DENTAL CASTING ALLOYS

INTRODUCTION For casting dental restorations and for the fabrication of wire and other structures, it is necessary to combine various metals to produce alloys with adequate properties, for dental applications. These alloys are produced largely from gold combined with other noble metals and certain base metals. The alloys are compounded to produce properties most acceptable for their intended dental applications, such as simple inlays, bridges, removable cast restorations, solders, (or) wrought wire forms. The noble metals are those elements with a good metallic surface that retain their surfaces in dry air. The six metals of the platinum group they are, platinum, iridium, radium, osmium and ruthemium; along with gold they are called noble metals. HISTORICAL ALLOYS The history of dental casting alloys has been influenced by ma!or factors" PERSPECTIVE ON DENTAL CASTING

#. The technologic changes of dental prosthesis. $. %etallurgic advancements; and . &rice changes of the noble metals since #'(). Taggart*s presentation to the +ew ,or- odontological group in #'./ on the fabrication of cast inlay restorations often has been ac-nowledged as the first reported application of the lost wax technique in dentistry. The inlay technique described by Taggart was an instant success. 0t soon led to the casting of complex inlays such as onlays, crowns, F&1, and 2&1 frame wor-s. 3ecause pure gold did not have the physical properties required of these dental restorations, existing !ewellery alloys were quic-ly adopted. These gold alloys were further strengthened with copper, silver (or) palladium. 0n #' $, the dental materials group at the +ational 3ureau of 4tandards surveyed the alloys being used and roughly classified them as Type #, $, and 5.

0n the following years, several patents were issued for alloys containing palladium as a substitute for platinum.

3y #'5), the composition of 1ental +oble metal alloys for cast metal restorations had become rather diverse, with these formulations, the tarnishing tendency of the original alloys apparently had disappeared. 0t is now -nown that in gold alloys, palladium is added to counter act the tarnish potential of silver. The base metal removable partial denture alloys were introduced in the #' .s. 4ince that time, both +ic-el6chromium and cobalt6chromium formulations have become increasingly popular compared with conventional Type 07 gold alloys, which previously were the predominant metals used for such prosthesis. The obvious advantages of base metal alloys are their lighter weight, increased mechanical properties and reduced costs. 8i-ewise, by #'/), the price of gold was climbing so rapidly the attention focused on the noble metal alloys. To reduce the precious metal content yet retain the advantages of the noble metals for dental use. PROPERTIES OF NOBLE METAL ALLOYS 4ince these metals have a wide range of properties and are widely used in dentistry, it is worth while to describe some of their properties.

a.

GOLD #. &ure gold is a soft, malleable, ductile metal that does not oxidi9e under atmospheric conditions and is attac-ed by only a few of the most powerful oxidi9ing agents. $. 0t has a rich yellow colour with a strong metallic luster. . :lthough it is the most ductile and malleable of all metals, it ran-s much lower in strength.

The pure metal fuses at #.(;<, which is only $.; below the melting point of copper (#.) ;<). 5. 4mall amounts of impurities have a pronounced effect on the mechanical properties of gold and its alloys. The presence of less than ..$= lead will cause gold to be extremely brittle. %ercury in small quantities also has a harmful effect on its properties. >. ?old is nearly as soft as lead, with the result that in dental alloys, coins, and articles of !ewellery it must

be alloyed with copper, silver, platinum and other metals to develop the necessary hardness, durability and elasticity. (. The specific gravity of pure gold is between #'. . and #'. , ma-ing it one of the heavy metal.

/. :ir (or) water at any temperature does not affect (or) tarnish gold. ). ?old is not soluble in sulfuric, nitric (or)

hydrochloric acids. PALLADIUM #. &alladium is not used in the pure state in dentistry, but it is used in many dental alloys, combined with either gold (or) silver. 0t is cheaper than platinum and since it imparts many of the properties of platinum to dental alloys, it is often used as a replacement for platinum. $. &alladium is a white metal some what dar-er than platinum.

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. 0ts specific gravity is ##.5 (or) about half that of platinum and a little more than half that of gold. 5. 0t is a malleable and ductile metal with a melting point of #>>>;<, which is the lowest of the platinum group of metals. >. The metals has the quality of absorbing (or) occluding large quantities of hydrogen gar when heated. This can be an

undesirable quality when alloys containing palladium are heated with an improperly ad!usted gas air torch. IRIDIUM, RUTHENIUM, AND RHODIUM #. 4mall amounts of iridium are some times present in dental alloys, either as impurities combined with platinum (or) as additions to modify the properties. $. :s little as ....>= (>. ppm) is effective in refining the grain si9e of cast gold alloys. 2uthenium produces a similar effect. . 0ridium is a hard metal that is quite brittle, white with a high sp. ?ravity of $$.5$ and an exceptionally high

melting point estimated to be about $55.@<.

SILVER #. 4ilver is malleable and ductile, white, the best6-nown conductor of heat and electricity, and stronger and harder than gold but softer than copper. $. 0t melts at '(..>@<, which is below the melting point of both gold and copper. . 0t is unaltered in clean, dry air at any temperature but combines with sulfur, chlorine and phosphorous, (or) vapors containing these elements (or) their compounds. Foods containing sulfur compounds cause severe tarnish on silver. 5. &ure silver is seldom employed in dental restorations because of the blac- sulfide formation on the metal in the mouth, although it is used extensively for small additions to many gold alloys. :ddition of small amounts of palladium to silver containing alloys prevents the rapid corrosion of such alloys in the oral environment.

