CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

o Hardness o Viscosity o Creep and flow o Color and color perceptions o Thermo physical properties o Tarnish o Corrosion o Galvanic currents

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
o Stress o Strain o Elastic modulus o Strength properties o Toughness o Brittleness o Ductility and malleability

CONCLUSION REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION The principal goal of dentistry is to maintain to improve the uality of life of the dental patient! This re uires the replacement or alteration of e"isting tooth structure# the main challenges for centuries have been the selection and development of good prosthetic materials that can withstand the adverse conditions of the oral environment! $hysical properties are the measures of a material! These properties have great significance in dental research because they provide the information needed to assess the characteristics of and improvement in materials under development! The physical properties of a tooth set the standard for materials attached to a tooth! Theory suggests that if a restorative material can be made to hold properties similar to those of natural tooth structure% it should perform as well as original tooth!

HARDNESS : The property of hardness is one of the comparison of restorative materials! Hardness may be defined as 'the resistance to permanent surface indentation or penetration(! The most common concept of hard and soft substances is their relative resistance to indentation! Hardness is a measure of resistance to plastic deformation and is measured as a force per unit area of indentation! ) Based on this definition of hardness% it is clear why this property is so important to dentistry! Hardness is indicative of the case of finishing of a structure and its resistance to in service scratching! ) There are many ways to areas use hardness depending on the shape of the ob&ect used to deform the surface being tested! Some of the most common methods of testing the hardness of restorative materials are* Brinell +noop Vic,ers -oc,well Barcol and Shore a hardness tests! Each of these tests differs slightly from the others% and each presents certain advantage and disadvantages! They have a common uality% however% in that each depends on the penetration of some ma&or properties in the

small% symmetrically shaped indenter into the surface of the material being tested! ) The various hardness tests differ in the indenter material% geometry and load! ) The indenter may be made of steel% tungsten carbide or diamond and be shaped as a sphere cone% pyramid or needle! ) .oads typically range from /)0111 ,g! ) The choice of a hardness test depends on the material of interest% the e"pected hardness range% and the desired degree of locali2ation! The general procedure for testing hardness% in dependent of the specific test and is as follows!

KNOOP HARDNESS TEST: ) The +noop hardness test was developed to fulfill the needs of a micro indentation test method! ) 3 load is applied to a carefully prepared diamond indenting tool with a pyramid shape and the lengths of the diagonals of the resulting indentation in the material are measured! ) This is the shape of the shape of the indenter and the resulting indentation! ) +H4 is the ratio of the load applied to the area of the indentation! ) The units of +H4 are also ,g5mm6! ) Higher values for +H4 represent hardness materials!

) The +noop method is designed so varying loads may be applied to the indenting instrument! The resulting indentation area% therefore% varies according to the load applied and the nature of material tested! 3dvantage * 7aterials with a great range of values! 8 Silicon carbide abrasive 8 ;eldspathic porcelain 8 Enamel 8 Gold foil 8 Dentin 8 Cementum 8 >inc phosphate cement 8 Denture acrylic 69:1 9<1 090 <= <: 91 0: 6/

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST : ) This is among the oldest methods used to test metals and alloys used in dentistry! ) 7ethod depends on resistance to the penetration of a small steel or tungsten carbide ball% typically /!< mm in diameter% when sub&ected to a weight of /60 4 ! ) ?n testing the brinell hardness of a material the penetrates remains in contact with the specimen tested for a fi"ed time of 01 seconds% after which it is removed and the indentation diameter is carefully measured! ) The resulting brinell hardness member @BH4A is computed as a ratio of the load applied to the area of the indentation produced! ) Bnits of BH4 are ,g5mm6!

