Toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage an organism.

Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell (cytotoxicity) or an organ such as the liver (hepatotoxicity). By extension, the word may be metaphorically used to describe toxic effects on larger and more complex groups, such as the family unit orsociety at large. A central concept of toxicology is that effects are dose-dependent; even water can lead to water intoxication when taken in too high a dose, whereas for even a very toxic substance such as snake venom there is a dose below which there is no detectable toxic effect. Toxicity is species-specific, making crossspecies analysis problematic. Newer paradigms and metrics are evolving to bypass animal testing, while maintaining the concept of toxicity endpoints

Types of toxicity There are generally three types of toxic entities; chemical, biological, and physical:

Chemical toxicants include inorganic substances such as lead, mercury, hydrofluoric acid, and chlorine gas,

and organic compounds such as methyl alcohol, most medications, and poisons from living things. Radioactive chemicals are not poisonous because of their chemical nature, but because radiations emitted by nuclei are highly energetic, and destroy cells and tissues, but radioactive toxicity should not be comprehended in chemical toxicity.

Biological toxicants include bacteria and viruses that can induce disease in living organisms. Biological toxicity can be difficult to measure because the "threshold dose" may be a single organism. Theoretically one virus, bacterium or wormcan reproduce to cause a serious infection. However, in a host with an intact immune system the inherent toxicity of the organism is balanced by the host's ability to fight back; the effective toxicity is then a combination of both parts of the relationship. A similar situation is also present with other types of toxic agents.

Physical toxicants are substances that, due to their physical nature, interfere with biological processes. Examples includecoal dust, asbestos fibers or finely divided silicon dioxide, all of which can ultimately be fatal if inhaled. Corrosive chemicals possess physical toxicity because they destroy tissues, but they're not directly poisonous unless they interfere directly with biological activity. Water can act as a physical toxicant if taken in extremely high doses because the

concentration of vital ions decreases dramatically if there's too much water in the body. Asphyxiant gases can be considered physical toxicants because they act by displacing oxygen in the environment but they are inert, not toxic gases.

Lead is a chemical element in the carbon group with symbol Pb (from Latin:plumbum) and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft and malleable metal, which is regarded as a heavy metal and an other metal. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air. Lead has a shiny chrome-silver luster when it is melted into a liquid. It is also the heaviest nonradioactive element. Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shot, weights, as part of solders, pewters, fusible alloys, and as a radiation shield. Lead has the highest atomic number of all of the stable elements, although the next higher element, bismuth, has a half-life that is so long (over one billion times the estimated age of the universe) that it can be considered stable. Its four stable isotopes have 82 protons, a magic number in the nuclear shell model of atomic

nuclei. The isotope 208 Pb is double magic. If ingested, lead is poisonous to animals, including humans. It damages thenervous system and causes brain disorders. Excessive lead also causes blood disorders in mammals. Like the element mercury, another heavy metal, lead is a neurotoxin that accumulates both in soft tissues and the bones. Lead poisoning has been documented from ancient Rome, ancient Greece, andancient China.

Characteristics Lead is a bright and silvery metal with a very slight shade of blue in a dry atmosphere.[1]Upon contact with air, it begins to tarnish by forming a complex mixture of compounds depending on the conditions. The color of the compounds can vary. The tarnish layer can contain significant amounts of carbonates and hydroxycarbonates.[2][3] Its characteristic properties include high density, softness,ductility and malleability, poor electrical conductivity compared to other metals, high resistance to corrosion, and ability to react with organic chemicals.[1] Various traces of other metals change its properties significantly: the addition of small amounts of antimony or copper to lead increases the alloy's hardness and improves corrosion resistance

from sulfuric acid.[1] Some other metals, such as cadmium, tin, and tellurium, also improve hardness and fight metal fatigue. Sodium and calcium also have this ability, but they reduce the alloy's chemical stability.[1] Finally, zinc and bismuth simply impair the corrosion resistance (0.1% bismuth content is the industrial usage threshold).[1]Conversely, lead impurities mostly worsen the quality of industrial materials, although there are exceptions: for example, small amounts of lead improve the ductility of steel

Chemical reactivity Lead is classified as an other metal and is also a member of the carbon group. Lead only forms a protective oxide layer although finely powdered highly purified lead can ignite in air. Melted lead is oxidized in air to lead monoxide. All chalcogensoxidize lead upon heating

