and type of mount,

The indicated differences involve no departure from the basic definition of a gun given in Chapter 2, hut emphasize the wide range of designs resulthr~ from varits.tions in the factors of the design problem. Each weapon presents the combined solutions of a number of problems posed by performance, operation, logistics, and psychological considerations applying tf' a gun intended for a specific use.

6-2 Problem Elt.mellb

Several of the numerous factol'1l affecting the solution of the design problem are identified below, with indications of their significance in effecting a solution. The discussion does not necessarily inelude all possible factors, but introduces basic eonsiderations essential to military gun design.

6-2.1 Eu"cy Jmparud to Projectile

Since the bore and chamber of the gun eonstitute the confined space in whieh the prepellant expands to drive the projectile through the tube and expel it from the muzzle, the form, dimensions, and necessary strength of the tube and chamber structure are primarily determined by the shape and dim en-

Bore Weight of

Diameter Weigkl Projectile

0.45 in 2% lb 231 grains

0:30 in 5% Ib 110 grains

1U)0 in 21 tons 600 lb

sions of the projectile and the energy required to propel :! to the target in the desired manner. 'the basie approach to design is summarized as follows:

(1) To the known requirements for projectile lIight (such as distance, time of lIight to target, velocity at target, type of traj~t()ry) applleseion can be JIY..de of the calculated eIJects of gravii&tional and air resistance forces during lIight to deduce the required initial velocity of t;he project:lp. (muzzle velocity).

(?) From eonsiderations of trajectory, velocity, air forces, and prorectile characteristics, the rotationsU velocity necessary for the desired degree of projectile stability in lIight can be detennined. The combination 1)f linear and rotational veloeities will yield the appropriate angle of rilIing.

(3) Considerations of bore (projectile) diameter, weight of projedi!I.!, and anticipated ~nergy losses in the gun and propellant enable determination of a combination of chamber size, bore length, and propellant cbarge that will effect the netleMal7 pressures on the projectile, during its pusag~

0-1

throt;gh the bore, to aeeelerat« it to the required muult! velocity. Culcuhlted curves of propellant IU'MlUft (ordinates) vel'llUIl projectHt' travel in HIe bore (.bcu..> are eonstrueted for tentative combinations, end these provide useful means ot seleetien of the olltimum combination. 1'he lirea under the CUr"@. from beginning of travel through the length of bere, represents the work done in aeeelcrating the project51e; while the ordinates provide b&IIeJI for strengta requirements at all seetions of the tube and for pressure-resisting parts of the breeeh closure (set! Fig. 5-1).

6-2.2 Accuracy

While the external air forces affecting aeei-raey of projectile flight to the target cannot be completely neutralized by forces applied to the projectile by the gun, certain features or details of gun design may be employed to reduce or control in some measure the effects of unbalanced air forces.

6-2.2.1 Yay

n a minimum of variability of flight is to be aehieved wi\1b a projectile having a length exceeding its diameter, yaw must be minimieed. That is, at. all times during flight, the longitudinal axis of the pi;'()jectile ~ust be lUI nearly eoineident as possible with the line of flight, 80 that, in still air, air resistance forces will be distributed as evenly as possible about the circumference of the projectile, Howevef', even assuming perfect launching, air movement (wind) would effect an unbalance, tending to uefleet the projectile from its theoretical path. If the resultant of the unbalanced air forces is ahead of the center of gravity of the projectile the turning movement may not only increase the yaw, but tend to induce tumbling. To combat these tendencies, the projectile may be provided with fins at the rear to produce a correcting air force u:.<>ment; or the stability of the proju!tile may be improved by imparting a spin about the longitudinal .uis by means of rifling in the bore of the gun.

If the rifling method of stabilization is used, unnecessarily rapid spin is to be avoided, as excessive Irtability will C&U'Je the! axis (\, the projectile to perai.~t in upward inclination as the trajectory curves downward, thus effeeting excessive yaw in the latter portion of the trajootory. AsSde from

l'tTc&ds 011 accuracy, a wide a 7'een the pro-

jeetile axil! and iilc line of rrav, . cause failure

of such artille: y projectiles as depend, for eiiectiveness, 011 detonation by nose impact or on penetration of armor or other structural material. To reduce the spin necessary for stability in the earlier portion of the 1njectory, the projectile should be discharged from tilt' gun with as little yaw as practicable. To this end, the projectile and bore designs should tie so coordinated that: on insertion of the ~r:ajectile into tile rear of the bore, the longitudinal axis is aligned as accurately as possible with the centerline of the bore; sealing of the propellant gases is maintained as the projectile moves through the bore; and contours of the rear t)f the projectile and gun muzzle (including attachments) are not such as to cause unbalanced gas blast pressures on the rear end of the projectile on emergence from the bore.