KARAT AND FINENESS OF GOLD For many years the gold content of gold alloys has been described on the basis of -arat, (or) in terms of fineness, rather than by weight =. The term -arat refers to the parts of pure gold in $5 parts of an alloy. For example, $56-arat gold is pure gold, where as $$6-arat gold is an alloy containing $$ parts pure gold and $ parts of other metals. Fineness describes gold alloys by the number of parts per #... of gold. For example, pure gold has a fineness of #..., and (>. fine alloy has a gold content of (>=. Thus the fineness rating is to timer the gold = in an alloy. Fineness is considered as more practical term than -arat. The terms -arat and fineness are rarely used to describe the gold content of current alloys.

CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL CASTING ALLOYS (OR) DENTAL GOLD ALLOYS :ccording to :1: specification +o.> these casting alloys are described simply as" Type 0 Type 00 Type 000 and Type 07 Type I (Soft): These alloys are limited to use in inlays that are sub!ect only to slight stress during mastication. This would include inlays for the gingival and

interproximal areas of a '# tooth and for certain occlusal inlays of such design (or) location that they are not sub!ected to severe stress applications. :lloys of this type often are useful for inlays prepared by the direct technique, which requires the finishing operation to be completed on the tooth with relatively simple hand instruments. Type II (Medi !): These medium alloys can be used for all types of cast inlays and onlays.

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Type III (Ha"d): These alloys are most acceptable for crowns, thin A5 th crowns, and anterior and posterior bridge abutments,

which should not be cast from the softer and wea-er Type 0 and Type 00 alloys. Type IV (E#t"a $a"d): These alloys are designed to have sufficient strength and adequate properties for cast removable partial dentures with clasps, precision cast fixed bridges and B crowns, which are not sub!ected to hard wor-ing (or) burnishing operations. Composition The composition of the gold casting alloys that meet the requirements of :1: 4p. +o. > are given in the Table below"
TYPE 0 00 000 07 GOLD )#6) = /(6/)= / 6//= /#6/5= PLATINUM 6 6 6 .6#= PALLADIUM ..$65.>= #6 = $65= $6>=

0t is apparent from the Table that there is some reduction in gold content when a comparison is made between Type 0 and 07 alloys.

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:n increase in copper content is observed as the gold content is decreased. :n increase in the 9inc content also occurs in Type 07 alloys. &latinum is rarely added to Type # gold alloys, but a small amount of palladium is always added to all 5 types. PROPERTIES OF GOLD CASTING ALLOYS
Vi#$"%s &'%(n"ss n)m*"% (K+,mm - ) So.t"n"( Yi"/( st%"n+t&0 (1234 O..s"t) MP'

E/on+'tion H'%("n"( minim)m (4) +one +one +one $

T!p"

So.t"n"( H'%("n"( So.t"n"( Minim)m M'5im)m minim)m minim)m minim)m 0 00 000 07 >. '. #$. #>. '. #$. #>. +one +one #5. $.. 5. +one +one +one >.. #) #$ #$ #.

From the above table it may be seen that as the hardness increases from Type 0 to Type 07, the yield strength and tensile strength values are also increased, and the elongation generally decreased.

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4ince the yield strength represents in general the resistance to permanent deformation under stress, it can be seen that alloys with increased hardness values offer an increased resistance to permanent bending (or) deformation. 4oft alloys have a higher degree of elongation and a relatively greater quality of ductility than the alloys of higher hardness values. FUSION TEMPERATURES OF DENTAL GOLD CASTING ALLOYS
METAL (o%) ALLOY TYPICAL FUSION TEMPERATURE (6C)

Type 0 Type 00 Type 000 Type 07

#..>6#./. '..6'/. )/>6#... )/>6#...

From the above table it is observed that the fusion temperature of the 5 types of alloys decreases from Type 0 to Type 07. The fusion temperatures are important factors in choosing the type of investment to be used.

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:lloys having fusion temperatures higher than about ##..;< should not be cast into calcium sulfate bonded investment. +umerous classification systems have been proposed to categori9e the wide variety of commercial gold6based and palladium based alloys. 0n #')5 the :1: proposed a simple classification of dental casting alloys. ALLOY TYPE TOTAL NOBLE METAL CONTENT <ontains 5. wt= :7 and (.= wt of the noble metal elements (:uD0rDE4D&tD2hD2u). <ontains $>= of the noble metal elements. <ontains F $> wt= of noble metal elements.

Cigh noble metal

+oble metal

&redominantly base metal

%any manufacturers have adopted this classification to simplify the communication between dentists and dental

laboratory technologists.

4ome insurance companies use it as well to determine the cost of crown and bridge treatment. CLASSIFICATION RESTORATIONS AND FRAME OF ALLOYS FOR ALL METAL

METAL0

CERAMIC

RESTORATIONS PARTIAL

7ORKS

FOR

REMOVABLE

DENTURES A//o! T!p" A//8M"t'/ M"t'/8 C"%'mi# :u6&t6&d :u6&d6:g (>6 #$ wt= :g) :u6&d6:g (Gwt #$= :g) :u6&d (no :g) &d6:u (no :g) &d6:u6:g &d6:g &d6<u &d6<o &d6?a6:g R"mo9'*/" P'%ti'/ D"nt)%"s