) The smaller the area of indentation% the harder the material and the larger the BH4 value! ) Because BH test yields relatively large indentation area% this test is good for determining average hardness values and poor determining very locali2ed values! Condensed gold foil powdered Gold alloys type ? type ?? type ??? type ?V 9C =C /61 661 <= 9<

Stainless steel Co)Cr alloys 3malgam Dentin Composite 3luminium $ure gold

0C1 6D1)0D1 =1 <1)D1 6C )0C /:)0C /:)01

ROCKWELL HARDNESS : -oc,well hardness is a rapid testing method in which an instrument applies a load to a material and a dial uic,ly calculates a hardness number! This method is commonly used with plastics% since the device can be ,ept on the material for varying amounts of time to measure percent of recovery! ) Depth of indentation is measured with a sensitive micrometer! ) <1)/C1 ,g ) Good foe testing visco elastic materials! ) -eadings are directly read! ) ?ndentation rapidly disappears!

BARCOL HARDNESS : ) Bsed to study the depth of cure of resin composites! ) Has a spring loaded needle with a diameter of / mm that is pressed against the surface! ) ?f no penetration occurs% needle reads 1! -eading decreases as indentation increases!

VICKERS HARDNESS: This hardness test uses a /0< diamond pyramid% it is used in applied loads% it is used in applied loads! ?t is commonly used in dentistry and measure very hard materials and if small areas all to be tested! ) 3 s uarish indentation is produced!

) Diagonals are measured! ) +g5mm6! ) 3pplication varies from /)/61 ,g!

NANOINDENTATION : ) Traditional tests used high loads and indentation areas were large! ) But many materials have microstructural constituents and to accurately measure these microphases% it is necessary to be able to create indentations of a smaller si2e scale and also to be able to control the location of indentations!

Therefore nanoindentation has recently been introduced and are able to apply loads in the range of 1!/)C111 mg! ) ?ndentations are of /m in si2e! ) Studies compared the efficacy by comparing values obtained earlier!

4!H! Dentin Enamel D/ ,g5mm6 9CD ,g5mm6

+H4 <: ,g5mm6 090 ,g5mm6

Hardness can be tested simply by varying the test load! because very light load applications produce e"tremely delicate micro indentations% this method of testing can be employed to e"amine materials that vary in hardness over an area of interest! Disadvantage * The used for a highly polished and feat test specimen and the time re uired to complete the test operation!

VISCOSITY :
7aterials that have mechanical properties independent or loading rate are termed E Elastic! 7aterials that have mechanical properties dependent on loading rate are termed E Viscoelastic! ?n other words% these materials have characteristics of an elastic solid and a viscous fluid! 7ost li uids when placed in motion resist imposed forces that cause them to move! This resistance to motion is called viscosity and is controlled by the interval frictional forces within the li uid! Viscosity is the measure of the consistency of a fluid and its inability to frontier! So% a highly viscous fluid flows slower because of its high viscosity! The units of viscosity are poise $! @/$ F 1!/ $as F 1!/ 4S5m 6A% or is also reported in centipoises C$ @/11 C$ F /$A to put this concept on a uantitative basis G!! 3 li uid occupies the space between 6 metal plates! The lower plate is fi"ed and upper plate is moved to the right with a certain velocity!

3 force is re uired to overcome the drag produced by the friction of the li uid! Stress is the force per unit area that develops within a structure when an e"ternal force is applied! The stress produced causes a deformation or strain to develop and can be circulated! ?f the plates haven area @3A% a shear! Stress @TA can be defined as T F ;53! the shear strain rate or rate of change of deformation is F v5d where d is the distance between the 6 plates and v is the velocity of the li uid! Similarly% a shear stress versus stain rate curve can be plotted! 3n HidealI fluid demonstrates a shear stress that is proportional to the strain rate and thus the plot is a straight line! Such behavior is called 4ewtonian! 3 4ewtonian fluid has a constant viscosity and e"hibits a constant scope of shear stress plotted against the strains rate @a straight lineA% many dental materials e"hibit pseudoplastic behavior E their viscosity deceases with increasing shear rate until it reaches a nearly constant value! E!g! -ubber impression materials!