6-2.2.2 Vlbip

Some eannon designed with relatively thin-walled tubes composed of relativeiy high strength steels have shown marked .elastie deflection normal to the longitudinal axis (whip) on firing. Insufficient study has been made to determine what relation exists between tube rigidity and firing accuracy. Pending accumulation of experimental data sufficient to isolate the influence of whip from other SOurces of inaccuracy, the effect of whip cannot be rationally evaluated.

6-2.3 Erosion

The useful life of a gun depends largely en the ability of the chamber and bore surfaces to resist erosion and abrasion by the hot propellant gases, projectile, and unburned particles of propellant. The deterioration of these surfaces reduces the velocity and accuracy by increasing the effective chamber site, shortening the bore, increasing leakage of gases past the projectile, destruction of rifling, and increasing clearances to aggravate tendencies toward balloting and initial ya.w. A short gun life obviously increases the cost of an adequate supply of replacement weapons, including all logistic problems of storage, transportation, distribution, and quick ~vailabi1ity in emergeney.

Early failure by erosion may be combatted by: use of heat abrasion zesistant material for the parts involved, or US\! of a liner or plating of sueh

6-2

material , by llmiting the generated pressures and temperatures to the extent that size, weight. and performance requirements will permit; end by use of such means as are practicable for minimizing the heat absorbed by tha interior surfaces of the tube and for increasing the rate at which the absorbed heat can be removed from the critical inner layers.

6-2.4 Firing Rate

In the brief period of burning of the p.npellant and ejection of the projectile, the high terrperature of the gases causes the transmission of heat into the metal at the bore surface more rapidly than it ean be transmitted into the intermediate and outer metal of the tube. The metal at the inner surface io; consequently heated to a temperature so high that minute part ides of softened metal may be eroded and blown out of the bore by the propellant. If firing is repeated before the surface metal has cooled 8uffi<,ient1y to regain normal strength and wear resistanee, the weakened metal will he subject to wear by the second projectile, plus firing stresses, and to an additional increase in temperature. Bepetition of the cycle at short intervals ean result in rapid deterioration of the bore surfaces. The rate of fire is thus an important determinant of the service life of a gun, and a rapid rate should be planned only with due regard for the penalty in reduction t)f number of effective rounds that Day be fired before the tube requires replacement. Where rapid fire is an accepted requirement, the methods of combatting erosion indicated in paragraph 6-2.3 should be carefully considered.

Since the effectiveness of small caliber weapons may depend on tbe firing of a large number of projectiles in a short time, and since relatively small, light projectiles are more readily handled either manually or by rapid automatic mechanisms, the rate of fire jg a matter of greater concern in small arms and small caliber automatic cannon than in the larger caliber weapons, Moreover/ in the relatively thin-walled barrels of small bore guns, there is less heat-absorbing metal per unit of bore surface, so a given thickness of excessively heated metal about the bore effects a greater proportionate loss in stress C&pacity of the small-bore type of barrel than in those of larger caliber. F::om these eonsideracicns, among others, the allowance ior thermal effects included in determining barrel

thickness by small arms procedure is greater than that used in cannon procedure.

6-2.5 Weight

The weight snd center of gravity of • gun must be considered in connection with tIle manDer of transport and use. In shoulder- or haud-supported guns, weight and its location are prime factors in governing the amount of en~ to be abso~by the firer, and the amount and directicn of deftectiuu of the gun from the lioe of sight on firing. Other fsetors being equal, velocity of recoil and amourt of "jump" decrease with increasing weight and closer alignment of here axis, center of gravity and center of support. However, greater weight decreases ease of C3rrying and handJi~g, and some degree of nonalignment of bore and support aimplifies practical solution of the sighting problem. The most advantageous compromiae between opposing eonsiderations should be BOught in each cue.