Cigh noble

:u6:g6<u6&d metal ceramic alloys

:u6:g6<u6&d

+oble

:g6&d6:u6<u :g6&d %etal ceramic alloys

:g6&d6:u6<u :g6&d

0n this we have all the 5 types of alloys, described earlier with both high noble and noble metal alloys. H"'t t%"'tm"nt o. &i+& no*/" 'n( no*/" m"t'/ '//o!s ?old alloys can be significantly hardened if the alloy contains a sufficient amount of copper. #5 Types 0 and H alloys

usually do not harden, (or) harden to a lesser degree than do the types C0 and 07 alloys. The actual mechanism of hardening is probably the result of several different solid 6 solid

transformations. :lloys that can be hardened can of course, also be softened. 0n metallurgical terminology the softening heat treatment is referred to as solution heat treatment. The hardening heat treatment is termed age hardening. So.t"nin+ &"'t t%"'tm"nt The casting is placed in an electric furnace for #. minutes at a temperature of /..;< (#$';F) and then it is quenched in water. The tensile strength, hardness and proportional limit are reduced by such a treatment but the ductility is increased. The softening heat treatment is indicated for structures that are to be ground, shaped (or) otherwise cold wor-ed, either in or out of the mouth.

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H'%("nin+ &"'t t%"'tm"nt The age hardening of the dental alloys can be accomplished @in several ways. Ene of the most practical hardening treatments is by I4oa-ingI (or) aging the casting at a specific temperature for a definite time, usually #> to quenched. The aging . minutes, before it is water depends on the alloy

temperature

composition but is generally between $..;< and 5>.;<. 0deally, before the alloy is given an age6hardening treatment, it should be sub!ected to a softening heat treatment to relieve all strain hardening, if it is present and to start the hardening treatment with the alloy as a disordered solid solution. The hardening heat treatment is indicated for metallic partial dentures, bridges, and other similar structures. C'stin+ S&%in$'+" %ost metals and alloys, including gold and noble metal alloys, shrin- when they change from the liquid to the solid state. The values for the casting shrin-age differ for the various alloys presumably because of differences in their composition. 0t has been shown, for example, that platinum, palladium and copper

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all are effective in reducing the casting shrin-age of the alloy. 0t is of interest that the value for the casting shrin-age of pure gold closely approaches that of its maximal linear thermal contraction. A//o! Type 0, ?old base Type 00, ?old base Type 000, ?old base +i6<r6%o Si/9"% P'//'(i)m '//o!s These alloys are white and predominantly silver @m composition but have substantial amounts of palladium (at least $>Ao) that provide nobility and promote the silver tarnish resistance. They may (or) may not contain copper and a small amount of gold. The copper (<u) free :g6&d alloys may contain /.= to /$= silver and $>= palladium and may have physical properties of a Type 000 gold alloy. Ether silver6based might contain roughly (.= silver $>= palladium and as much as #>= or more of copper and may have properties more li-e a Type 07 gold alloy. 1espite early reports of poor castability, the :g6&d alloys can produce acceptable castings. #/ C'stin+ s&%in$'+" (4) #.>(= #. /= #.5$= $. =

3ecause of the increasing interest in aesthetics by dental patients, a decreased use of all metal restorations has occurred during the past decade. The use of metal ceramic restorations in posterior sites has increased relative to the use of all metal crowns and onlays. HIGH NOBLE ALLOYS FOR METAL CERAMIC

RESTORATIONS The original metal ceramic alloys contained ))= gold and were much to soft for stress bearing restorations such as F&1. 3ecause there was no evidence of a chemical bond between these alloys and dental porcelain, mechanical retention and undercuts were used to prevent detachment of the ceramic veneer. Jsing the stress bond test, it was found that the bond strength of the porcelain to this type of alloy was less than the cohesive strength of the porcelain itself. This mean that if the failure occurred in the metal6ceramic restoration, it would most probably arise at the porcelain metal interface. 3y adding less than #= of oxide forming elements such as iron, idium, and tin to this high gold content alloy, the porcelain

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metal bond strength was improved by a factor of

. 0ron also

increase the proportional limit and strength of the alloy. This #= addition of base metals to the gold, palladium and platinum alloy was all that was necessary to produce a slight oxide filum on the surface of the substructure to achieve a porcelain6metal bond strength level that surpassed the cohesive strength of porcelain itself. The high noble alloys for metal ceramic restorations are" A. Go%d&P%ati' ! & Pa%%adi ! A%%oy(: These alloys have a gold content ranging up to ))= with varying amounts of palladium, platinum and small amounts of base metals. 4ome of these alloys are yellow in colour. :lloys of this type are susceptible to sag deformation and F&1@s should be restricted to 6unit spans, anterior cantilevers (or) crowns. ). Go%d&Pa%%adi !&Si%*e" A%%oy(: These gold based alloys contain between '= and //= upto >= palladium and silver levels as high as $$=.

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The silver increases thermal contraction coefficient but it also has a tendency to discolor some porcelains. +. Go%d&Pa%%adi ! A%%oy(: : gold content ranging from 55= to >>= and a palladium level of >= to 5>= is present in these metal ceramic alloys,

which have remained popular despite their relatively high cost. The lac- of silver results in a decreased thermal contraction coefficient and the freedom from silver discolouration of porcelain. :lloys of this type must be used with porcelains that have low coefficients on to avoid the development of axial and circumferential of thermal contraction to avoid the development of axial and circumferential tensile stresses in &orcelain during the cooling part of the porcelain firing cycle.