The viscosity of a dilatant li uid increases with increasing shear rate! E!g! ;luid denture base resins! These li uids become more li uid as the rate of deformation increases! ) There are also some materials that behave li,e a rigid body until some minimum value to shear stress is reached! E!g! +etchup is a familiar 3 sharp blow to the bottle is usually re uired to produce an initial flow! ) 3 li uid that becomes less viscosity and more fluid under repeated applications of pressure is referred to as thyrotrophic! Eg! Dental prophyla"is pastes% plaster of $aris

CREEP AND FLOW

?f a metal is held at a temperature near its melting point and is sub&ected to a constant applied stress% the resulting strain will increase over time! Creep is defined as the time dependent plastic strain of a material under a static load or constant stress! The related phenomenon if sag occurs in the permanent deformation of long E span metal bridge structures at porcelain E rising temperatures under the influence of the mass of the prosthesis! Dental amalgams contain from 96)C6 wtJ of Hg and begin melting at low temperatures! Because of its low melting range% dental amalgam can slowly creep from a restored tooth site under periodic sustained stress% such as those imposed by patients who clench their teeth! Because creep produces continuing plastic deformation% the process can be destructive to a dental prosthesis! The term HflowI rather than creep has generally been used in dentistry to describe the rheology of amorphous materials such as wa"es! The flow of wa" is a measure of its potential to deform under a small static load even that associated with its own mass! ) 3lthough creep or flow may be measured under any type of stress% comparison is usually employed in the testing of dental materials! ) 3 cylinder of prescribed dimensions is sub&ected to a given compressive stress for a specified time and temperature! Creep or flow is measured as the J decrease in length that occurs under these testing conditions! ) Creep may cause unacceptable deformation of dental restorations @such as low Cu amalgamA made from a material that is used clinically at a temperature near its melting point for an e"tended period!

COLOR
3n important goal of dentistry is to restore the color and appearance of natural dentition! Color is all about light! The perception of the color of an ob&ect is the result of a physiological response to a physical stimulus% light is an electromagnetic radiation that can be detected by the human eye! The eye is sensitive to wavelengths from appro"imately 911 nm to C11 nm! .ight is reflected from on ob&ect and stimulates the neural sensors in the eyeIs retina to send a signal i!e! interpreted in the visual corte" of the brain! The reflected light intensities and the combined intensities of wave lengths present in incidence and reflected light determine the appearance properties @hue% value and chromaA! ;or an ob&ect to be visible% it must reflect or transmit light incident on it from an e"ternal source! The incident light is usually polychromatic% that is% a mi"ture of the various wavelengths! ?ncident light is selectively absorbed or scattered @or bothA at retain wavelengths! The spectral distribution of the transmitted or reflected light resembles that of incident light% although certain wavelengths are reduced in magnitude! Verbal descriptions of color are not precise enough to describe the appearance of teeth! Hence% 0 variables must be measured to accurately describe once perception of light reflected from a toothIs restoration surface * Hue Value

Chroma Hue : Describes the dominant color of an ob&ect! E!g!* -ed% green or blue! This refers to the dominant wavelength in the spectral distribution! The continuous of these were creates a color! Value : ?ncreases towards the whiter and decreases towards blac,! Teeth can be separated into lighter shades @increases valueA and dar,er shades @lower valueA value identifies the lightness or a dar,ness of a color% which can be measured independently of here! Chroma : The yellow of a lemon is more HvividI than a yellow of a banana E which is a dull yellow! This is a difference in color intensity! Chroma represents this degree of saturation of a particular here! The higher the chroma% the more intense the color! Chroma is not considered separately in dentistry! ?t is considered along with here and value of dental tissues! Because the spectral distribution of the light reflected from or transmitted through an ob&ect is dependent on the spectral content of the incident light% the appearance of an ob&ect is dependent in the nature of the light in which the ob&ect is viewed! Day light% and fluorescent lamps are common sources of light in dental operators and each of there has a different spectral distribution! Kb&ects that appear to be color matched under one type of light may appear different under another light source! This phenomenon is called '7etamerism(! Measurement of color: The color of dental restorative materials is most commonly measured in reflected light by instrumental or visual techni ues! I !"rume "al "e#h $%ue! : Curves of spectral reflectance versus wavelength can be obtained over the visible range @91C)91D nmA with a

recording spectrophotometer and integrating sphere! Typical curves for a composite resin before and after 011 hours of accelerated aging in a weathering chamber