Similarly, in cannon and other mounted guns, stability in firing is favorably attected by increased weight and by reduction of moment arms between bore axes, centers of gravity, and supporting and recoil-resisting forces. However, where mobility is a desired eharaeterlstie, minimum praetieal weight of the complete weapon is desirable, and the designs of the gun and mo~t or e.arriage should be coordinated to obtain the OptimU,ll overall solution for thc intended use. WUl!n the mount or carriage includes a recoil meehcnism (io reduce the firing forces applied to ground or supporting structure), the weight and location ol center of gravity atteet: (a) the length of recoil and resilJting forces required; (b) the energy needed fol' counterrecoil movement of the recoiling parts; and (c) the supporting fcrces necessary for stability throughout the recoil and eounterreeoil movements at all contemplated angles of gun dlm,tion. Sinee the weight ('.haracteristics 8l'e essentla; faciont in design of the carriage or mount, the carrit«C designer is submitted a tentative design of gun tube and parts carried thereon, with pertinent weight data, fol' coordination prior to completi!ln of details. In formulating the tentative design, considerations of weight and its distribution will normally yield precedence to those of ctnngth, perfonnance, operation, ste.j withm the latitu,de permitted by other factors, the center of gravity should generally lie on or near tile axis nf the bore

and as fa~ rearward as i.Ii feasible. However, weight. not otherwise needed bnvuld not be ineorporated [!lr the purposes of inereasing inertia or shifting the center of gravity, unless coordination with carriage design indicates such additie , to be advantageotJ8.

6-2.6 SUity

&rety in guns is of two-fold importance. Obviously, guns properly designed for safety in operation are more dependable in performance, so that a smaller number arc necessary to insure accomplishment. of It given mission, But in addition, the safely-operable weapon not only reduces the likelihood I.)f injury to its operators, bet engenders confldeuee and morale favorable to efficient operation. Specific points to be considered follow:

(1) Provision of a method of loading that permits rapid operation with minimum physical effort and minimum possibility of injury in the procedure.

(2j Ade<:uate loeking or interlocking devices to prevent unintentional firing of the weapon, or to prevent any violation of proper sequence of the operating cycle in such manner as to cause damage to the "qui~IiJlent or endanger personnel. Tbese devices may be mechanical or electrical, as best suited to the means of weapon operation,

Examples inelude. "safety" levers or slides that block operation of firing meehai, isms unless moved to firing position; mechanical interlocks that prevent m-ehanieal ramming un.ess the breech is bny open, or that prevent the firing me-hanism from functioning unless the breech is closed and locked; and electrical firing circuits +hat remain open and inoperative until closed by completion of breech Ioeking, Thorough control of the firing mechanism is particularly important, to prevent po86ibility of igniting the propellant before it is adequatcly confined in the chamber, 01' while being removed after a misfire, or on termination of firing. Automatic breech opening devices should also remain inoperative while an unfired propellant charge remains in the chamber, so that, should a hangfire occur, the dell\yed explosion may be normally confined rather than be free to blast througt, ~e opened breech,

(3) .6..de<:uate tube strength to prevent failures from pressures generated by propellants. This requires not only adequate lesign fOl a new gun

to withstand all stresses generated by firing ammunition that develops the design pressures, but provision of sufficient factor of sufety to cover unavoidable variations, These include: variations in ammunition, from manufacturing tolerances or from changes in properties occurring in periods of storage; unavoidable variations in tube properties, arising in manufacture; and deterloration of the tube from combined effects of heat, erosion, chemical effects, and progressive failure starting at minor cracks, inclusions, or other types of stress raisers.

Avoidance of rupture of a tube in service is of major importance, since such a failure involves serious danger to the operators and to nearby equipment; and it completely disables the weapon in a manner not correctable in the field, unless the weapon has been specifically designed for field tube replacement.

(4) Minor mechanical failures. A high degree of reliability of operation of ell mechanical parts is of prime importance in guns intended for use against enemy personnel. Failure of a minor component ean make the weapon inoperative in circumstances where neither time nor replacemeut parts are available to remedy the deficiency, and the defeetion can jeor sdize not only the operating individual or group, but ethers involved in the same action.

6-2.7 Obtuntion

With few exceptions, satisfaetory performance and service life of guns are dependent on eiiective sealing of the breech against rearward escape ilf propellant gases.