NOBLE ALLOYS FOR METAL CERAMIC RESTORATIONS A. Pa%%adi ! )a(ed A%%oy(

#. &alladium 6 4ilver alloys. $. &alladium <opper alloys" . &alladium 6 <obalt alloys" 5. &alladium 6 ?allium 6 4ilver and &alladium 6 ?allium K 4ilver K ?old alloys"

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P'//'(i)m *'s"( '//o!s +oble palladium based alloys offer a compromise between

the high noble gold alloys and the predominantly base metal alloys. The price per ounce of a palladium alloy is generally one half to one third that of a gold alloys. The density of a palladium based alloy is midway between that of base metal and of high noble alloys. ,) Pa%%adi ! & Si%*e" A%%oy(: &d6:g alloys were introduced widely in the late #'/.s. This alloy type was introduced to the J.4. mar-et in #'/5 as the first gold free noble metal available for metal ceramic restorations. &d6:g alloys en!oyed wide spread popularity for a few years after they were introduced, but their popularity has declined some what in recent years because of their tendency to discolor porcelain during firing. Ene theory that has been proposed for this greenish yellow discoloration, popularly termed I4ellingI is that the silver vapor escapes from the surface of these alloys during firing of the porcelain, diffuses as ionic silver into the porcelain and is reduced to form colloidal metallic silver in the surface layer of porcelain.

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The compositions of &d6:g alloys fall within a narrow range" > = to (#= palladium and $)= to 5.= silver. Tin (or) 0ndium or both are usually added to increase alloy hardness and to promote oxide formation for adequate bonding of porcelain. 0n some of these alloys, the formation of an internal oxide rather than an external oxide has been reported. Ether palladium alloys contain />= to '.= palladium and no silver and were developed to eliminate the greening problem some of the high palladium alloys develop a layer of dar- oxide on their surface during cooling from the degassing cycle, and this oxide layer has proven difficult to mas- by the opaque porcelain. Ether high palladium alloys such as the &d6?a6:g6:u type seem not to be plagued by this problem. The replacement of gold by palladium raises the melting range but lower the contraction coefficient of an alloy. 0ncreases the silver content tends to lower the melting range and raises the contraction coefficient. 3ecause of their high silver contents compared with the gold based alloys, the silver discoloration effect is most severe for

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these alloys. ?old metal conditioners or ceramic coating agents may minimi9e this effect. The low specific gravity of these alloys (#../6##.#) combined with their low intrinsic cost ma-es these alloys attractive as economical alternatives to the gold based alloys. -) PALLADIUM&+OPPER ALLO.S: This alloy is comparable in cost to the &d6:g alloys. 3ecause of their low melting range of approximately ##/.;< to ##'.;<, these alloys are expected to be susceptible to creep deformation (4ag) at elevated firing temperatures. Thus, one should exercise caution in using these alloys for long6span F&1s with relatively small connectors. :s is true for some &d6:g alloys, several of these products contain $= gold. These alloys contain between /56).= palladium and '6#>= copper. &orcelain discolouration due to copper is possible but does not appear to be a ma!or problem.

Ene should be aware of the potential effect on aesthetics of the dar- brown (or) blac- oxide formed during oxidation and subsequent porcelain firing cycles. <are should be ta-en, to masthis oxide completely with opaque porcelain and to eliminate the unaesthetic dar- band that develops at metals porcelain !unctions. The &d6<u alloy have yield strengths upto ##5>%&a. Hlongation values of >= to ##= and hardness values as high as some base metal alloys. Thus, these alloys would appear to have a poor potential for burnishing except when the marginal areas are relatively thin. :lthough thermal incompatibility is not considered to be a ma!or concern, distortion of ultra thin metal copings (..#mm) has been occasionally reported. /) PALLADIUM&+O)ALT ALLO.S: This alloy group is comparable in cost to the &d6:g and &d6 <u alloys. They are often advertised as gold free, nic-el6free, beryllium6free, and silver6free alloys. The reference to nic-el and beryllium indicates that these alloys, as is true with the other noble metals, are generally considered biocompatible.

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8i-e many noble metals, these alloys have a fine grain si9e to minimi9e hot tearing during the solidification process. This &d6<o group is the most sag resistant of all noble metal alloys. The noble metal content (based on palladium) ranges from /)= to ))=. The cobalt content ranges between 5 and #.wt= over commercial alloy contains )= gallium. :n example of typical properties of a &d6<o alloy is as follows" Cardness ,ield strength Hlongation %odulus of elasticity $>.1&C >)(%&a $.= and )>.$?pa

:lthough these alloys are silver6free, discolouration of porcelain can still result because of the presence of cobalt. :ny way this is not considered a significant problem. Failure of the technician to completely mas- out the dar- metal oxide color with opaque porcelain is a more common cause of unacceptable aesthetic results.

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PALLADIUM&GALLIUM&SILVER AND PALLADIUM&GALLIUM&SILVER&GOLD ALLO.S These alloys are the most recent of the noble metals. This

group of alloys was introduced because they tend to have a slightly lighter coloured oxide than &d6<u (or) &d6<o alloys and they are thermally compatible with lower expansion porcelains. The oxide that is required for bonding to porcelain is relatively dar-, but it is somewhat lighter than those of the &d6<u and &d6<o alloys. The silver content is relatively low (>.) wt=) and is usually inadequate to cause porcelain LgreeningM.

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TECHNICAL DATA CHART FROM DEGUSSA HIGH GOLD +ONTAINING +RO1N AND )RIDGE ALLO.S A//o! T!p" Co/o)% 1eep yellow ,ellow ,ellow ,ellow A) Vi#$"%:s &'%(n"ss >> '> #5> #'>

1egulor : 1egulor 3 1egulor < 1egulor %o

#, soft $, medium , hard 5, extra hard

)/.> />./ /5.. (>.>

SILVER PALLADIUM +RO1N AND )RIDGE ALLO.S A//o! &alliag %N T!p" 5, extra hard Co/o)% A) P( Vi#$"%s &'%(n"ss #>.