SPECTROPHOTOMETER

;rom the reflectance values and tabulated color matching functions% the tristimulus values @L%M% >A can be computed relative to a particular light source! These tristimulus values are related to the amounts of the three primary colors re uired to give by additive mi"ture% a match with the color being considered! Typically% the tristimulus values are considered relative to the commission international de ?IEclairage @C?EA a diagram of the C?E! .NaNbN color space is this! The .NaNbN color space is characteri2ed by uniform chromacities! Value @blac, to whiteA is denoted as .N% whereas chroma @aNbNA is denoted as red @OaNA% green @)aNA% yellow @ObNA and blue @) bNA! V$!ual "e#h $%ue : 3 popular system of visual determination is the 7unsell color system% the parameters of which are represented in 0 dimensions!

THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES :
Thermal Co &u#"$'$"( : Heat transfer through solid substances most commonly occurs by means of conduction! The conduction of heat through metals occurs through the interactions of crystal lattice vibrations and by the motions of electrons and their interaction with atoms! Thermal conductivity is a thermo physical measure of low well heat is transferred through a material by conductive flow! The measurement of thermal C is preformed under Hsteady state conditionsI! Bnder these conditions% temperatures in the system @i!e! the temperature gradientA do not change over time! The rate of heat flow through a structure is

proportional both to the area @perpendicular to heat is conducted and to the temperature gradient across the structure! thus% if significant porosity e"ists in the structure% the area available for conduction is reduced and the rate of heat flow is reduced! The thermal conductivity or coefficient of thermal conductivity is the uantity of heat in calories per second that passes through a specimen / cm thic, having a cross) sectional area of / cm6 when the temperature difference between the surfaces perpendicular to heat flow of the specimen is / 1+! 3ccording to the 6nd law of thermodynamics% heat flow from points of higher temperature to points of lower temperature! ) 7aterials that have a high thermal and are called conductors! ) 7aterials of low thermal conductivity are called insulators! ) ?S? unit or measure for thermal conductivity is watt per meter per second per degree +elvin @w " m)/ " s)/ " ,)/A! Thermal &$))u!$'$"(: The value of thermal diffusivity of a material control the time rate of temperature change as heat passes through a material! ) ?t is a measure of the rate at which a body with a non)uniform temperature reaches a state of thermal e uilibrium! ) The s uare root of thermal diffusivity is indirectly proportional to the thermal insulation ability! ) ?n the oral environment% temperatures are not constant during the ingestion of foods and li uids! ;or these unsteady state conditions% heat transfer through the material deceases the thermal gradient under such conditions% the thermal diffusivity is

) The effectiveness of a material in preventing heat transfer is directly proportional to the thic,ness of the liner and inversely proportional to the s uare root of the thermal diffusivity! Thus% the thic,nesses of the remaining dentin and the base are as important as% if not more important than% the thermal properties of the materials! The S!?! unit of thermal diffusivity is typical of diffusion processes% that is% s uare meter per second values! The CKTE refers to the amount of e"pansion and contraction a material undergoes in relation to temperature! a tooth e"pands and contracts with thermal changes! COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL E*PANSION: This is an important thermal property! Coefficient of thermal e"pansion is defined as the change in length per unit of the original length of a material when its temperature is raised / 1+! 3 tooth e"pands and contracts with thermal changes! 3 high CKTE indicates a relatively high degree of dimensional change is e"pansion to temperature! Values of coefficients of thermal e"pansion of some materials of interest are

The units of are typically e"pressed in units of m5m1+ or ppm 5

1

+! Studies show that there is a direct revolution behavior marginal

lea,age and thermal changes! The greater the difference in flow between tooth structure and the restorative% the greater the lea,age! 3 tooth restoration may e"pand or contract more than the tooth during a change in temperature# thus there may be marginal microlea,age ad&acent to the restoration% or the restoration may debond from the tooth! ) -estorative materials may change in dimension upto 9!9 times more than the tooth enamel for every degree of temperature change! ) The high thermal e"pansion coefficient of inlay wa" is important because it is highly susceptible to temperature changes! ) 3lthough these thermal stress is cannot be eliminated completely% they can be reduced appreciably by selection of materials whose e"pansion or contraction coefficients are matched fairly closely @within 9JA!