In guns using cartridge cases, a seal is effected by pressure-expausion of the case against (he closely-fitting containing chamber surface, while the bolt or breeehbloek of the gun blocks the closed rear end of the case against rearward ejection. Contour, finish, and clearance of the chamber must be such that the case, when propellant pressure decays, can be withdrawn rearward without ezeessive effort.

In guns not employing a cartridge case, another form of seal must be provided between the closing member (breeehbloek) and the tube. The sealing member must be capable of rapid sealing and unsealing as pressure is applied and released; retain its clastic properties under high rates of loading

a 1\(1 ill extrenu-s of field temperatures ; withstand high temperatures and pressurvs ; and should haw high d('gr('('s ur durability and freedom from deterioration in storage. A design completely fulfillill/.! all these requirements to the desired degree has not been produced to date, and better materials and improved devices are being continually sought.

6·2.fs Blast and Flash

Since it is impractical to obtain complete eombustion of the propellant within the gun, or to approach complete use of the pressure generated, the propellant gases emerge irom the muzsle with high velocity and at fairly high temperature. If appreciable combustion persists as the propellant (·III('r/.!('s from the muzzle, flash will be evideut ; and if the tc.zperature is sufilci('ntly high the nash may be augmented by further combustion of ga!;~s hy combination with atmospheric oxyeen.

6-2.8.1 Blast

Excessive blast can cause distress and reduced effleieney of the operators, and may have unfavorable ('i!('cts 011 adjacent personnel and equipment. Obscuration of the vision by violent projection of combustion products iuto the atmosphere, and lIy dust raised by air disturbance, may prevent ('fieI" tive aiming of successive shots, as well /1.<; indicate position £0 the enemy, Current means of reducing these effects consist of muzzle attachments of various designs, called blast defleetors, that serve to divert considerable portions of the blast to right and lcft, reducing the upward and downward air disturbance (see Figure 6.1).

Figure 6·'. Combination Blast Cielfecfor gild Muzzl. Make, Witft Evacuator Chamber

6-2.8.2 Flash

Visible flash also serves to betray position to opposing forces, and produces a. blinding eff~t unfavorable to a rapid succession of aimed shots,

Plash may be combatted hy muzzle attachments of either the "flash hkler" type (Furure 5.2) or the .. flush sllppr('ssor" tYPI' (Flgur« 5·3) or an attaehmont eombininp these two types may be used, The two typ('~ are described in Chapter 5.

6-2.8.3 Muzzle Brakes

Whl're both blast defleetiou and reduction of recoil {'nt'rJ!Y are desired, both (,fi('cts may be obtained by USI' vt' a muzzle attachment designed to turn and deflect a large portion of the muzzle blast sideward and rearward (F'igure 6·1). The blastdefk-eting' vanes, in such ease, are designed to reeeive as much forward pressure as is practicable fron: the gases, and this pressure becomes <-fi('eti\'(' ill reducing the net recoil impulse imparted to the (!Illl by the propellant gases,

6-2. ~ Bore Evacuation

I n some cannon installations, notably tank and other vehicular mounts, it is necessary to prevent rapid contamination of air in the firing eompartment by propellant gases emerging rearward from the bore when the breech is opt-ned. Some large caliber weapons using separated ammunition have been equipped with h compressed air system arranged for discharge 'Jf air through the bore to sweep out residual gases before opening the breech. Nerd for a simpler and It'SS space-consuming systent for vehicle installations prompted dev ... lopment of the currently 11' .d "evaeuatur" (Figures 6-1 and 6-2). This system utilizes a eylindrieal jacket fitted around the gun tube near the muzzle so as to fOMD an annular chamber outside the tube, and a series of small drilled holes through the tube wall for restricted flow of gas between the gun bore and tile annular chamber.

nowe ~-2. SchelllOfic Oiagrom of len Evocuotor Operation

6--5

When the projectile passes the holes, a portion of the propellant gas passes into the chamber ere_ting a considerable pressure. When the projectile leaves the muule the major portion of the propellant gases follow, and pressure in the bore drops below that iu the evacuator chamber. The gas content of the chamber then discharges through the drilled passages into the bore and thence out the muzzle, the paseages being inclined inward toward the muszle to obtain a jet action. Meanwhile the breech starts to open, and the jet discharge at the muzzle induces a flow of air into the breech and forward through the bore. Sizp. and location of the evacuator chamber and passages must he carefully determined to ohtain ,~tTeetive flow in proper timing with breech opening action.