Ohite

>>..

$..'

HIGH GOLD +ONTAINING ALLO.S 2OR +ERAMI+S A//o! 1egulent ? 3iobond 000 T!p" Hxtra hard Hxtra hard Co/o)% ,ellow 3right yellow A) )( )$.( Vi#$"%:s &'%(n"ss #>. #(.

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PALLADIUM&)ASE ALLO.S 2OR +ERAMI+S A//o! 3ond6on 5 T!p" Hxtra hard Co/o)% Ohite A) /'./ Vi#$"%:s &'%(n"ss $(.

These &d6?a6:g alloys generally tend to have a relatively low thermal contraction coefficient and would be expected to be more compatible with lower expansion porcelains such as vita porcelains. BASE METAL ALLOYS FOR DENTAL CASTINGS The pressures of economics, as well as a search for improved mechanical properties, have led to the development of base metal alloys for the construction of dental prosthesis devices. Composition The principal elements present in cast base metals for partial dentures are chromium, cobalt and nic-el, which together ma-e up approximately '.= of the most alloys used for dental restorations. 2epresentation compositions for typical dental casting alloys are listed in the table.

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Composition o. #'st *'s" m"t'/ '//o!s )s"( in ("ntist%! In+%"(i"nts Vit'//i)m <hromium <obalt +ic-el %olybdenum :luminium 0ron <arbon 3eryllium 4ilicon %anganese ?allium ... 3alance 6 >.. 6 #.. ..> 6 ..( ..> 6 A//o!s (4 o. ;"i+&t) To#oni)m #/.. 6 3alance >.. >.. ..> ..# #.. ..> >.. 6 <"/"n$o LG $/.. 3alance # .. 5.. 6 #.. ..$ 6 ..( ../ 6 No*i/i)m ... 3alance 6 >.. 6 6 .. > 6 .. > 6 ...>

En close examination of the table, one can observe the following points" #. <hromium is the only ma!or metal that exists in all alloys of the type. <obalt is present in all alloys except Ticonium, whereas nic-el is absent in vitallium and nobelium. $. The total wt of chromium, cobalt and nic-el in these alloys is over '.= yet, their effect on the physical properties of these alloys are controlled by the presence of minor

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alloying elements such as carbon, molybdenum, beryllium, tungsten and aluminium. E.."#t o. "'#& '//o! #onstit)"nts +$"o!i !: <hromium content is responsible for the tarnish resistance and stainless properties of these alloys. Ohen the chromium content of an alloy is over .= of the alloy is more

difficult to cast. 0t also forms a brittle phase, -nown as the 9igma phase. Therefore dental alloys of these types should not contain more than $)= or $'= chromium. +o3a%t a'd 'i45e%: are somewhat interchangeable to a certain percentage cobalt increases the elastic modulus, strength and hardness of the alloy more than nic-el does. +ic-el may increase ductility. +a"3o' 4o'te't: The hardness of cobalt base alloys is increased by the increased content of carbon. : change in the carbon content in this order of ..$= in these alloys changes the properties to such an extent that the alloy would no longer be usable in dentistry. Mo%y3de' !: The presence of = to (= molybdenum contributes to the strength of the alloy. .

A% !i'i !: :luminium in nic-el6containing alloys forms a compound of nic-el and aluminium (+i 6:l). This compound increases the ultimate tensile and yield strength. )e"y%i !: :ddition of #= beryllium to nic-el6base alloy reduces the fusion range of the alloy by about #..;<. 0t also aids in solid solution hardening. 0t improves the casting characteristic are possibly participate in porcelain bonding. Si%i4o' a'd Ma'6a'e(e: are added to increase and castability of these alloys. They are present primarily on oxide to prevent oxidation of other element during melting. The presence of nitrogen which cannot be controlled unless the castings are made in a controlled atmosphere as in vacuum or argon, also contributes to the brittle qualities of these cast alloys. Ohen the nitrogen content of the final alloy is more than ..#=, the castings lose some of their ductility. 4ince the minor ingredients of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen effectively influence the properties of the final formulated and designed in such a way as to maximi9e the rigidity of the prosthesis. The obvious approach would be to increase the thic-ness of the metal substructure, since doubling the thic-ness increases the rigidity in bending by a factor of ). Cowever, the maximum #

thic-ness of the overall restoration is limited externally by occlusion and proper anatomical contour internally by the desire to retain as much tooth structure as possible. (Hsthetics requires a minimal thic-ness of overlying porcelain that results in severe limits as to the maximum thic-ness of the metal). :n examination of the mechanical properties of base metal alloys and a gold alloy shows that in general the base metal alloys have a modulus of elasticity approximately twice that of previously used gold alloys. 4ince elastic modulus is a measure of the stiffness of rigidity of materials, this property would enhance the application of base metal alloys for long6span bridges where flexure, is a ma!or cause of failure. ?iven an equal thic-ness of precious metal alloy and base metal alloy, the base metal alloy bridge would flex only half as much as the precious alloy material under the same occlusal forces. 0n a similar manner, the higher modulus of elasticity may be utili9ed to permit thinner castings. The 7ic-er*s hardness of base metal alloys may range from approximately #/> to (.1&C. :lthough certain of the base metal alloys may approach the hardness of noble metal alloy

