FIRST TERM: BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES AND METABOLISM Topic 1 Biological Molecules 1.

1 Water Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the chemical properties (solvent, bond angles and hydrogen bond) of water and relate its physiological roles in the organisms; (b) describe the physical properties (polarity, cohesiveness, density, surface tension, specific heat capacity, and latent heat of vaporisation) of water and relate its physiological roles in organisms. 1.2 Carbohydrates Candidates should be able to: (a) classify carbohydrates into monosaccharide, disaccharide and polysaccharide with respect to their physical and chemical properties; (b) classify monosaccharide according to the number of carbon atoms and the functional groups (i) triose e.g. glyceraldehydes, (ii) pentose e.g. ribose and deoxyribose, (iii) hexose e.g. glucose and fructose, (c) illustrate the molecular structure of a monosaccharide and differentiate between the reducing and non-reducing ends; (d) describe the formation of glycosidic bond in disaccharides (maltose and sucrose) and polysaccharides (starch, glycogen and cellulose); (e) relate the structure of disaccharides and polysaccharides to their functions in living organisms.

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Topic 1.3 Lipids

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Learning Outcome Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the structures, properties and distribution of triglycerides, phospholipids (lecithin) and steroid (cholesterol); (b) state the functions of triglycerides, phospholipids (lecithin) and steroids (cholesterol); (c) differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.

1.4

Proteins

Candidates should be able to: (a) classify amino acids into four main classes based on their side chains: polar, non-polar, acidic and basic; (b) describe the structure of an amino acid and the formation of peptide bonds in polypeptides; (c) explain the properties of protein (amphoteric, isoelectric point, buffer and colloid); (d) differentiate the various levels of organisation of protein structure (primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary) and relate the functions of each structure to the organisation of proteins; (e) explain the denaturation and renaturation of protein; (f) classify proteins according to their structures, compositions (simple and conjugated) and functions.

1.5

Nucleic acids

Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the structures of nucleotides and the formation of phosphodiester bonds in a polynucleotide; (b) distinguish between DNA and RNA and the three types of RNAs (mRNA, tRNA and rRNA); (c) describe the structure of DNA based on Watson and Crick model.

Topic 1.6 Analytical techniques

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Learning Outcome Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the basic principles of paper chromatography in pigment separation, electrophoresis for protein and nucleic acid separation.

Structure of Cells and Organelles 2.1 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Candidates should be able to: (a) state the cell theory; (b) compare the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells; (c) compare typical animal and plant cells as seen under electron microscopes; (d) describe the basic principles of light and electron microscopy. 2.2 Cellular components Candidates should be able to: (a) identify the cellular components of typical plant and animal cells; (b) describe the structures of organelles and state their functions; (c) explain the basic principles of differential centrifugation used to fractionate cellular components (g and S values). 2.3 Specialised cells Candidates should be able to: (a) outline the structures, functions and distributions of unspecialised cells found in plants (meristematic cells); (b) describe the structures, functions and distributions of specialised plant cells found in epidermal, ground and vascular tissue; (c) describe the structures, functions and distributions of specialised animal cells found in connective, nervous, muscular and epithelial tissues, including the formation of endocrine and exocrine glands.

Topic 3 Membrane Structure and Transport 3.1 Fluid mosaic model

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Learning Outcome

Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the structure of a membrane based on Singer-Nicolson fluid mosaic model; (b) explain the roles of each component of the membrane.

3.2

Movement of substance across membrane

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the processes of passive and active transports, endocytosis and exocytosis; (b) explain the concepts of water potential, solute potential and pressure potential; (c) calculate the water potential of a plant cell in a solution.

Enzymes 4.1 Catalysis and activation energy

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain that enzyme is a globular protein which catalyses a metabolic reaction; (b) explain the mode of action of enzymes at active site involving enzyme-substrate complex and lowering of the activation energy and enzyme specificity.

4.2

Mechanism of action and kinetics

Candidates should be able to: (a) illustrate enzyme specificity using induced fit (Koshland) and lock and key (Fischer) models; (b) explain the time course of an enzymecatalysed reaction by measuring the rate of formation of product(s) or rate of disappearance of substrate(s) as the rate of reaction; (c) deduce the Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) from the Michaelis-Menten and LineweaverBurk plots; (d) explain the significance of Km and Vmax; 4 (e) explain the effects of temperature, pH, enzyme concentration and substrate concentration on the rate of an enzymecatalysed reaction.

