ABSTRACT

In the context of machining, a cutting tool (or cutter) is any tool that is used to remove material from the work piece by means of shear deformation. Cutting may be accomplished by single-point or multipoint tools. Single-point tools are used in turning, shaping, plaining and similar operations, and remove material by means of one cutting edge. Milling and drilling tools are often multipoint tools. Grinding tools are also multipoint tools. Each grain of abrasive functions as a microscopic single-point cutting edge (although of high negative rake angle), and shears a tiny chip.

Cutting tools must be made of a material harder than the material which is to be cut, and the tool must be able to withstand the heat generated in the metal-cutting process. Also, the tool must have a specific geometry, with clearance angles designed so that the cutting edge can contact the workpiece without the rest of the tool dragging on the workpiece surface. The angle of the cutting face is also important, as is the flute width, number of flutes or teeth, and margin size. In order to have a long working life, all of the above must be optimized, plus the speeds and feeds at which the tool is run.

INTRODUCTION
On a daily basis, individuals use cutting tools in everyday life, whether it is knives, lawnmowers, to more industrial tools in plumbing, woodworking and metalwork. At the same time, not too many people question how these helpful and more-than-necessary tools came to life and even fewer know the history of cutting tools. In the context of metal working, a cutting tool, or tool bit, is used to remove metal from the work piece by shear deformation. Cutting tools are also made of materials harder than the substance it will cut to withstand the heat generated and have an increased tool life. The history of cutting tools began during in the industrial revolution in 1800 A.D., but the first cutting took was cast using a crucible method in 1740. In 1868, R.Mushet discovered that adding Tungsten can increase hardness in metals and increase tool life. Tungsten is a chemical element and a steel-gray colored metal. Its known for its robust physical properties and it has the highest melting point of all non-alloyed metals and the second highest melting point of all elements after carbon. F.W. Taylor did the most basic research in metal cutting in Pennsylvania between 1880 and 1905. Taylor was also able to invent a high speed steel and better alloy to improve previous designs and techniques. In 1890, Tungsten carbide was first synthesized and was used in Germany. In 1980, the first collections of router tools were designed to slice and shear instead of chop materials. In 1981, tool design became revolutionary and tools were able to cut thick steel. In 1983, tools were first produced to cut plastic materials. In 1986, the first production tools were designed to reduce wear and hot corrosion through geometry and special carbide. In 2004, there was a major introduction of unique tools to accommodate the growing use of modern composite materials.

PROPERTIES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL

The cutting tool materials must possess a number of important properties to avoid excessive wear, fracture failure and high temperatures in cutting, The following characteristics are essential for cutting materials to withstand the heavy conditions of the cutting process and to produce high quality and economical parts: HARDNESS: At elevated temperatures (so-called hot hardness) so that hardness and strength of the tool edge are maintained in high cutting temperatures TOUGHNESS: Ability of the material to absorb energy without failing. Cutting if often accompanied by impact forces especially if cutting is interrupted, and cutting tool may fail very soon if it is not strong enough. WEAR RESISTANCE: although there is a strong correlation between hot hardness and wear resistance, later depends on more than just hot hardness. Other important characteristics include surface finish on the tool, chemical inertness of the tool material with respect to the work material, and thermal conductivity of the tool material, which affects the maximum value of the cutting temperature at tool-chip interface.

TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS Many types of tool materials, ranging from high carbon steel to ceramics and diamonds, are used as cutting tools in todays metalworking industry. It is important to be aware that differences do exist among tool materials, what these differences are, and the correct application for each type of material. The various tool manufacturers assign many names and numbers to their products. While many of these names and numbers may appear to be similar, the applications of these tool materials may be entirely different. In most cases, the tool manufacturers will provide tools made of the proper material for each given application. In some particular applications, a premium or higher priced material will be justified. This does not mean that the most expensive tool is always the best tool. Cutting tool users cant afford to ignore the constant changes and advancements that are being made in the field of tool material technology. When a tool change is needed or anticipated, a performance comparison should be made before selecting the tool for the job. The optimum tool is not necessarily the least expensive or the most expensive, and it is not always the same tool that was used for the job last time. The best tool is the one that has been carefully chosen to get the job done quickly, efficiently, and economically. Cutting tool materials can be divided into two main categories: stable and unstable. Unstable materials (usually steels) are substances that start at a relatively low hardness point and are then heat treated to promote the growth of hard particles (usually carbides) inside the original matrix, which increases the overall hardness of the material at the expense of some its original toughness. Since heat is the mechanism to alter the structure of the substance and at the

same time the cutting action produces a lot of heat, such substances are inherently unstable under machining conditions. Stable materials (usually tungsten carbide) are substances that remain relatively stable under the heat produced by most machining conditions, as they don't attain their hardness through heat. They wear down due to abrasion, but generally don't change their properties much during use. Most stable materials are hard enough to break before flexing, which makes them very fragile. To avoid chipping at the cutting edge, most tools made of such materials are finished with a sightly blunt edge, which results in higher cutting forces due to an increased shear area. Fragility combined with high cutting forces results in most stable materials being unsuitable for use in anything but large, heavy and stiff machinery. Unstable materials, being generally softer and thus tougher, generally can stand a bit of flexing without breaking, which makes them much more suitable for unfavorable machining conditions, such as those encountered in hand tools and light machinery. The most used cutting tool materials are

1.

Carbon tool steels

2. High speed steel(HSS) 3. HSS cobalt

4. 5. 6. 7.

Cast cobalt alloys Cemented carbide Ceramics Cermets

8. Cubic boron nitride(CBN)

9. Diamond

CARBON TOOL STEELS

Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be made into tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion, their ability to hold a cutting edge, and/or their resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures (redhardness). Tool steel is generally used in a heat-treated state. Many high carbon tool steels are also more resistant to corrosion due to their higher ratios of elements such as vanadium and niobium. With a carbon content between 0.7% and 1.5%, tool steels are manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to produce the required quality. The manganese content is often kept low to minimize the possibility of cracking during water quenching. However, proper heat treating of these steels is important for adequate performance, and there are many suppliers who provide tooling blanks intended for oil quenching. Tool steels are made to a number of grades for different applications. Choice of grade depends on, among other things, whether a keen cutting edge is necessary, as in stamping dies, or whether the tool has to withstand impact loading and service conditions encountered with such hand tools as axes, pickaxes, and quarrying implements. In general, the edge temperature under expected use is an important determinant of both

composition and required heat treatment. The higher carbon grades are typically used for such applications as stamping dies, metal cutting tools, etc. Tool steels are also used for special applications like injection molding because the resistance to abrasion is an important criterion for a mold that will be used to produce hundreds of thousands of parts. The AISI-SAE grades of tool steel is the most common scale used to identify various grades of tool steel. Individual alloys within a grade are given a number; for example: A2, O1, etc.

HIGH-SPEED STEEL
High-speed steel (HSS or HS) is a subset of tool steels, commonly used intool bits and cutting tools. It is often used in power-saw blades and drill bits. It is superior to the older high-carbon steel tools used extensively through the 1940s in that it can withstand higher temperatures without losing its temper (hardness). This property allows HSS to cut faster than high carbon steel, hence the name high-speed temperature, in steel. their At room generally

recommended heat treatment, HSS grades generally display high hardness (above HRC60) and abrasion resistance (generally linked to tungsten and vanadium content often used in HSS) compared with common carbon and tool steels. High speed steels are alloys that gain their properties from either tungsten or molybdenum, often with a combination of the two. They belong to the FeCX multi-component alloy system where Xrepresents chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, or cobalt. enerally,