(approximately #(.1&C), the ma!ority of these alloys are considerably harder. <linically, it is improbable that significant

occlusal wear of the alloy will occur. Therefore, particular attention must be directed toward perfecting occlusal

equilibration. The removal of defective clinical units is also more difficult than with noble metal alloys, since the high hardness results in rapid wear of carbide burs and diamond points. The durability, as measured by the percentage elongation, of base metal alloys ranges between approximately to #. and $) percent. +oble metal alloys have an elongation of approximately > to #. percent. The density of base metal alloys is approximately

)..gmAcm , as compared with #). 'gmAcm for comparable noble metal alloys. 4ince casting alloys are purchased on a weight basis, a lower density is indirectly reflected to the purchaser, who receives more than twice the volume of material for each unit weight acquired. :lso, the intrinsic value of the component elements in base metal alloys is significantly les than that of comparable noble metal alloys. Thus, on the basis of their lower density and the low intrinsic value of the component metals, the cost differential between base metal and noble metal alloys can be substantial.

Ohen porcelain is first fired to a metal substructure, the alloy is sub!ected to considerable temperature variations and stresses induced by the shrin-age of the overlying porcelain. 4ag resistance is the property that has been used to describe the ability of an alloy to resist the permanent deformation of creep induced by thermal stresses. 0t is particularly important in long6span bridges where the porcelain firing temperature may cause the unsupported structure to deform permanently. Jnder controlled conditions, it has been found that a base metal alloy will deform less than ....# inch, while a noble metal alloy will deform ....' inch. 0t is li-ely that the higher fusion temperature common to base metal alloys is a factor that contributes to the superior sag resistance properties of these alloys. The question of metal ceramic compatibility is basic to the selection of an alloy system for this type of restoration. Two requirements are implicit. The metal must not interact with the ceramic in such a way to discolour the porcelain at the interface or marginal regions. %oreover, the metal ceramic system must form a stable bond at the interface that can withstand normal stresses in the mouth.

:lloys for complete metal restorations are cast into calcium surface bonded investment molars then the alloys have been melted with gas6air blow porhes. The cast base metal alloys cannot be melted with the conventional blowtorch uses for gold alloys, and so it has been necessary to develop special electric melting facilities or less commonly to melt the alloys which or oxygen6oxetylene torch. Hlectrical somers of melting are often used to advantage, such as carbon areas, argon arcs, high frequency induction, or silicon6confide resistance furnaces. 0n some insurances,

sophisticated electronic equipment is used to control the temperature, casting time, and similar variables in order to regulate the gain formation and confide precipitation. 8ess commonly oxygen6nityfine torch is used to melt the alloys. The confuri9ing section of the oxygen6acetylene flame caudd carbon to the alloy. The extra carbon changes not only the microstructure but also the mechanical properties. (0n general, hardness and yield strength increases whereas ductility decreases). Therefore, when melting the alloy with an oxygen6acetylen torch, the proportion of the two gases, the length of the flame and the distance of the torch tip from the alloy should be standardi9ed.

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<arbon crucibles and carbon6containing investments should be avoided. C'stin+ s&%in$'+" #omp"ns'tion 3ecause of the high fusion temperature, the casting shrin-age of the base metal alloys is greater than that of the fold casting alloys. 0t is in the order of $. =, which requires that the mold be expanded more than when the dental gold alloys are cast. (:pproximately $= for +i6<r alloys). Thermal expansion represents the principal method of mold expansion for

compensation of the alloy shrin-age. The use of special phosphate of silicote6bonded investments permit adequate thermal expansion of the molds when they are probably located and one can produce castings that display the proper fit and adequate compensation have yield strengths of at least 5>.%&a ((.,... lbAinch $ ) to withstand permanent deformation when used as partial denture clasps. Tensile strength studies have indicated that the ultimate tensile strength of the cast base metal alloys is less influenced by variations in test conditions than some other properties such as elongation are.

E%o'6atio': The percentage elongation of the an alloy is important as an indication of the relative brittleness or ductility that the restoration will exhibit. (There are many occasions therefore when it can be considered to be an important property for comparison of alloys for removable partial denture

appliances). The combined effect of elongation and ultimate tensile strength is an indication of toughness of any material. &artial denture claps cast of alloys with a high elongation and tensile strength do not fracture in service as often as those with low elongation, because of their toughness. The percentage elongation is one of the properties that is critical to test accurately and to control properly during test preparatio. : very small amount of microporosity that may exist in the test specimen will alter the elongation considerably, whereas its effect on yield strength, elastic modulus and tensile strength is rather limited. Ene can therefore assume that practical castings may exhibit similar variations in elongation from one. <asting to another. To some degree this is borne out in practice, with some castings from the same product showing a greater tendency toward brittleness than others. This observation

indicates that the control of the melting and casting variables is of extreme importance if reproducible results are to be obtained. :lthough nic-el and cobalt are interchangeable in cobalt6 nic-el6chromium alloys, in general increasing the nic-el content with a corresponding reduction in cobalt will increase the ductility and elongation. Nelen-o 8?, a cobalt6chromium alloy with some nic-el and with rigid control of molybdenum and carbon, has a high elongation without much decrease in strength. E%a(ti4 !od % (: the higher the value, the more rigid the structure can be expected to be, provided the dimensions of the casting are the same in both instances. (There are those within the profession who recommend the use of a well6designed, rigid appliance on the basis that it gives the proper distribution of forces on the supporting tissues when in service. Oith a greater elastic moduls it is possible to design the restorations with slightly reduced dimensions. (0t is a well established fact that the elastic modulus of the cast metal alloys is at least twice that of the dental gold alloys). The cast cobalt6chromium dental alloys show comparable values for elastic modulus of about $$)?+Am$ ( x#.(lbAinch $ ),