Topic 4.3 Cofactors

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Learning Outcome Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the roles of cofactors (ion activators, coenzymes and prosthetic groups) in an enzymatic reaction; (b) explain the importance of vitamins and minerals as precursors of coenzymes/cofactors.

4.4

Inhibitors

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the effects of competitive and noncompetitive inhibitions on the rate of enzyme activity of reversible inhibition; (b) relate the Lineweaver-Burk plot to the effect of inhibition on Km and Vmax values.

4.5

Classification of enzymes

Candidates should be able to: (a) describe enzyme classification according to International Union of Biochemistry (IUB) e.g. oxidoreductase, transferase, hydrolase, lyase, isomerase and ligase.

4.6

Enzyme technology

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the importance and the main techniques of enzyme immobilisation namely adsorption, entrapment and covalent coupling; (b) explain the application of enzyme immobilisation in the development of biosensors.

Cellular Respiration 5.1 The need for energy in living Candidates should be able to: (a) outline the importance of energy and respiration in living organisms; (b) describe the structure of the energy carriers such as ATP, NADH and FADH2. 5.2 Aerobic respiration Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the various stages of aerobic respiration and its location in the cells; (b) describe glycolysis, and calculate the net energy produced in glycolysis;

Topic

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Learning Outcome (c) describe the various steps involved in the Krebs cycle (including the link reaction); (d) explain the formation of NADH, FADH2, GTP and ATP during the Krebs cycle; (e) describe oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis in the electron transport system; (f) explain the role of NADH, FADH2 and ATP synthase in the electron transport chain; (g) calculate and explain the net energy produced in aerobic respiration per molecule of glucose in liver and muscle cells; (h) describe the effects of cyanide and carbon monoxide on respiration; (i) explain how lipid and protein act as alternative energy sources.

5.3

Anaerobic respiration

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the anaerobic respiration in yeast and muscle cells; (b) describe the applications of anaerobic respiration in food industries (bread, tapai, and yogurt).

Photosynthesis 6.1 Autotroph Candidates should be able to: (a) classify autotroph into photoautotroph and chemoautotroph; (b) describe photosynthetic pigments; (c) explain the absorption spectrum and action spectrum of photosynthetic pigments. 6.2 Light-dependent reactions Candidates should be able to: (a) explain photo-activation of chlorophyll a resulting in photolysis of water; (b) explain the cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation including electron transport system resulting in the production of ATP and NADPH.

Topic 6.3 Light-independent reactions

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Learning Outcome Candidates should be able to: (a) describe Calvin cycle; (b) explain photorespiration; (c) describe the anatomical structure of C4 leaf (Krantz anatomy) in comparison to C3 leaf; (d) explain carbon dioxide fixation in C4 plants and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) plants; (e) differentiate the metabolism of C3, C4 and CAM plants.

6.4

Limiting factors

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain limiting factors of photosynthesis (light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature); (b) relate the roles of C3, C4 and CAM plants on the increasing carbon dioxide emission and global warming.

SECOND TERM: PHYSIOLOGY Topic 7 Gas Exchange 7.1 Gaseous exchange in humans Candidates should be able to: (a) outline the structure of human respiratory system, including the microscopic structure of the wall of an alveolus; (b) describe the structure of haemoglobin; (c) explain the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood; (d) explain the oxygen dissociation curves of haemoglobin, myoglobin and foetal haemoglobin; (e) explain the Bohr effect and relate it to the oxygen dissociation curve. 7.2 Breathing cycle Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the control of breathing mechanism, including the role of chemoreceptor; (b) define tidal volume, vital capacity, total lung capacity, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume and residual volume. 7.3 Gaseous exchange in plants Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the structure and functions of stomata; (b) describe the mechanism of opening and closing of stomata based on potassium ion accumulation hypothesis. 8 Transport in Animals and Plants 8.1 Transport system in mammals Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the structure of a mammalian heart; (b) define systole and diastole, and explain the sequence of events in a cardiac cycle including changes in pressure and volume in aorta, left atrium and left ventricle; (c) describe the initiation and regulation of heart beat;

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Learning Outcome (d) explain hypertension, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis and myocardial infarction, and state their causes and preventions; (e) describe the lymphatic system in relation to the blood circulatory system; (f) determine the direction of fluid movement at the arterial and venous ends of the capillaries by calculating the differences between osmotic pressure/solute potential and hydrostatic pressure.