Lead poisoning (also known as plumbism, colica pictorum, saturnism,Devon colic, or painter's colic) is a medical condition in humans and othervertebrates caused by increased levels of the heavy metal lead in the body. Lead interferes with a variety of body processes and is toxic to many organs and tissues including the heart, bones, intestines, kidneys,

and reproductiveand nervous systems. It interferes with the development of the nervous system and is therefore particularly toxic to children, causing potentially permanentlearning and behavior disorders. Symptoms include abdominal pain, confusion, headache, anemia, irritability, and in severe cases seizures, coma, and death. Routes of exposure to lead include contaminated air, water, soil, food, and consumer products. Occupational exposure is a common cause of lead poisoning in adults. According to estimates made by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), more than 3 million workers in the United States are potentially exposed to lead in the workplace.[1] One of the largest threats to children is lead paint that exists in many homes, especially older ones; thus children in older housing with chipping paint or lead dust from moveable window frames with lead paint are at greater risk. Prevention of lead exposure can range from individual efforts (e.g. removing lead-containing items such as piping or blinds from the home) to nationwide policies (e.g. laws that ban lead in products, reduce allowable levels in water or soil, or provide for cleanup and mitigation of contaminated soil, etc.) Lead poisoning can cause a variety of symptoms and signs which vary depending on the individual and the duration of lead

exposure.[15][16] Symptoms are nonspecific and may be subtle, and someone with elevated lead levels may have no symptoms.[17] Symptoms usually develop over weeks to months as lead builds up in the body during a chronic exposure, but acute symptoms from brief, intense exposures also occur.[18] Symptoms from exposure to organic lead, which is probably more toxic than inorganic lead due to its lipid solubility, occur rapidly.[19]Poisoning by organic lead compounds has symptoms predominantly in the central nervous system, such as insomnia, delirium, cognitive deficits, tremor, hallucinations, and convulsions.[14] Symptoms may be different in adults and children; the main symptoms in adults are headache, abdominal pain, memory loss, kidney failure, male reproductive problems, and weakness, pain, or tingling in the extremities

Mercury is a chemical element with the symbol Hg and atomic number 80. It is commonly known as quicksilver and was formerly named hydrargyrum(from Greek "hydr-" water and "argyros" silver). A heavy, silvery d-blockelement, mercury is the only metallic element that is liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure; the only other element that is liquid under these conditions is bromine, though metals such

as caesium, gallium, and rubidium melt just above room temperature. Mercury occurs in deposits throughout the world mostly as cinnabar (mercuric sulfide). The red pigment vermilion, a pure form of mercuric sulfide, is mostly obtained by reaction of mercury (produced by reduction from cinnabar) with sulfur. Mercury poisoning can result from exposure to water-soluble forms of mercury (such as mercuric chloride or methylmercury), inhalation of mercury vapor, or eating seafood contaminated with mercury. Mercury exists in two main oxidation states, I and II. Higher oxidation states are unimportant, but have been detected, e.g.,mercury(IV) fluoride (HgF 4) but only under extraordinary conditions Applications Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some thermometers, especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of the other applications are slowly phased out due to health and safety regulations and is in some applications replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy

Chemical properties Mercury does not react with most acids, such as dilute sulfuric acid, althoughoxidizing acids such as concentrated sulfuric acid and nitric acid or aqua regiadissolve it to give sulfate, nitrate, and chloride salts. Like silver, mercury reacts with atmospheric hydrogen sulfide. Mercury even reacts with solid sulfur flakes, which are used in mercury spill kits to absorb mercury vapors (spill kits also use activated carbon and powdered zinc)

Mercury poisoning (also known as hydrargyria or mercurialism) is a disease caused by exposure to mercury or its compounds. Mercury (chemical symbol Hg) is a heavy metal occurring in several forms, all of which can produce toxic effects in high enough doses. Its zero oxidation state Hg0 exists as vapor or as liquid metal, its mercurous state Hg22+ exists as inorganic salts, and its mercuric state Hg2+ may form either inorganic salts or organomercurycompounds; the three groups vary in effects. Toxic effects include damage to the brain, kidney, and lungs.[1] Mercury poisoning can result in several diseases, including acrodynia (pink disease),[2] Hunter-Russell syndrome, andMinamata disease.[3]

Symptoms typically include sensory impairment (vision, hearing, speech), disturbed sensation and a lack of coordination. The type and degree of symptoms exhibited depend upon the individual toxin, the dose, and the method and duration of exposure.

Zinc Zinc, in commerce also spelter, is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element of group 12 of theperiodic table. In some respects zinc is chemically similar to magnesium: its ionis of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes. The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest mineable amounts are found in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc production includes froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extractionusing electricity (electrowinning). Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, has been used since at least the 10th century BC in Judea[1] and by the 7th century BC in Ancient Greece.[2]Zinc metal was not produced on a large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th century. The mines ofRajasthan have given

definite evidence of zinc production going back to 6th century BC.[3] To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar,Rajasthan as early as 9th century AD, when a distillation process was employed to make pure zinc.[4] Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow".