whereas nic-el6chromium alloys possess an elastic modulus of )

about #')%&a ($/x#. ( lbAinch $ ), which is approximately double the value of '.%&a (# x#. ( lbAinch $ ) for type 07 cast metal gold alloys. MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST BASE METAL ALLOYS The microstructure of any substance is the basic parameter that controls the properties. <obalt6chromium or nic-el6chromium alloys microstructure changes by a slight alteration of

manipulative conditions. The microstructure of cobalt6chromium alloys in these condition consists of an elastomeric matrix composed of a solid solution of cobalt and chromium in a cored dendritic structure. %any elements present in cast base metal alloys, such as chromium, cobalt and molybdenum, are carbide forming elements. 1epending on the composition of a cast base metal alloy and its manipulative condition, it may form more or less of any given type of carbide. Further more, the arrangements of these carbides may also vary depending on the manipulative condition. The effect of the microstructure on physical properties a commercial cobalt6 chromium alloy is illustrated in Figure. : one cane say that the carbides are continuous along the grain boundaries. 4uch a structure is obtained when the metal is cast as soon as it is '

completely melted. 0n this condition the cast alloy possesses low elongation values with a good and clean surface. <arbides that are spherical and discontinuous li-e islands are shown in figure 3. 4uch a structure can be obtained if the alloy is heated about #..;< about its normal melting temperature, and this results in casting with good elongation values but with a very poor surface. The surface is so poor that the casting cannot be used in dentistry. 1ar- eutectoid areas which are lamellar in nature, are shown in figure <. 4uch a structure is responsible for very low elongation values but a good and clean casting. In9"stm"nt m't"%i'/s 'n( #'stin+ op"%'tions The manner of casting relatively # stage partial denture appliances differs in some details from the casting of simple restorations such as single inlays or crowns, though in principle the two operations are similar. 0n cast partial denture construction a suitable cast of refractory material or investment serves as the structure on which the wax pattern is formed, when the wax pattern is completed on the refractory cast, both the wax pattern and the cast are then invested in a appropriate investment material. 0f gold alloys are to be used, the conventional gypsum6 bonded silica investment is acceptable, but only one cast nic-el

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chromium alloy (ticonium) has a sufficiently low melting temperature to be cast into a specially formulated gypsum6silica type of investment. For the higher melting base metals it is necessary to use6666666. Ohen casting any of the base metals in to molar designed to accommodate the higher melting temperature of these onlays, certain problems may be encountered that are less common when casting lower melting alloys. Ene problem is that of trapping gases in the mold during the casting process. To have sufficient strength and resistance to thermal shoc-, some investments for the cast base metal alloys lac- sufficient porosity for the rapid escape of gases from the mold cavity when the hot metal intern. :s a result, the gases may be trapped in the mold cavity and produce voids and casting defects. +umerous methods have been prepared to overcome such defects, such no venting is the surface of the mold to permit rapid elimination of gases. The s-illful spruing at and venting of the mold, combined with complete elimination of the wax residue and adequate heating of the metal, tend to reduce this type of defective casting. The melting of base metal alloys must be carefully controlled to avoid inverse damage to the alloy during the melting 5#

and casting process. Exidation of the ingredient metals and carbide or nitrite formation at the high temperature required to melt these alloys demand procine control of the melting and casting operation. 2egardless of the method employed to melt the alloy, it is possible to cause severe damage to the properties of the casting if proper melting practices are not observed. Ot&"% 'pp/i#'tions o. #'st *'s" m"t'/ '//o!s 0t has been demonstrated that cast cobalt6chromium alloys serve a useful purpose in appliances other than removable partial denture restorations. 0n the surgical repair of bone fractures, alloys of this type are used for bone plates, crown, various fracture appliances and splints. %etallic obturation and oral implants for a variety of purposes are formed from cast base metal alloys. The use of the cobalt6chromium alloys for surgical purposes in wall established, and these

66666666666666666666666666666666666666 periods of time without harmful reactions. This favourable response of the tissues probably is attributable is the low solubility and electrogalvanic action of the alloy used, with the result that the metal is inert and produce no inflammatory responses. The product -nown as surgical vitallium is used extensively for this purposes. <ast titanium and its alloys

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have recently been introduced as surgical implant materials because of their excellent tissue compatibility. Pot"nti'/ &"'/t& &'='%(s o. ni#$"/ 'n( *"%!//i)m 0t is widely recogni9ed beryllium is potentially toxic under uncontrolled conditions. 8ab6technicians may be exposed

occasionally or routinely to excessively high concentration of beryllium and nic-el dust and beryllium vapours. The exposure to beryllium may result in acute and chronic forms of beryllium disease (&hysiologic). The responses may vary from contact dermatitis to severe chemical pneumanitic which can be fetal. Cowever, the diagnosis of chronic beryllium disease is difficult, since it often exhibits symptoms range from coughing, chest pain and general wea-ness to pulmonary drifection and requires the establishment of beryllium exposure. The occupational health and safety administration specifies that exposure to beryllium dust in an air should be limited to a particular beryllium concentration of $mgAm of air for a time weighed, ) hours day. 0n laboratory and clinical situations in a grinding of beryllium containing alloys is of performed, adequate

local exhaust ventilation safeguards should be employed, since all forms of beryllium are toxic and the body cannot 6666666 beryllium. 0t is also believed that beryllium locali9ation (i.e.