8.2

Transport system in vascular plants

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the uptake of water and mineral ions from the soil by the root hairs involving water potential; (b) describe the apoplast, symplast and vacuolar pathway of water movement through the root tissues; (c) describe the root pressure, cohesion-tension theory and transpiration pull in relation to water movement from the roots to leaves; (d) explain translocation using the mass flow, electro-osmosis, cytoplasmic streaming and peristaltic waves hypotheses; (e) explain the concept of source and sink, and phloem loading and unloading in translocation according to pressure flow hypothesis.

Control and Regulation 9.1 Nervous system Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the organisation of the nervous system in humans; (b) explain the formation of resting and action potentials; (c) describe the characteristics of nerve impulse; (d) describe the structure of synapse, and explain the role of neurotransmitters (acetylcholine and norepinephrine); (e) explain and compare the mechanisms of impulse transmission along the axon and across the synapse;

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Learning Outcome (f) describe the structure of neuromuscular junction and sarcomere; (g) explain the role of sarcoplasmic reticulum, calcium ions, myofibril and T tubules in muscle contraction; (h) explain the mechanism of muscle contraction according to the sliding filament hypothesis; (i) compare the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems; (j) explain the mechanisms of drug action on nervous system and neuromuscular junction (cocaine and curare).

9.2

Hormones

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the mechanisms of action of steroid hormone and non-steroid hormones; (b) explain the roles of plant hormones in growth and development; (c) explain the mechanism of phytochrome action and their roles in photoperiodism and flowering; (d) outline the application of plant growth regulators (synthetic auxin, synthetic gibberellins, and synthetic ethylene) in agriculture.

10 Reproduction, Development and Growth 10.1 Sexual reproduction in humans 9 Candidates should be able to: (a) outline spermatogenesis and oogenesis; (b) describe the passage and development of sperms from the testis to the oviduct for fertilisation; (c) describe the process of fertilisation and implantation; (d) describe the roles of hormones in menstrual cycle and pregnancy; 10 (e) describe briefly the stages in embryonic development;

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Learning Outcome (f) explain the roles of placenta, chorion, amniotic fluid and allantois in foetal development; (g) explain the process of parturition.

10.2 Sexual reproduction in flowering plants

Candidates should be able to: (a) outline double fertilisation; (b) describe the embryonic development in seed and formation of fruit.

10.3 Seed germination Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the mobilisation of nutrients after imbibition in seed germination; (b) state the external factors affecting germination. 10.4 Growth curves and patterns of growth Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the types of growth curves (absolute growth curve, absolute growth rate curve and relative growth rate curve); (b) explain with examples the patterns of growth (limited growth in humans, unlimited growth in perennial plant, allometric growth in humans, isometric growth in fish and intermittent growth in insect); (c) explain the processes of ecdysis and metamorphosis in insects, and relate the role of hormones (neurosecretory hormone, juvenile hormone and ecdysone) in these processes. 11 Homeostasis 11.1 Importance of homeostasis Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the importance of homeostasis; (b) describe the homeostatic control system in mammals; (c) explain the physiological and behavioural control in thermoregulation of endotherms.

Topic 11.2 Liver

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Learning Outcome Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the structure of liver, and explain the roles of its components; (b) describe carbohydrate metabolism in the liver (glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis); (c) describe protein metabolism (transamination, deamination and urea formation) in the liver.

11.3 Osmoregulation in mammals

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the process of ultrafiltration, reabsorption and secretion in the formation of urine; (b) explain the role of ADH and aldosterone, and the related hormones in regulating water, sodium and potassium ions of urine; (c) explain the regulation of pH of tissue fluid.

11.4 Osmoregulation in plants

Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the role of stomata in regulation of water loss, and explain the importance of transpiration; (b) describe the various types of plant adaptations to prevent water loss (halophytes and xerophytes).

12 Immunity 12.1 Immune system Candidates should be able to: (a) describe human lymphatic system, and explain its function in relation to immunity; (b) describe antibody (structure and function), antigen, epitope, and the development of B and T cells; (c) describe the roles of macrophages, B cells and T cells.

Topic 12.2 Development of immunity

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Learning Outcome Candidates should be able to: (a) explain cell-mediated and humoral immune responses; (b) outline the antigen-antibody reactions (precipitation, agglutination, neutralisation, complement fixation).

12.3 Concept of self and non-self

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the concept of self and non-self and relate this to tissue rejection in organ transplant; (b) explain the mechanism of immune suppression (HIV infection).