the X component is present in excess of 7%, along with more than 0.60% carbon. The alloying element percentages do not alone bestow the hardness-retaining properties; they also require appropriate hightemperature heat treatment to become true HSS; see History above. In the unified numbering system (UNS), tungsten-type grades (e.g. T1, T15) are assigned numbers in the T120xx series, while molybdenum (e.g. M2, M48) and intermediate types are T113xx. ASTM standards recognize 7 tungsten types and 17 molybdenum types. The addition of about 10% of tungsten and molybdenum in total maximises efficiently the hardness and toughness of high speed steels and maintains those properties at the high temperatures generated when cutting metals. In general the basic composition of T1 HSS is 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, 0.7% C and rest Fe. Such HSS tool could machine (turn) mild steel at speed only up to 20~30 m/min (which was quite substantial in those days)

A sample of alloying compositions of common high speed steel grades (by %wt) Grade T1 M2 M7 M36 M42 C[8] Cr Mo W 18 6.0 1 2.0 V Co Mn Si

0.650.80 4.00 0.95 1.00 0.94 1.10 4 4 4 5

0.10.4 0.20.4 -

8.75 1.75 2.0 5 6.0 1.5 2.0

8.0 -

3.75 9.5

1.15 8.0 -

APPLICATIONS
The main use of high-speed steels continues to be in the manufacture of various cutting tools: drills, taps, milling cutters, tool bits, gear cutters, saw blades, planer and jointer blades, router bits, etc., although usage for punches and dies is increasing. High speed steels also found a market in fine hand tools where their relatively good toughness at high hardness, coupled with high abrasion resistance, made them suitable for low speed applications requiring a durable keen (sharp) edge, such as files, chisels, hand plane blades, and high quality kitchen, pocket knives, and swords. HSS COBALT Cobalt dissolves in iron (ferrite and austenite) and strengthens it whilst at the same time imparting high temperature strength (temperature on cutting surfaces can be 850C) During solution heat treatment (to dissolve the carbides), cobalt helps to resist grain growth so that higher solution temperatures can be used which ensures a higher percentage of carbides being dissolved. Steels are quenched after solution annealing and the structure is then very hard martensite, plus the retained high temperature will phase austenite the plus carbides peppered throughout the structure. Tempering precipitate ultrafine carbides still in solution and maximum hardness will be attained. Here, cobalt plays another important role, in that it delays their

coalescence. This is important as it means that during cutting, the structure is stable up to higher temperatures. Thus, cobalt-containing tool steels are capable of retaining strength to higher temperatures They cut faster for longer. Tools, however, are not longer as simple as they were. The surface can be modified by coating with TiN or TiC for example, put on by plasma or vapour deposition. These coatings increase cutting life by large factors (4 or 5 times) and do so even after regrinding. CEMENTED CARBIDE Cemented carbide, also called widia, is a hard material used in machining tough materials such as carbon steel or stainless steel, as well as in situations where other tools would wear away, such as high-quantity production runs. Most of the time, carbide will leave a better finish on the part, and allow faster machining. Carbide tools can also withstand higher temperatures than standard high speed steel tools. COMPOSITION Cemented carbides are composed of a metal matrix composite where carbide particles act as the aggregate and a metallic binder serves as the matrix. The process of combining the carbide particles with the binder is referred to as sintering or Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP). During this process the binder eventually will be entering the liquid stage and carbide grains (much higher melting point) remain in the solid stage. As a result of this process the binder the is carbide embedding/cementing