6-2.10 Space Limitations

The dcsirabi1it.y of minimum practical bulk in all guns assumes major Importance in weapons intended for mobile mounts, and particular Iy for installation in tanks, aircraft, or other vehicles where internal space is limited by the necessity for presenting the smallest possible overall silhouette and maiiltaining a high degree of mobility. An increase 1n sit!! of the gun or of the space necessary for its operation is r~flected in increased area, hence increased weight, of armored enclosure. This in tnrn requires a larger and heavier vehicle fsr support, c.Jld greater power to ?rovide desired mobility. Hence, ii relatively moderate reduetion in space requirements for the gun may etIoot a significant saving in the overall weight of the complete weapon, decrease its vulnerability. and 80 reduce both the cost per complete weapon unit and the number of units required to maintain a giveu degree of military etTectiveness.

6-2.11 Temperature

T~ e wide ranges of temperatures at which gnus are required to function 88tisfactorily and withstand storage without damage (extreme range 1500 to -70°F) na.~tate consideration of the properties of the structural materials at all temperatures in the required range. Further, for tubes, barrels, chambers, and other pam that directly or indirectly absorb heet from the propellant, the effects of wnperaturea attained from thw cause must be taken into aeeount, Tb~ importance of this operat-

ing temperature rise Inereases with the rate of firing, as the cooling interval between shots decreases correspondingly. Temperature rise generally increases also as bore diameter decreases, as the latter is normally accompanied by decrease in tube thickness and consequent decrease in the quantity of metal absorbing and dissipating heat from each unit of bore area. Hence, temperature rise becomes a major eonsideration in the design of automatic riflee and machine guru! in the small arms category, and of automatic and eemiautome-tic cannon in the lower range of bore diameter.

In addition to the effects of temperature on the mechanical properties f'f materials, the differences in coefficients of expansion with temperature require consideration when unlike materials are used for contiguous or closely clearing part." Care must be exercised tu avoid the possibility that differential expansion or contraction within the design temperature range may eauee looseness, or excessive stresses, misalignment, binding or interference of parts, 01" other conditions preventing satisfllctory functioning or endurance.

6-2.12 JlanufacturiDg LimitatiODS

TI) insure full effectiveness of a particular gun design, the relative number to be produced should be considered in connection with the manufaeturing operations necessary to produce it, and available facilities for performing the operations. Requirements for operations requiring special types of production equipment, unusual techniques, and difficult degrees of accuracy should be minimized, particularly ror large production items, in order to broaden the field of industrial plants capable cf production of parts or complete items without incurring excessive waste of man-hours and material through rejections of defective items.

6-2.13 Strategic Katerial Limitation

So fat' as possible, guns should be designed for construction with materiels that will be available in sufficient supply under war cocditions. Where practical, designs should be suitable, or readily modifiable, for etTective use of alternative or substitute materials of better availability, wh e .n such procedure becomes necessary to improve the balance of national supply and demand for materials 07 production facilities.

6-2.14 LOgistic Requirement';

The need for rapid mobility in modern tactics, lind the high demands on national supply and transportation resources make it highly desirable to avoid unnecessary bulk and weight. Hence, the military requirements for proposed weapons normally include not only the desired performance ebaraeteristics, but limitations on weight and overall dimensions. These are particularly important where transportability by air is required. The need for minimizing demands on transportation, production, and storage faeilities also emphasises the importance of designing for high dependability and long service life, in order .to minimize the need for replacement items and parts.

6-2.15 Kaintenance Requirements

For high and continued effectiveness of the gun ia field use, it is important that the operation, maintenance, and servicing be as simple as possible, and Dot require highly skilled personnel, nor laborious and time-consuming procedures, Standard tools and equipment should be utilized as fat &8 is practicable, and any special equipment necessary should be as simple and compact as adequacy permits, Maintenance considerations are given more fully in Reference 13.

6-3 Balanced Solution.