12.4 Immune disorder

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Candidates should be able to: (a) describe autoimmune disorder (Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)).

13 Infectious Diseases 13.1 Infectious disease Candidates should be able to: (a) explain what is meant by an infection and an infectious disease; (b) outline the types of infectious agents. 13.2 Dengue

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Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the causes and symptoms of dengue; (b) explain the transmission of dengue;

13.3 Cholera

(c) discuss the roles of social, economical and biological factors in the prevention of dengue. Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the causes and symptoms of cholera; (b) explain the transmission of cholera; (c) discuss the roles of social, economical and biological factors in the prevention of cholera.

Topic 13.4 Tuberculosis (TB)

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Learning Outcome Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the causes and symptoms of tuberculosis (TB); (b) explain the transmission of TB; (c) discuss the roles of social, economical and biological factors in the prevention of TB.

13.5 Malaria Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the causes and symptoms of malaria; (b) explain the transmission of malaria; (c) discuss the roles of social, economical and biological factors in the prevention of malaria.

THIRD TERM: ECOLOGY AND GENETICS Topic 14 Taxonomy and Biodiversity 14.1 Taxonomy Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the importance of taxonomy in biological sciences; (b) explain the concept of species, and relate how a species is classified into higher categories in a taxonomic hierarchy. 14.2 Diversity of organisms Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the morphological characteristics of the following phyla in the respective kingdoms: Protoctista (Chlorophyta and Zoomastigina), Fungi (Zygomycota), Plantae (Bryophyta, Filicinophyta, Coniferophyta and Angiospermophyta) and Animalia (Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Mollusca, Arthropoda and Chordata). 14.3 Biodiversity in Malaysia 14 Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the different levels and examples of biodiversity in Malaysia, namely ecosystem or community diversity, species or taxonomic diversity and genetic diversity; (b) explain the importance of biodiversity in Malaysia. 14.4 Threats to biodiversity 15 Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the natural and man-made factors that threaten biodiversity in Malaysia; (b) explain the steps and efforts taken by various agencies and organisations to address the threats. 14.5 Conservation of biodiversity Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the various measures taken to conserve the different levels of biodiversity including in situ and ex situ conservation in Malaysia.

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Topic 15 Ecology 15.1 Levels of ecological organisation

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Learning Outcome

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the concept of hierarchy in an ecosystem and the interaction between the biotic and abiotic components. 16 Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the biogeochemical cycles (carbon, phosphorus and sulphur), and explain their importance.

15.2 Biogeochemical cycles

15.3 Energy flow

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Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the energy flow and the efficiency of energy transfer in terrestrial ecosystem (tropical rain forest) and aquatic ecosystem (lake).

15.4 Population ecology

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain population growth (S and J growth curves), biotic potential, natality, mortality, migration and survivorship; (b) explain the characteristics of populations that show Type I, Type II and Type III survivorship curves, and K-strategies and r-strategies.

15.5 Carrying capacity

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain what is meant by carrying capacity and sustainable development; (b) explain the factors limiting the population size and distribution.

15.6 Quantitative ecology

Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the use of quadrat and line transect sampling methods and explain the advantages and disadvantages of using these methods; (b) calculate the various sampling parameters (frequency, density, cover and their absolute and relative estimations) and estimate the population size of organisms; (c) explain the pattern of distribution of organisms in an ecosystem.

Topic 16 Selection and Speciation 16.1 Natural and artificial selection

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Learning Outcome

Candidates should be able to: (a) describe continuous and discontinuous variations in relation to selection and speciation; (b) explain the modes of natural selection (stabilising, directional and disruptive) and their consequences; (c) describe with examples, sexual selection and polymorphism; (d) explain the importance of artificial selection (gene bank, germplasm bank and sperm bank).

16.2 Speciation

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the processes of isolation, genetic drift, hybridisation and adaptive radiation; (b) explain the importance of speciation in relation to evolution.

17 Inheritance and Genetic Control 17.1 Types of genetic crosses and breeding system Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the Mendelian inheritance pertaining to the phenotypic and genotypic ratios; (b) describe the types of crosses (test cross, backcross, reciprocal cross and selfing) and explain their importance; (c) describe pure breeding, outbreeding, inbreeding, selective breeding, and explain their importance. 17.2 Non-Mendelian inheritance Candidates should be able to: (a) explain (i) incomplete dominance (flower colour in snapdragon), (ii) codominance (MN blood group in humans), (iii) multiple alleles (ABO blood group in humans), and calculate the genotypic and phenotypic ratios;

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Learning Outcome (b) explain lethal genes (sickle-cell in human/coat colur in mice/chlorophyll production in maize), polygenes (height in humans), linked and sex-linked genes (Drosophila eye colour and haemophilia in humans), and epistasis (coat colour in dog and capsule shape in shepherds purse plant); (c) explain the pedigree analysis.