Reactivity Zinc has an electron configuration of [Ar]3d104s2 and is a member of the group 12 of the periodic table. It is a moderately reactive metal and strong reducing agent.[29] The surface of the pure metal tarnishes quickly, eventually forming a protective passivating layer of the basic zinc carbonate, Zn 5(OH) 6(CO3) 2, by reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide.[30]This layer helps prevent further reaction with air and water. Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish-green flame, giving off fumes of zinc oxide.[31] Zinc reacts readily with acids, alkalis and other non-metals.[32] Extremely pure zinc reacts only slowly at room temperature with acids.[31] Strong acids, such

ashydrochloric or sulfuric acid, can remove the passivating layer and subsequent reaction with water releases hydrogen gas.[31] The chemistry of zinc is dominated by the +2 oxidation state. When compounds in this oxidation state are formed the outershell s electrons are lost, which yields a bare zinc ion with the electronic configuration [Ar]3d10.[33] In aqueous solution an octahedral complex, [Zn(H 2O)6]2+ is the predominant species.[34] The volatilization of zinc in combination with zinc chloride at temperatures above 285 C indicates the formation of Zn 2Cl 2, a zinc compound with a +1 oxidation state.[31] No compounds of zinc in oxidation states other than +1 or +2 are known.[35] Calculations indicate that a zinc compound with the oxidation state of +4 is unlikely to exist.[36] Zinc chemistry is similar to the chemistry of the late first-row transition metals nickel and copper, though it has a filled d-shell, so its compounds are diamagnetic and mostly colorless.[37] The ionic radii of zinc and magnesium happen to be nearly identical. Because of this some of their salts have the same crystal structure[38] and in circumstances where ionic radius

is a determining factor zinc and magnesium chemistries have much in common.[31] Otherwise there is little similarity. Zinc tends to form bonds with a greater degree of covalency and it forms much more stable complexes with N- and Sdonors.[37]Complexes of zinc are mostly 4- or 6coordinate although 5-coordinate complexes are known.[31] See also Clemmensen reduction. Zinc(I) compounds Zinc(I) compounds are rare, and requires bulky ligands to stabilize the low oxidation state. Most zinc(I) compounds contains formally the [Zn2]2+ core, which is analogous to the [Hg2]2+ dimeric cation present in mercury(I) compounds. Thediamagnetic nature of the ion confirms its dimeric structure. The first zinc(I) compound containing the ZnZn bond, (5-C5Me5)2Zn2, is also the first dimetallocene. The [Zn2]2+ ion rapidly disproportionates into zinc metal and zinc(II), and has only been obtained as a yellow glass formed by cooling a solution of metallic zinc in molten ZnCl2

Toxicity Although zinc is an essential requirement for good health, excess zinc can be harmful. Excessive absorption of zinc suppresses

copper and iron absorption.[174] The free zinc ion in solution is highly toxic to plants, invertebrates, and even vertebrate fish.[197] The Free Ion Activity Model is well-established in the literature, and shows that just micromolar amounts of the free ion kills some organisms. A recent example showed 6 micromolar killing 93% of all Daphnia in water.[198] The free zinc ion is a powerful Lewis acid up to the point of being corrosive. Stomach acid contains hydrochloric acid, in which metallic zinc dissolves readily to give corrosive zinc chloride. Swallowing a post-1982 American one cent piece (97.5% zinc) can cause damage to the stomach lining due to the high solubility of the zinc ion in the acidic stomach.[199] There is evidence of induced copper deficiency in those taking 100300 mg of zinc daily. A 2007 trial observed that elderly men taking 80 mg daily were hospitalized for urinary complications more often than those taking a placebo.[200] The USDARDA is 11 and 8 mg Zn/day for men and women, respectively.[175] Even lower levels, closer to the RDA, may interfere with the utilization of copper and iron or adversely affect cholesterol.[174] Levels of zinc in excess of 500 ppm in soil interfere with the ability of plants to absorb other essential metals, such as iron and manganese.[88] There is also a condition called thezinc shakes or "zinc chills" that can be induced by the inhalation of freshly

formed zinc oxide formed during the welding ofgalvanized materials.[118] Zinc is a common ingredient of denture cream which may contain between 17 and 38 mg of zinc per gram. There have been cases of disability or even death due to excessive use of these products

Poisoning In 1982, the United States Mint began minting pennies coated in copper but made primarily of zinc. With the new zinc pennies, there is the potential for zinc toxicosis, which can be fatal. One reported case of chronic ingestion of 425 pennies (over 1 kg of zinc) resulted in death due to gastrointestinal bacterial and fungal sepsis, while another patient, who ingested 12 grams of zinc, only showed lethargy and ataxia (gross lack of coordination of muscle movements).[205] Several other cases have been reported of humans suffering zinc intoxication by the ingestion of zinc coins