movement of 3e ions to the surface) enriches surface is the point that beryllium ma-es upto .= of the composition of the surface layer. 3eryllium release from the surface is enhanced by presence. POTENTIAL HA>ARDS OF NICKEL TO PATIENTS 0n certain non6dental industraial applications and

subexperimental conditions, nic-el and its compounds have been implicated as potential carcinogens and as sensiti9ing agents. Ef great concern in dental patients is the intra oral exposure to nic-el, especially for patients with -nown allergy to this elements, 1ermatitis resulting from contact with nic-el solutions was reported as early as #')'. the incidence of allergic sensitivity to nic-el has been found to be > to #. times higher for females than for males with >= to )= of females showing sensitivity. %any cases of respiratory organ concerns have been documented in studies of wor-ers involved in the plating, refining, grinding and polishing of nic-el and nic-el alloys. 3ecause of the concerns over the carcinogenic potential of nic-el, 55

the +ational institutes for occupational safety and health has recommended a standard to limit employee exposure to inorganic nic-el in the wor- place to #>mgAm . 0t appears that the potential carcinogenic ris-s of nic-el are less li-ely to affect dental patients. To minimi9e exposing of metallic dust to patients and dentists during intra oral metal grinding operations, a high6speed evacuation system should be used. &atients should be informed of the potential allergic effects of nic-el exposures an a thorough medical history should be ta-en to try to determine the patient may be allergic to nic-el. 0ntra oral tissues are more resistant to symptoms of sensitivity. Cowever intra oral exposure to allergies can be manifested in locations remote from dental restorations. The systems of the sensitivity range from urticania, pruritis,

xerostomia, ec9ema or vesicular eruptions. Et#&in+ o. *'s" m"t'/ '//o!s Ohen it was first introduced micromechanical retentions of etched metal resin6bonded retainers (%aryland bridges) was obtained by electronically etching the base metal alloys. %ore

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recently, chemical etchants have been mar-eted also less expensive and more convenient for etching the metal substraction. The intagets surface of the resin are to be binded to etched enamel are treated with acid gels or liquids for a short period of time. Cowever reports on the comparative bond strength between electrolytically etched and chemically etched surface on

conflicting. %ore study is needed to determine the relative value of chemical etchants substitutes for conventional electrolytic etching. METAL CERAMIC ALLOYS G"n"%'/ F"'t)%"s The chief ob!ection of the use of dental porcelain as a restorative material is its low tensile and shear strength. :lthough porcelain can resist compressive stresses with reasonable success, substructure design does not permit shapes in which compressive stress is the principal force. : method by which this disadvantage can be minimi9ed is to fuse the porcelain directly to a cast alloy substructure made to fit the prepared tooth. 0f a strong bond is attained between the

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porcelain veneer and the metal, the porcelain veneer is reinforced. Thus, brittle fracture can be avoided, or at least minimi9ed. The original metal ceramic alloy contained )) percent gold and were much too soft for stress6bearing restorations such as fixed partial dentures. 4ince there was no evidence of a chemical bond between these alloys and dental porcelain, mechanical retention and undercuts were used to prevent detachments of the ceramic veneer. 3y adding less than # percent oxide forming elements such as iron, indium and tin to this high gold content alloy, the porcelain6metal bond strength was improved by a factor of iron also increases the proportional limit and strength of the

alloy. This # percent addition of base metals to the gold, palladium, and platinum alloy was all that was necessary to produce a slight oxide film on the surface of the substructure to achieve a porcelain metal bond strength. This new type of alloy with small amounts of base metals added, became the standard for the metal ceramic restoration. 0n response to economic pressures, other gold6and palladium6base metal ceramic alloys emerged. 0n time, base metals were also developed for this same purpose.

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P%op"%ti"s The clinical success of a metal ceramic restoration is dependent in large measures on the ability of the underlying alloy substructure to resist the potentially destructure masticatory stresses. (Therefore it is imperative that the metal ceramic restoration be use of variable casting conditions. Therefore, these alloys are generally considered to be technique sensitive. Ene reason for this sensitivity is that almost all elements in these alloys such as chromium, silicon, molybdenum, cobalt and nic-el react with carbon to form carbides depending on the mold and alloy6casting temperature, cooling rate, and other technical variables, carbides of any one of these elements may form. The formation of different carbides naturally changes the properties of the alloys. :s a result, careful control of manipulative variables in the casting operations is necessary. ANSI,ADA Sp"#i.i#'iton No2 3? :ccording to this specification, the total weight of chromium, cobalt and nic-el should be not less than )>= or no less than $.= chromium. :lloys having other compositions may also be accepted by the :1: provides that the alloys comply satisfactory with requirements for toxicity hypersensitivity and 5)

corrosion. <omposition to the nearest ..>= shall be mar-ed on the pac-age plus the presence and percentage of ha9ardous elements and precautioning recommendations for processing the materials. The specification also recommend minimum values for

elongation, yield strength and elastic modulus. :n important feature of this specification is that it has more a standardi9ed method of testing available, which has in turn, made possible comparisons of results from one investigation to another.

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CONTENTS
0ntroduction Cistorical &erspective on 1ental <asting :lloys &roperties of +oble %etal :lloys <lassification of 1ental <asting :lloys :lloys for :ll %etal P 2esin 7eneer 2estorations Cigh +oble :lloys for %etal <eramic 2estorations 3ase metal :lloys for 1ental <astings <omposition of 3ase metal :lloys for 4mall castings Hffect of :lloy <onstituents Candling Ca9ards and &recautions 4ummary P <onclusion

>.