17.3 Genetic mapping

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain crossing over and distinguish between parental and recombinant genotypes and phenotypes; (b) calculate the distance between two loci, and determine the relative position of a gene on a chromosome based on percentage of crossingover in Drosophila.

17.4 Population genetics

Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the concept of gene pool, gene/allele frequency and genotype frequency; (b) explain Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (p2 + 2pq +q2 = 1 and p + q = 1), and calculate the gene/allele and genotype frequencies; (c) explain the conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to be valid; (d) describe changes in genotype frequencies in relation to evolution.

17.5 DNA replication

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the experiments to prove DNA is the genetic material (Avery, MacLeod and McCarty experiment and Hershey and Chase experiment); (b) explain the three models of DNA replication, and interpret the experiment of Meselson and Stahl to prove the semi-conservative model of DNA replication; (c) explain the mechanism of DNA replication, and the role of the enzymes involved.

Topic 17.6 Gene expression

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Learning Outcome Candidates should be able to: (a) explain the experiment of Beadle and Tatum which leads to the establishment of one-geneone-polypeptide hypothesis; (b) interpret the genetic code table, and identify the appropriate anti-codon; (c) explain the characteristics of genetic code; (d) describe transcription and translation.

17.7 Regulation of gene expression

Candidates should be able to: (a) define repressor, inducer, negative control in lac operon and constitutive enzyme; (b) describe the components of lac operon, and explain its mechanism.

17.8 Mutation

Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the different types of gene mutation with examples of its consequences (substitution sickle-cell anaemia, insertion/addition frameshift mutation, deletion frameshift mutation and thalassaemia major and inversion); (b) differentiate missense, nonsense and silent/ neutral mutations; (c) describe the four structural changes in chromosomes (duplication, deletion, inversion and translocation); (d) describe the changes in chromosome number, including the definition of non-disjunction; (e) describe the consequences of non-disjunction in relation to meiosis; (f) explain and give examples of different types of aneuploidy (monosomy and trisomy); (g) explain and give examples of different types of euploidy: diploid and polyploid, including autopolyploidy and allopolyploidy.

Topic 18 Gene Technology 18.1 Recombinant DNA technology

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Learning Outcome

Candidates should be able to: (a) explain recombinant DNA technology/genetic engineering; (b) differentiate between genomic and cDNA cloning and genomic and cDNA libraries; (c) describe the vectors used in cloning and their properties; (d) describe the restriction enzyme (EcoR1 and SmaI), including its nomenclature, recognition site (palindrome), importance and the types of ends generated; (e) explain reverse transcription, insertion, ligation, transformation/transduction, amplification and screening; (f) describe the steps involved in genomic and cDNA cloning, including the enzymes involved, and explain human insulin production in E. coli as an example.

19 Biotechnology 19.1 Roles of biotechnology 18 Candidates should be able to: (a) define biotechnology; (b) outline the roles of biotechnology in our life. 19.2 Applications of biotechnology Candidates should be able to: (a) describe the application of biotechnology in food and beverages production (fermentation and vitamin-enriched eggs); (b) describe the application of biotechnology in agriculture (hybrid rice, herbicide resistant plants and transgenic fish); (c) describe the application of biotechnology in medicine (human growth hormone, human insulin and gene therapy) and forensic (DNA finger printing); (d) describe the application of biotechnology in public health (genetic screening, diagnostic kits and oil-decomposing bacteria).

Kolokium
Bil. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Tajuk
Lipids Proteins Membrane Structure Rate of enzyme-catalysed reaction Anaerobic respiration Limiting factors of photosynthesis Hypertension, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis and myocardial infarction Describe the lymphatic system in relation to the blood circulatory system Sexual reproduction in humans Embryonic development Immune disorder & Infectious disease Dengue & Cholera Tuberculosis (TB) & Malaria Biodiversity in Malaysia Threats to biodiversity Conservation of biodiversity Biogeochemical cycles Energy flow Biotechnology

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