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1. INTRODUCTION
2. OBJECTIVE
3. BONE IN GENERAL
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES
STRUCTURE OF BONE
OSSIFICATION METHODS
GROWTH OF BONE
4. ALVEOLAR BONE
5. ANATOMY OF ALVEOLAR BONE
6. FUNCTIONS
7. EMBRYOGENESIS
8. STRUCTURAL HEIRARCHY
9. REMODELLING AND REPAIR
10. MECHANISM OF BONE RESORPTION
11. ALVEOLAR BONE IN DISEASE
12. CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION:
Alveolar bone is a specialized part of the mandibular and maxillary bones that
forms the primary support structure for teeth. Although fundamentally comparable to
other bone tissues in the body, alveolar bone is subjected to continual and rapid
remodeling associated with tooth eruption and subsequently the functional demands
of mastication. The ability of alveolar bone to undergo rapid remodeling is also
important for positional adaptation of the teeth but may be detrimental to the
progression of periodontal disease. Much of the current information on alveolar bone
must be extrapolated from studies of other bone tissues.
BONE IN GENERAL:
There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply
that the two types of differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is packed together.
Compact Bone
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems. The
osteon consists of a central canal called the osteonic (haversian) canal, which is
surrounded by concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix. Between the rings of matrix, the
bone cells (osteocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae. Small channels
(canaliculi) radiate from the lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide
passageways through the hard matrix. In compact bone, the haversian systems are
packed tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic canals
contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood
vessels interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with vessels on the surface of the
bone.
ALVEOLAR PROCESS
The alveolar process is the part of maxilla or mandible that forms and supports
the teeth. As a result of functional adaptation, two parts of alveolar process may be
distinguished.
1. The alveolar bone proper (socket wall)
The alveolar bone proper consists of thin lamella of bone (cortical bone)
surrounding the root and bundle bone. Sharpeys fibers of periodontal ligament are
embedded in bundle bone. Some sharpeys fibers are calcified completely, but most of
them contain a central uncalcified core.
2. The supporting bone.
The supporting bone surrounds the alveolar bone proper and provides
additional functional support. Supporting bone consists of (1) the compact cortical
plates of vestibular and oral surfaces of alveolar processes (outer cortical plates) and
(2) the cancellous, trabecular, or spongy bone sandwiched between these cortical
plates and the alveolar bone proper (inner cortical plate).
In roentgenograms the alveolar bone proper appears as an opaque line called the
lamina dura. The alveolar bone proper is perforated by many openings through which
the blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves of periodontal ligament pass. It is also called
the cribriform plate because of perforations. The inner cortical plate contains the
sharpeys fibers of periodontal ligament fibers.
The inner and outer cortical plates meet at alveolar crest where they may fuse.
The inner cortical plates of adjacent alveoli are also fused interdentally. The alveolar
crest more or less parallels the outline of the cervical margin of the enamel 1-3mm
apical to it, with a greater distance seen in older individuals.
The interdental septa are the bony partitions that separate adjacent alveoli.
Coronally, at the cervical region, the septa are thinner and here the inner cortical
palates are fused and cancellous bone is frequently missing. Apically the septa are
thicker and generally contain intervening cancellous bone and some times haversian
bone.
The shape of the alveolar crest, under normal conditions, depends on the
contour of enamel of adjacent teeth, the relative position of the adjacent CEJ, the
degree of eruption of teeth, the vertical positioning of the teeth, and the oro-vestibular
depth of the teeth. In general, the bone about each tooth follows the contour of the
cervical line.
FUNCTION:
The alveolar bone proper adapts itself to the functional demands of the teeth in
a dynamic manner. It is formed for the express purpose of supporting and attaching
the teeth. The alveolar process depends on the presence of teeth for its existence. If
teeth fail to develop, it will not form. If teeth are lost or extracted, it will tend to
involute.
ANATOMY:
Roentgenograms
Roentgenograms of cross-sections of the alveolar process show its cortical and
cancellous portions. The cortical plates are generally thicker in the mandible. The
cortical plates and the cancellous bone are also generally thicker on the oral aspects of
the mandible and the maxilla, but there is individual variation.
Anteriorly, along the vestibular aspect of the alveolar arch, is the depression of
the incisive fossa, bordered distally by the cuspid eminences. Here the bone is thin,
and there may be little or no cancellous bone. Posteriorly, in the premolar and molar
regions, the bone is thicker, and generally, cancellous bone separates the cortical plate
from the alveolar bone proper.