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Defined by the laws of mechanics% that is% the physical science that deals in the energy and forces and their efforts on bodies! 3ll mechanical properties are measures of the resistance of a material to deformation or fracture under an applied force! ;or distal applications stress forces are usually e"pressed as 7pa! 3 free scale named after ;rench scientist BlasP Das et al in /<<D! 4ewton is a free scale named after British mathematician sie ?ssac 4ewton! STRESSES AND STRAINS : Defined as force per unit area within a structure sub&ected to an e"ternal force or pressure! E"pressed in 4ewtonIs per s ! mm @45mm6+ or pounds per s ! inch @psiA! The unit 45mm6 is properly ,nown as the $ascal and abbreviated pa! The pascal is a small unit! ;or dental applications% there are several types of stress that develop according to the nature of the applied forces and the ob&ect shape! These include tensile stress% shear stress and compressive stress!

STRAIN : Defined as the change in the length of materials on the applications of stress! Calculated by dividing by its original length E a unit with no dimensions! 3 material capable of high strain% such a rubber or late"% can tolerate a strain value of 1!C E C1!1J before failure! ;or most solids% stain is e"pressed as micro strain is parts per millions @$$7A or /1)< strain!

TENSILE STRESS: 3 tensile stress is caused by a load that tends to stretch or elongate a body! 3 tensile stress is always accompanied by tensile strain! There are very few pure tensile stress situations in dentistry! However% a tensile stress can be generated when structures are fle"ed! @The deformation of a bridge and the diametral compression of a cylinderA Because most dental materials are uite brittle% they are highly

susceptible to crac, initiation in the presence of surface flaws when sub&ected to tensile stress% such as when they are sub&ected to fle"ural loading! 3lthough some brittle materials are strong% they fracture with little warning% because little or no plastic deformation occurs to indicate high levels of stress!

COMPRESSIVE STRESS : ?f a body is placed under a load that tends to compress or shorten it% the internal resistance to such a load is called a compressive stress! 3 compressive stress is associated with a compressive strain! To calculate either tensile stress or compressive stress% the applied force is divided by the cross)sectional area perpendicular to the force direction!

SHEAR STRESS: 3 shear stress tends to resist the sliding or twisting of one portion of a body over another! Shear stress can also be produced by twisting or toesional action on a material! ;or eg* if a force is applied along the surface of tooth enamel by a sharp edged instrument parallel to the interface between the enamel and an orthodontic brac,et% the brac,et may debond by shear stress failure of the resin luting agent! Shear stress is calculated by dividing the force by the area parallel to the force direction! ?n the oral environment% shear failure is unli,ely to occur because* $resence of chamfers% bevels or changes in curvatures of a bonded tooth surface would also ma,e shear failure of a bonded material highly unli,ely! The further away from the interface the load is applied% the more li,ely that tensile failure rather than shear failure will occur because the potential for bending stresses would increase Because the tensile strength of brittle materials is usually well below their shear strength values% tensile failure is more li,ely to occur!

FLE*URAL ,BENDIN-+ STRESS : Ta,ing an e!g! of a 0 unit bridge or ;$D and a 6 unit cantilever ;$D! These stresses are produced by bending forces in dental appliances in one of the 6 ways * /! By sub&ecting a structure such as an ;$D to 0 point loading% where by the end points are fi"ed and a force is applied between these end points! 6! By sub&ecting a cantilevered structure that is supported at only one end to a load along any part of the unsupported section! 3lso% when a patient bites into an ob&ect% the anterior teeth receive forces that are at an angle to their long a"es thereby creating fle"ural stresses within the teeth! ) 3 tensile stress develops on the tissue side of the ;$D and compressive stress develops on the occlusal side! between these 6 areas is a neutral a"is that represents a state with no tensile stress and no compressive stress! ;or a cantilevered ;$D @as show in figA% the ma"imum tensile stress develops with the occlusal surface or the surface that is becoming more conve" @indicating a stretching actionA! ?f you can visuali2e this unit bending downward toward the tissue% the upper

surface becomes more conve" or stretched and the opposite surface becomes compressed!