Obviously, some of the fa<:wrs and ehaeaeteristies indicated nbove are in opposition to others, and achievement of one charaoterlstie i~ the desired degree m a y ~niro the sacrifice. in some degree, of other desired characteristics, For e:"~"npl~, higher veloeities (or shorter times of flight), desirable for antiaircraft and antitank guns, involve higher pressures and temperatures that not only necessitate stronger and heavier structures, but increase bore erosion to reduce the useful Ufe 01 the weapon. Design (If a gun requires adjustment between opposing factors. Each 11I3W weapon should present 2. eomblnatlon of satisfaetory or acceptable solutions of a number of problems in the maIkl!ltory or ,referential areas, achieved with the Il'SSt possible incurrence of undesirable conditions in the oppG5ing swu.. The balance effected ebvi()osly lL'i1l depend on the remuve inlpolt4JlCe assigned to the varion;; factors in the desitrn project,

in accordance with the purpose and conditions of use of the weapon.

6-4 Re:tSOns for New Weapona

In military openaions, as in production of eommodities for peaceful consumption, the etrectivenCNI of manpower depends to a large extent on the mechanical aids used to increase, concentrate MId apply that power. Hence, it is essential, fo~ eiteetiveuess of the national defense, that new te!!ig.u5 be continually developed for improvement in both weapon effeetivenees and the relation between eitp.e. tiveness and overall cost in man-hours of boor. Pactors prompting new weapon design include the following:

(1) The using services require a weapon having a new combination <)f eharaeteristie« to implement new concepts or developme.. .n tactical operations.

(2) New developments in projectiles or in propellants require new or modified gun designs for proper utilization.

(3) Appropriate Improvements in attainable solutions in one or more of the problem areas indicated in paragraph!! 6-2 through 0-2.15. These improvements. may be realized from:

(a) Bxtension of knowledge resulting from research and development programs. Fiel~ of pessible gain Ineluder new materials, alloya, or laixtures having favorable characteristics or behavitlr; new developments in shaping precesses, or in treatments oi eenventionsl materials to improve their heb~\1i?r under conditions of gun usage, more accurate methods of evaluating the stresses and Gcst!'1l(,tiv(' fsctors produced in gun operation, and of redueing or counteraeting' their ettec"cSi and new or improved methods of detection of latent ~terial defects, that may enable reduction in design ss.fety faetora without increase in the risk of failure of materiel aecepted for serviee,

(b) Jur;enuity of designers, Designera may evolve new arrangements, mechllllisma, or component details that present improvement in ease, speed, or wety of operation, etreett'1eness of reliability of funetion, length of serviee life, ellminl\. tion "f exeess wf:ight. or .l!c»nomy o! p%'\,i!uetion or maintenance.

(c) New manufa(.1nring proeesses, New proeedures or precesses in the production of semi·

6-7

manufactured materials (such an forgings, castings, extrusions), may make feasible a redesign for more efficient use of the improved material. New or improved methods of forming, shaping, or fabrication

(casting, welding, machining, extrusion, ete.) to required contours and dimensions may enable a new design to reduce the number of parts or operations. or effect other savings in production costs,

GLOSSARY

amllumition. General tenn denoting all items expended in firing a gun, excluding the gun it8elf, but including the complete projectile, propellant, primer, ease, and other components eontributing to the firing operation and completing their service life by functioning only once.

automatic. As applied to firearms. Having an action that is initiated by manual operation to fire the first round, and thereafter continues to reload, fire and eject (cases), under power derived from the ammunition, until the supply of ammunition to the gun mechanism is interrupted or operation is stopped by a mechanical control.

barrel, The major unit (tube) of II, gun, the bore ;)f which guides the projectile during its aeeeleranon to exit velocity. Thc term is preferred for use in reference to small arms, In most current designs, the barrel also contains the cartridge chamber (revolver types are a notable exception). See: tube.

bolt. A type of breeehbloek, principally used in small arms, eharaeterized by elongation in the direction of. the barrel axis and opening and closing travel parallel to the barrel axis.

bore. In reference to guns, the passage within the gun tube or barrel through which the proieetlle is driven by the propellant, The tenn is applied t-o Loth the space and the bounding interior surface of the tube.

breech. The rear part of the bore of a gun, especially the opening that permits tbe projectile to be inserted at the rear of the bore.

breec:hblock. The componer.t that is moved to and from the rear opening of the gun chamber, to block the opening' for firing and to expose the opening for case extraction and reloading.