grains and thereby creates the metal matrix composite with its distinct material properties. The naturally ductile metal binder serves to offset the characteristic brittle behavior of the carbide ceramic, thus raising its toughness and durability. Such parameters of carbide can be changed significantly within the carbide manufacturer's sphere of influence, primarily determined by grain size, cobalt content, dotation (e.g. alloy carbides) and carbon content. The first Cemented Carbide developed was Tungsten Carbide (introduced in 1927) which uses tungsten carbide particles held together by a cobalt metal binder. Since then other cemented carbides have been developed such as Titanium-Carbide which is better suited for cutting steel and TantalumCarbide which is tougher than Tungsten-Carbide. APPLICATIONS Carbide is more expensive per unit than other typical tool materials, and it is more brittle, making it susceptible to chipping and breaking. To offset these problems, the carbide cutting tip itself is often in the form of a small insert for a larger tipped toolwhose shank is made of another material,usually carbon tool steel. This gives the benefit of using carbide at the cutting interface without the high cost and brittleness of making the entire tool out of carbide. Most modern face mills use carbide inserts, as well as many lathe tools and endmills. In recent decades, though, solid-carbide endmills have also become more commonly used, wherever the application's characteristics make the pros (such as shorter cycle times) outweigh the cons (mentioned above).

CERAMIC CUTTING TOOLS Ceramic cutting tools are harder and more heat-resistant than carbides, but more brittle. They are well suited for machining cast iron, hard steels, and the super alloys. Two types of ceramic cutting tools are available: the aluminabased and the silicon nitride-based ceramics. The alumina-based ceramics are used for high speed semi- and final-finishing of ferrous and some non-ferrous materials. The silicon nitridebased ceramics are generally used for rougher and heavier machining of cast iron and the super alloys. Ceramic materials are composed primarily of fine-grained, highpurity aluminum oxide (Al2O3), pressed and sintered with no binder. Two types are available: 1. White, or cold-pressed ceramics, which consists of only Al2O3 cold pressed into inserts and sintered at high temperature. 2. Black, or hot-pressed ceramics, commonly known as cermet (from ceramics and metal). This material consists of 70% Al2O3 and 30% TiC. Both materials have very high wear resistance but low toughness, therefore they are suitable only for continuous operations such as finishing turning of cast iron and steel at very high speeds. There is no occurrence of built-up edge, and coolants are not required.

CUBIC BORON NITRIDE

Cubic boron nitride (CBN or c-BN) is widely used as an abrasive. Its usefulness arises from its insolubility in iron, nickel, and related alloys at high temperatures, whereas diamond is soluble in these metals to give carbides. Polycrystalline c-BN (PCBN) abrasives are therefore used for machining steel, whereas diamond abrasives are preferred for aluminum alloys, ceramics, and stone. When in contact with oxygen at high temperatures, BN forms a passivation layer of boron oxide. Boron nitride binds well with metals, due to formation of interlayers of metal borides or nitrides. Materials with cubic boron nitride crystals are often used in the tool bits of cutting tools. For grinding applications, softer binders, e.g. resin, porous ceramics, and soft metals, are used. Ceramic binders can be used as well. Commercial products are known under names "Borazon" (by Diamond Innovations), and "Elbor" or "Cubonite" (by Russian vendors). Similar to diamond, the combination in c-BN of highest thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity is ideal for heat spreaders. Contrary to diamond, large cBN pellets can be produced in a simple process (called sintering) of annealing c-BN powders in nitrogen flow at temperatures slightly below the BN decomposition temperature. This ability of c-BN and h-BN powders to fuse allows cheap production of large BN parts. As cubic boron nitride consists of light atoms and is very robust chemically and mechanically, it is one of the popular materials for X-ray membranes: low mass results in small X-ray absorption, and good mechanical properties allow usage of thin membranes, thus further reducing the absorption.