ELASTIC DEFORMATION : There are several important mechanical properties and parameters that are measures of the elastic strain or plastic strain behaviour of dental materials! These are elastic modulus% dynamic MoungIs modulus% shear modulus% fle"ibility% resilience and $oissonIs ratio! Ela!"$# mo&ulu! ,(ou ./! mo&ulu! o) ela!"$#$"(+ : Determines resistance to fle"es and deformation% of the anterior of bending when loaded! Elastic modulus describes the relative stiffness or rigidity of a material% which is measured by the slope of the elastic region of the stress)strain graph! KThe measure of elasticity of a material is described by the term elastic modulus denoted by the variable E! ?t represents the stiffness of a material within the elastic range! /! Can be measured by placing a force on a material and measuring the deformation% can be calculated in anon)destructive way by measuring the harmonics if a material when vibrated!

6!

Stress and strain are related in that the elastic modulus is the ratio of stress over stain!

0!

The elastic modulus can be determines by a stress)stain curve by calculating the ratio of stress to strain or the slope of the linear region of the curve! The modulus is calculated from the e uation * Elastic modulus F stress 5 stain Because strain in dimensionless% the modulus has the same units as stress and is usually reported in 7$a or G$a @/G$3 F /111 7$aA!

) The elastic ualities of a material represent a fundamental property of the material! The inter atomic or intermolecular forces of the material are responsible for the property of elasticity! ) The stronger the basic attraction forces% the greater the values of the elastic modulus and the more rigid or stiff the material! Because this property is related to the attraction forces within the material% it is usually the same when the material is sub&ected to either tension or compression! This property is generally independent of any heat treatment or mechanical treatment that a metal or alloy has received% but is uite dependent on the composition of the elastic modulus indicates the material amount of stress that needs to be applied to achieve a certain strain% or if the strain is ,nows% what level of stress is in effect! DYNAMIC YOUN-/S MODULUS: Elastic modulus can be measured by a dynamic method using $oissonIs ratio! During a"ial loading in tension or compression% there is a simultaneous a"ial and lateral strain! Bnder tensile loading as a material elongates in the direction of load% there is a reduction in cross

section! Bnder compressive loading% there is an increase in cross section! Qithin the elastic range% the ratio of the lateral to the a"ial strain is called $oissonIs ratio @vA! ?n tensile loading% the $oissonIs ratio indicates that the reduction in cross section is proportional to the elongation during the elastic deformation! The reduction in cross)section continues until the material is fractured! RESILIENCE : -esilience is the resistance of a material to permanent deformation! ?t indicates the amount of energy necessary to deform the material to the proportional limit! -esilience is therefore measured by the area under the elastic portion of the stress)strain curve! -esilience can be measured by ideali2ing area of interest as a triangle and calculating the area of the triangle! The units are 74 5 m0 @meter " mega newtons per cubic meterA% which represents energy per unit volume of material! resilience has particular importance in the evaluation of orthodontic wires because the amount of wor, e"pected from a particular spring in moving a tooth is of interest!

STREN-TH
The strength of a material is defined as the average level of stress at which a material e"hibits a certain amount of initial plastic

deformation or at which fracture occurs in test specimens of the same shape and si2e! The strength is dependent on several factors including* /! 6! 0! 9! Strain rate Shape of test specimen The surface finish The environment in which a material is tested! However% the strength of brittle materials may appear to be low when large flows are present or if stress concentration areas e"ist because of improper design of a prosthetic component @such as a notch on the clasp arm on a partial dentureA under these circumstances% a clinical prosthesis may fracture at a much lower applied force because the locali2ed stress e"ceeds the strength of the material at the critical location of the flow @stress concentrationA! PROPORTIONAL LIMIT : 3s a wire is stretched steadily in tension% the wire eventually fractures! However% in dentistry% we are also interested in the stress at which plastic deformation begins to develop! 3 stress E strain curve for a hypothetical material that was sub&ected to increasing tensile stress until fracture! The stress is plotted vertically and the strain is plotted hori2ontally! 3s the stress is increased% the strain is increased! ?n fact% the initial portion of the curve% from K to 3% the strain is linearly proportional to the stress% and as the stress is doubled% the amount of strain is also doubled! Qhen a stress that is higher than the value registered at 3 is achieved% the strain changes are no longer linearly proportional to the stress changes! Hence% the value of the stress at 3 is ,nown as proportional limit and is defined as the greatest stress that a

material will sustain without a deviation from the linear proportionality of stress to strain!