breech me(;"."ism. The combination of meehanieal

devices that accomplishes the opening' and closing of the breech and the firing of the round. Incidental functions included. as required, are insertion of the cartridge, extraction and ejection of the case, obturation, and necessary Rafety interloeks,

breech recess. Cavity within the breech ring of a cannon, at the rear c>f the tube, designed to properly eonflne the breechblock at closed position and permit the necessary breeehbloek opening and closing movements,

breech ring. Structural member serewed or shrunk onto the breech end of a cannon tube, to house the breechblock and support other parts of +.he breech mechanism. It may provide lugs lOt' connection to a recoil mechanism.

bullet. ~\ small projectile. Use of the term is generally limited to small arms projectiles.

caliber. The magnitude of the diameter of the bore ~f. a gun tube or barrel, or (nominally) the diameter of a projectile. The tenn does not denote chamber diameter and excludes depth of any rifling grooves. It is frequently empioyed as a unit for gun length; that is, the gun length in calibers expresses the ratio of gun length to bore diameter. To clarify proportions. the chamber diameter and, length are also sometimes expressed in calibers.

ctnJlon. 1. A gun having a bore l~rger thr.n tile lioit assigned to small anna, and supported by a mechanical structure in firing. 2. The "shooting" part of a gun as in 1., including tube (or barrel), breech opening and closing- mechanism, firing parts and muzzle attachments.

carbine. A small arms gun, hand-supported aud shoulder-fired, resembling a rifle~ but of shorter barrel, lighter weight, and lower power.

0-1

cartridee. A round of ammunition in which the primer and propellant components are contained in a case aflUed to the projectile, the assembly bein'r stored, shipped, handled and loaded into the .. , "pon as a unit; a round of fixed smmuni;~n.

C4rtddC' cue. The eontainer for the primer and propellant of a cartridge, or of the eased portion of semifixed or separated ammunition.

chamber. That portion of the interior of a gun in which the propelling charge is placed.

ebb bore. A gun bore diminished in diameter near the muzzle to reduce the lateral spread of pellets. A. characteristic of some shotguns.

density of loading. The weight of propelling charge per unit of volume of chamber with th e projectile seated in firing position. It is commonly expressed in grams pel' cubic centimeter.

1iriDg mecUuism. In guns, the mechanism whose action etrects the ignition of the primer that ignites the propellant.

bed ammUDitioD. Ammunition in which the primer and peopellant are contained in a cartridge case firmly attached to the projectile, forming a round to be handled and loaded as a unit; a cartridg-e.

forciDc cone. A slightly conical passage from the chamber to the bore, into which the projectile is firmly pressed or rammed in loading to prevent escape of propellant gas past the projectile befon- the inereesing gas pressure drives the projectile fully into the bore.

pIl (G~l1era!). A proje~tile-throwjng deviee comprising a guiding tube through whieh a projectile is propelled toward a target by force. with an incorporate or eonnceted reaetion chamber in wh:ch the chemical energy of a propellant is rupidly converted into hot gases which expand to propel the projectile at 8. high velocity.

CUll (Spodfie)_ A complete weapon of cannon caliber, with mount and all equipment, designed for high velocity, relatively long range lind fiat trsjoot0l"Y-

hcw!tzer. In Army supply usage, a complete w('spon of eannoa-eise bore, with mount and all equipment, designed for medium velocity and medium curvature of trajectory of pl'Ojee,ile to target.

liIler. An inner tubular member inserted in a gun tube or barrel te improve resistance to corrosion, eresion, heat etrec~ and abrasion, or to provide

a practieal means of replacing an. unserviceable bore surface. Any contribution to structural strength of tube 01" barrel is considered incidental. A liner may include the entire length of the bore or any portion of bore length.

Jru\dWse gun. A gun of small arm bore diameter, capable of auton.atieally reloading and firing ra!}idly a series of shots of indefinite number, extraetmg the rounds from a belt of no arbitrary limit of length. May be mechanically supported, for firing,

mortar. A complete weapo., of cannon-size bore, with mount and all equipment, designed for low velocity projectile and highly arched trajectlJry to target.

muzzle. '('he forward end of a gun tube or barrel, pistoL A. short-barreled gun designed to be held and fired by one hand. Capacity may be one or more rounds per loading, and operation may be manual, semiautomatic or automatic.

primer. A relatively small and sensitive explosive assembly employed to ignite the propellant charge in a gun. The primer may be designed for aetuation f:ly one or more methods, including percussion, electric current, friction, etc.