CONCLUSIONS
Machining is now in a particular golden age, where a lot of time, money and effort has been invested to define the best tool for each application. Today for each application the objective of large or small manufacturers is to supply a much optimized tool, in all the related aspects discussed in this chapter. One of the most important aspects for the success of the new cutting tools is the application guide, because each application needs special recommendations, and in some cases they are contradictory to others. Tools specially designed for multitasking machining .The second from the right side is a mini-turret. The economical impact of cutting and machining is increasing, although the near to net shape technologies imply a reduction of the amount of material to be removed in each part. But the demand for elaborate parts and high-end products exceeds all expectations. Consequently the improvement of productivity, tool life and workpiece precision is a main goal for a lot of companies, taking into account respect for the environment as well. Micromilling is going to be a growing technology where hard milling is going to be applied , with special attention to medical devices. a test part used to study micromilling is presented. Tool fabrication is another important issue for the application of micromilling technology. For industrial applications, micropowder (0.3 m particle size) sintered tungsten carbide is used, making two flute endmills of 100 m in diameter, with an edge radius of 12 m. In any case, the commercial offer is limited and there are no different geometries for different materials, being an important problem because most of the tools are designed for steel machining. Commercial tools have a well-defined geometry with small tolerances.

Tolerance indicated in the catalogues for the sum of geometrical error plus runout error is of 10 m. However, real errors are usually smaller (5 m), but even in the best case, the tolerance with respect to size of the form to be machined is poor if compared to conventional high-speed machining mills. Tool wear is rapid and has a considerable effect on the process performance. On the other hand, materials with improved mechanical features are now in development,with more tensile strength and creep resistance. New alloys are usually very low-machinability alloys, asking for recommendation to be machined. Some examples are austempered ductile irons for car components and wind-energy gearboxes, gamma TiAl for car components and aeronautical engines, highsilicon aluminium alloys, carbon-fibre-reinforced plastic composites , and others. Special tools will soon be on the market to solve the problems derived from the applications of these very difficult-to-cut materials.

INTRODUCTION PROPERTIES OF CUTTING MATERIAL DESIGN OF LASER TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

CARBON TOOL STEELS

HIGH SPEED STEEL(HSS) HSS COBALT

CAST COBALT ALLOYS CEMENTED CARBIDE CERAMICS CERMETS

CUBIC BORON NITRIDE(CBN)

CONCLUSIONS

ER. ASIT KUMAR SAHOO & ER. ABHIJIT MOHANTY

We wish to convey our hearty thanks to Er. Abhijit Mohanty for having provide all the to complete the seminar successfully and also our special thanks to our H.O.D. Er. Asit Kumar Sahoo. We would like to register our special thanks to the staff members of Mech. Engg. Department for their kind co-operation and at every state directly or indirectly to bring out the work successfully. Finally, we feel pleasure to register our gratitude with deep feeling and sense of honor to my parents who were kind enough to encourage us to study in the field of MECH. ENGG. and support extend financially and physically to complete my studies successfully .

Group -5, 4th Semester, Mech. Engg. MAHALAXMI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RAJNILGIRI BALASORE 2014

This is to certify that the seminar report entitled CUTTING TOOLS AND MATERIALS submitted by the following students Of MAHALAXMI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the DIPLOMA in 4th Semester Mech. Engineering is a record of seminar presented by him under my own guidance & supervision in MAHALAXMI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING. NAME OF THE STUDENTS JYOTI RANJAN NAYAK RAKESH MAR MOHANTA ALOK KUMAR GIRI SAROJ KUMAT MOHAPATRA SATYAPRAKASH DAS SATYAJIT PANDA SUBASHISH SETHI SUBRAT KUMAR NAYAK BIKASH MALLICK MUKTIKANTA MISHRA UMAKANTA SAHOO JYOTI RANJAN PANDA NIRANJAN PRUSTI BALARAM CHAND BIDYADHAR SAHOO They have taken interest in presenting this seminar. Remark: We wish them bright and successful future. CLASS ROLL NO 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75

ER. ASIT KUMAR SAHOO

H.O.D. Mahalaxmi Institute of technology & Engineering Balasore

ER. ABHIJIT MOHANTY

Lect. In Mechanical Department Mahalaxmi Institute of Technology & Engineering Balasore

group-5 , 4th Semester, Mech. Engg. MAHALAXMI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & ENGINEERING RAJNILGIRI 2014