Thickness of alveolar process
Since the teeth are responsible for the alveolar process, it general form and
shape follow the arrangement of the dentition. In addition the thickness of alveolar
bone has a direct bearing with external contour. When the process is thin interdental
depressions can be seen between roots and there are prominences over roots.
Malposition of teeth also affects the thickness of alveolar process.
Alveolar crest:
The margin of alveolar process is normally rounded or beaded. Occasionally
the margin ends in fine sharp edge. This occurs when the bone is extremely thin for
example on the vestibular surface of incisors and canines.
The contour of crestal bone margin is generally scalloped. If root surface is
flat then crest is also flat. If root surface has convex surface then crestal bone margin
follows convexity giving scalloping appearance.
Form of interdental septum
The form of interdental septum follows the alignment of adjacent CEJs. The
septa in anterior region form peaks. In posterior region they are wide and flat. When
the teeth are in close approximation the interdental septa is absent. This is seen mostly
between the distobuccal root of maxillary 1st molar and mesiobuccal root of adjacent
second molar. The distance between crest of alveolar bone to CEJ in young adults
varies between 0.75 1.49. This distance increases with age to an average 2.81.
OSTEOBLASTS:
OSTEOCYTES:
BONE MATRIX:
The matrix of bone is of two types i.e. organic and inorganic matrix.
Organic matrix:
The organic matrix constitutes 35% of dry weight of bone. It can be
divided into collagenous and noncollagenous components. Collagenous part
contains type I collagen (about 90%). They form fibrous backbone of extra
cellular matrix (ECM). The rest 10% are noncollagenous proteins. They
include proteoglycans, glycoproteins and BMPs.
The proteoglycans are composed of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)
covalently linked to core proteins. The GAGs contain repeating carbohydrate
units that are sulfated; eg, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, keratin
sulfate, hyluronic acid and heparin sulfate. The examples of proteoglycans are
fibromodulin, osteoadherin, osteoglycin. Examples of glycoproteins are
fibronectin, osteonectin, osteopontin, fibrilin. These noncollagenous proteins
may modulate cellular attachment.
The ability of bone to induce new cartilage and bone formation is from
the action of the BMPs.
Inorganic matrix:
It constitutes for 60-70% of dry weight of bone i.e. 2/3 of matrix. The
inorganic matter is composed principally of minerals calcium, phosphate along
with hydroxyl, carbonates, citrate and trace amount of other ions, such as
sodium, magnesium, and fluorine. They form hydroxyl apatite crystals
Ca10 (PO4)6(OH) 2. These apatite crystals are arranged parallel to the long axes
of collagen fibers and appear to be deposited on and within these fibers. In this
fashion the bone can withstand the heavy mechanical stresses applied to it
during function.
REMODELING AND REPAIR OF BONE:
In normal physiology, there is a coupling of resorption and formation
in the bone remodeling sequence. In the various metabolic bone diseases, there
are abnormalities in the coordinated activity of the osteoclastic and
osteoblastic cells. Likewise, in a pathological state such as inflammation, there
is an uncoupling of these activities resulting in a net loss of bone. A complex
cascade of events involving a host of autocrine and paracrine factors is
involved in the regulation of bone metabolism.
Conclusion:
Bone mass represents the balance of bone formation and bone resorption. In
health, these processes are coupled by complex interplay of local and systemic
biochemical, as well as biomechanical control of osteoblasts and osteoclast activity.
Various diseases alter this balance. In osteoporosis, for example, bone resorption
outweighs bone formation, and a net loss of bone is revealed by the reduction of bone
mass and susceptibility to fracture. In states where there is high bone turnover
(increased osteoclast activity), treatment by hormone replacement therapy (estrogens),
bisphosphonates and more infrequently calcitonin aims to reduce the number of
resorptive osteoclasts. In states where there is low turnover (deficient osteoblasts
activity), a number of experimental protocols, including fluoride and intermittent
parathyroid hormone treatment, suggest that osteoblast activity can be enhanced to
improve bone mass. General approaches to maintaining bone mass focus on proper
nutrition and intake of calcium and vitamin D, maintenance of menses and weightbearing exercise. Does pathologically reduced osteoblast activity or elevated
osteoclast activity impact bone formation and maintenance in dental alveolar bone
regeneration
References:
1. Clinical Periodontology by Carranza, Newman and Takei.
2. Periodontics by Grant, Stern and Listgarten.
Alveolar Bone
Seminar by
Dr. N.Upendra Natha Reddy
Postgraduate Student
2004-2007