projectile. A body propelled by a gun toward the object or area on which impact is desired. propelJallt. A. low explosive substance or mixture whose combustion producea the hot gases that propel the projectile through the gun bore. range. The distance to which a gun can, or docs, propel its projeetile ; also tbe distance from a gun to i·',; target.

r~ver. J.. principal structural unit of a firearm, l'srticu)arly 3f small arms, which supports the breech end of the barrel, houses the breech opening and firing mechanism, and 8el'V1:S for attachment of stock, handle, or other support feature.

recoineaa gun. A gun, with mount. and all equipMent, designed for praetieel neutralisation of weapou recoil by forward thrust on the gun produced by rearward discharge of a portiou of the propellant ga.,-

ri5e. A gun of relatively long, barrel having a rifled bore. Thc term is most commonly applied to hand-supported, shoulder-fired small arms 'W1!AJ)C'DS eharaeterieed by high vei'lCity and aoonracy. but in some Instances is used to designate a cannon with a rifted bore,

ri1liJIr. The helical grooves cut in s gun bore to

0-2

impart rotation to the projectile about its longitudinal axis as the projectile is impelled through the bore.

rotating band. A band of soft metal about the circumference of a projectile, which, on being forced into the bore, is deformed to fit the rifting, and so (1) seals against the escape of propellant gas past the projectile, and (2) follows the twist of the rifting to im!>art spin to the projectile as it moves forward through the bore.

round. All ammunition components needed to fire a gun once (also termed a complete rounG).

semiautomatic. As applied to guns, the term commonly indicates that operations of case ejection, reloading and cocking are automatic, but each round j" fired only by an individual manual operation of the trigger or equivalent releasing device. Also used ~. indicate a mechanism in which some portion ,f the complete cycle of operations is automatic and the remaining operations are actuated manually or by other external power.

semi1ixed ammunition. Ammunition in which the cartridge case and projectile are joined for

handling and loading as a single unit, but separable for adjustment of propelling' charge.

separau loading ammunition. Ammunition in which the projectile, propellant, and primer are separate components of a round and are separately loaded into a gun.

separated ammunition. Ammunition in which the primer and propellant are eontained in a cartridge case not attached to the projectile.

small arms. In application to guns, those baving a bore (projectile) diameter not larger than an arbitrarily assigned limit ( currently 30 millimeters).

squeeze tJore. A gun bore tapered to progretl8ively reduce the diameter of & single projectile as it advances toward the muzzle.

trajectory. The path traversed by a projectile after its departure from the gun muzzle.

tube. Thl: major unit of a gun, the bore of which guides the projectile during its acceleration to exit velocity. The term is preferred for use in refereaee to cannon. In the commoner cannon types the tube also contains the chamber. See: barreL

REFERENCES

1. TM 9-3305-1, Principles of Artillery 'Weapons, Department 01 the Army,

1956.

2. TM 9.2205, Fundamen1als of Small Anns, Department of the Army, 1952.

3. TIl{ 9·1900, Ammunition, General, Department of the Army, 1956.

4. Eugineering Design Handbook, 244, Ammuniticn Series, Section 1, Artillery Ammu.nition-Gener!ll. -

5. }o~ngineering Design Handbook, 247, Ammunition Series, Section 4, Design for Proleetios."

6. Engineering Design Handbook, 106, Elements 0/ Armament Engineering, Part One, BOllrccs of Energy.-

7. Engineering Design Handbook, 107, elements of Armament Engineering, Part Two, Ballastics.·

8. Engineering Design Handbook. 108, Elements 0/ Armament Engineering, Part Three, lV eopo» System! and Oumponenfl.-

9. Engineering Design Handbook, 150, 1nteri:», Ballistics 01 Guns.-

10. Bngineering Design Handbook, 340, Carriages and Iiounts Series, Carriages and MOIln1,-General.-

11. l~ngineering Design Handbook, 175, Exp!\)8ivea Series, Solid Propdlants, Pari One.-

12. t~ngineering Design Handbook, 252, Guns Series, Gu.n Tubes.-

!3. l:ngineering Desigr, Handbook, )3~, Maintenance Enginl!friJlg Ouide lor Ordll4~ Design.-

14. Thomas J. Hares, E!ements 01 Ordnance, John Wiley and Sons, Ine., N. Y., 1938.

• &e iude back cover for inform~tinn on handbook desipation.

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