) Below the proportional limit% no permanent deformation occurs in a structure! Qhen the stress is removed% the structure will return to its original dimensions! The region of stress)strain curve before proportional limit is called elastic region! ) The application of stress grater than the proportional limit results in a permanent or irreversible strain in the specimen% the region of the stress)strain curve beyond the proportional limit is called plastic region! ) The elastic limit is defined as the ma"imum stress that a material will withstand without permanent deformation! There fore% for all practical

purposes% the proportional limit and elastic limit represent the same stresses within the structure and terms are used inter changeably! YIELD STREN-TH : The conditions needed for the definitions of elastic limit and proportional limit are not always reali2ed under practical conditions! The yield strength or yield stress @MSA of a material is a property that can be determined readily and is often used to describe the stress at which the material begins to function in a plastic manner! ) 3t this stress% a limited permanent strain has occurred in a material! ) The yield strength is defined as the stress at which a material e"hibits a specified limiting deviation from proportionality of stress to strain! ) 3 value of either 1!/J or 1!6J of the plastic strain is often selected and is referred to as 'percent offset(! COMPRESSIVE STREN-TH : Compressive strength is important in many restorative materials used in dental techni ue and operations! ) Compressive strength in measure of the amount of force a material can support in a single impact before brea,ing! ) This property is particularly important in the process of mastication because many of the forces of mastication are compressive! ) Kne of the easiest to measure and is often cited in advertisements for materials! ) There is no direct correlation between compressive strength and clinical perform!

) Compressive strength is most useful for comparing materials that are brittle and generally wea, in tension and that are therefore not employed in regions of oral cavity where tensile forces predominate!

) Certain characteristics of a material sub&ected to tension are also observed when a material is in compression! ) Qhen a structure is sub&ected to compression% note that the failure of the body may occur as a result of comple" stress formations in the body! This is illustrated by a cross)sectional view of a right cylinder sub&ected to compression! ?t is apparent that forces of compression are resolved into forces of shear along a cone shaped area at each end and as a result of the action of the 6 cones on the cylinder% into tensile forces in the center of the cylinder!

) Because of this resolution of the forces in the body% it has become necessary to adopt standard si2es and dimensions to obtain reproducible test results! ) This fig shows that if a material too short% the force distributions becomes more complicated as a result of the cone formations over lapping in the ends of the cylinder! ) ?f the specimen is too long% buc,ling may occur! Therefore the cylinder should have a length twice that of diameter for the most satisfactory results! ) Bnfortunately% the punch test has no direct correlation to the clinical performance of a material! ;urther% there is little agreement in the research community on how to conduct this test% although standards are being developed!

SHEAR STREN-TH : Shear stress is the ma"imum stress that a material can withstand before failure in a shear mode of loading! ) ?t is particularly important in the study of interfaces between 6 materials and has been used to measure bond strength between different materials! ) Kne method of testing shear strength of dental materials is the punch or pushout method E in which an a"ial load is applied where H;I is the compression force applied to the specimen% HdI is the diameter of the punch and HhI is thic,ness of specimen% then shear strength F S!S! F ; 5 d h ) ?n this test% shear strength is calculated from the compressive force applied% the diameter of punch and the thic,ness of material tested!

) ?t is important to note that the stress distribution caused by this method is not HpureI shear and that results often differ because of differences in specimen distribution% surface geometry% composition and preparation and mechanical testing procedure! ) However% it is a simple test to perform and has been used e"tensively! 3lternatively% shear properties may be determined by sub&ecting a specimen to tensional loading as well!

TENSILE STREN-TH : ) ?s the amount of force that can be used to stretch a material in a single impact prior to brea,ing! ) This physical property is more difficult to measure than CST! ) The tolerance of measuring device is critical E materials must be pulled at an e"act /:11 angle from each other to eliminate the influence of shear forces! The clinical relevance of tensile strength is limited!

Diametral tensile strength : Theoretical tensile strength measurement that is calculated by measuring the CS of a disc of material! This test is easier to perform and more consistent than the clinical tensile strength test!

TOU-HNESS :
) Toughness is defined as the amount of elastic and plastic deformation energy re uired to fracture a material! ?t is a measure of the energy re uired to propogate critical flows in the structure! ) Toughness is indicated as the total area under the stress stain graph% from 2ero stress to fracture stress! ) Toughness increases with increase in strength and ductility! ) ;racture toughness is the critical stress intensity factor at the beginning of the rapid crac, propagation in a solid containing a crac, of ,nown shape and si2e!

) ?t describes the resistance of brittle materials to the catastrophic propagation of flows under an applied stress! ) ;racture toughness is given in units of stress times the s uare root of crac, length that is 7$a 7 R or the e uivalent form% 74! 7E R !

BRITTLENESS :
Shown in this figure are 0 materials% their stress)stain curves with variable properties! ) 7aterial 3 is stronger% stiffer and more ductile than material B and C! ) 7aterial B has less ductility than material 3 and is thus more brittle! ) 7aterial C has no ductility and is perfectly brittle% it is also the wea,est of the 0 materials! ) Brittleness is the relative inability of material to sustain plastic deformation before fracture of a material occurs! ;or eg * amalgams% ceramics and composites are brittle at oral temperatures @C)CC1CA! They sustain little or no plastic strain before they fracture! ?n other words% a brittle material fractures at or near its proportional limit! This behaviour is shown by material C! ) However% a brittle material is not necessarily wea,! ;or eg * if a glass is drawn into a fiber with very smooth surface and insignificant internal flows% its tensile strength may be as high as 6:117$a% but it will have no ductility @1J elongationA!

DUCTILITY AND MALLEABILITY : ;or eg * a metal that can be drawn readily into long% thin% wire is considered to be ductile! ) The ability of a material to sustain considerable permanent deformation without rupture under compression% as in hammering or rolling into a sheet% is termed '73..E3B.E(! ) Gold is the most ductile and malleable pure metal and silver is second% copper ran,s third! ) Ductility is the ma"imum plastic deformation a material can withstand when it is stretched at room temperature! Measurement of ductility : There are 0 common methods for measurement of ductility /A 6A The present elongation after fracture The ma"imum number of bends performed in a cold bend test!

) The most common and simplest used method is to compare the increase in length of a wire or rod after fracture in tension to its length before fracture! 6 mar,s are placed on the wire or rod after fracture in tension to its length before fracture! 6 mar,s are placed on the wire or rod a specified distance apart and this distance is designated as the Hgauge lengthI! The wire or rod is then pulled apart under a tensile load! The guage length is again measured! The ratio of the increased length is J is called Hpercent elongation( and this represents the uantitative value of ductility! ) 3nother method for manifestation of ductility is the CK.D BE4D TEST * the material is clamped in a rise and bent around a mandrel of a

specified radius! 3 number of bends to fracture is counted% and the greater the number% the greater the ductility!

CONCLUSION
?t is very important to ,now the properties of the materials we use in dentistry% especially as restorative materials! This will enable us to select a material that will have properties close to that of natural tooth structure! 3lso we will be able to better understand and select materials from the wide range that are coming in to the mar,et! Hence% a thorough ,nowledge of the properties of restorative materials is a must!

REFERENCES

8 Ph$ll$0! !#$e #e o) &e "al ma"er$al!1A u!a'$#e,22 e& + 8 Re!"ora"$'e &e "al ma"er$al!1Cra$. a & Po3er! ,22e& + 8 Ma"er$al! $ &e "$!"r(1 Ferra#a e 8 Too"h #olore& re!"ora"$'e!1Al4er!