An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical identification and logical address that is

assigned to devices participating in a computer network utilizing the Internet Protocol for
communication between its nodes.[1] Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers, they
are usually displayed in human-readable notations, such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4), and
2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6). The role of the IP address has been characterized as
follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates
how to get there."[2]
The original designers of TCP/IP defined an IP address as a 32-bit number[1] and this system,
now named Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use today. However, due to the
enormous growth of the Internet and the resulting depletion of the address space, a new
addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, was developed in 1995[3] and last
standardized by RFC 2460 in 1998.[4]
The Internet Protocol also has the task of routing data packets between networks, and IP
addresses specify the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology of the routing
system. For this purpose, some of the bits in an IP address are used to designate a subnetwork.
The number of these bits is indicated in CIDR notation, appended to the IP address, e.g.,
208.77.188.166/24.
With the development of private networks and the threat of IPv4 address exhaustion, a group of
private address spaces was set aside by RFC 1918. These private addresses may be used by
anyone on private networks. They are often used with network address translators to connect to
the global public Internet.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages the IP address space allocations
globally. IANA works in cooperation with five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) to allocate IP
address blocks to Local Internet Registries (Internet service providers) and other entities.

Contents
[hide]
• 1 IP versions
○ 1.1 IP version 4 addresses
 1.1.1 IPv4 networks
 1.1.2 IPv4 private addresses
○ 1.2 IPv4 address depletion
○ 1.3 IP version 6 addresses
 1.3.1 IPv6 private addresses
• 2 IP subnetworks
• 3 Static and dynamic IP addresses
○ 3.1 Method of assignment
○ 3.2 Uses of dynamic addressing
 3.2.1 Sticky dynamic IP address
○ 3.3 Address autoconfiguration
 ○ 3.4 Uses of static addressing
• 4 Modifications to IP addressing
○ 4.1 IP blocking and firewalls
○ 4.2 IP address translation
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 External links
○ 7.1 RFCs

[edit] IP versions
The Internet Protocol (IP) has two versions currently in use (see IP version history for details).
Each version has its own definition of an IP address. Because of its prevalence, the generic term
IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4.
An illustration of an IP address (version 4), in both dot-decimal notation and binary.
[edit] IP version 4 addresses
Main article: IPv4#Addressing
IPv4 uses 32-bit (4-byte) addresses, which limits the address space to 4,294,967,296 (232)
possible unique addresses. However, IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as
private networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses). This
reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses, and as the
number of addresses available is consumed, an IPv4 address shortage appears to be inevitable in
the long run. This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards IPv6, which is currently in
the early stages of deployment and is currently the only offering to replace IPv4.
IPv4 addresses are usually represented in dot-decimal notation (four numbers, each ranging from
0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g. 208.77.188.166). Each part represents 8 bits of the address, and
is therefore called an octet. In less common cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be
presented in hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations. When converting, each octet is
usually treated as a separate number.
[edit] IPv4 networks
In the early stages of development of the Internet protocol,[1] network administrators interpreted
an IP address as a structure of network number and host number. The highest order octet (most
significant eight bits) was designated the network number and the rest of the bits were called the
rest field or host identifier and were used for host numbering within a network. This method
soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent from the
existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing
specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture. [2]
Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments. The
first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address was defined as the class of the
address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for universal unicast addressing. Depending on
the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire
address. Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing
the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes (B and C). The following table gives an
overview of this system.

First octet in Range of Network Host Possible number Possible number

Class
binary first octet ID ID of networks of hosts

224 - 2 =
A 0XXXXXXX 0 - 127 a b.c.d 27 = 128
16,777,214

B 10XXXXXX 128 - 191 a.b c.d 214 = 16,384 216 - 2 = 65,534

C 110XXXXX 192 - 223 a.b.c d 221 = 2,097,152 28 - 2 = 254

The articles 'subnetwork' and 'classful network' explain the details of this design.
Although classful network design was a successful developmental stage, it proved unscalable in
the rapid expansion of the Internet and was abandoned when Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR) created for the allocation of IP address blocks and new rules of routing protocol packets
using IPv4 addresses. CIDR is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow
allocation and routing on arbitrary-length prefixes.
Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default
configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask),
and in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions.
[edit] IPv4 private addresses
Main article: Private network
Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications
with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer
or device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks
developed and public address space needed to be conserved (IPv4 address exhaustion).
Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with
each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally-unique IP addresses. Three ranges of IPv4
addresses for private networks, one range for each class (A, B, C), were reserved in RFC 1918.
These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an
IP address registry.
Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network
address translation (NAT).

IANA-reserved private IPv4 network ranges

 Start End No. of addresses

24-bit Block (/8 prefix, 1 x A) 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 16,777,216

20-bit Block (/12 prefix, 16 x B) 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 1,048,576

16-bit Block (/16 prefix, 256 x 192.168.0. 192.168.255.25

65,536
C) 0 5

Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a
block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24).
[edit] IPv4 address depletion
Main article: IPv4 address exhaustion
The IP version 4 address space is rapidly nearing exhaustion of available, officially assignable
address blocks.
[edit] IP version 6 addresses
Main article: IPv6#Addressing
An illustration of an IP address (version 6), in hexadecimal and binary.
The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space, despite conservation techniques, prompted the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the Internet's
addressing capability. The permanent solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet
Protocol itself. This next generation of the Internet Protocol, aimed to replace IPv4 on the
Internet, was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995[3][4] The address size
was increased from 32 to 128 bits or 16 octets, which, even with a generous assignment of
network blocks, is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. Mathematically, the new address
space provides the potential for a maximum of 2128, or about 3.403 × 1038 unique addresses.
The new design is not based on the goal to provide a sufficient quantity of addresses alone, but
rather to allow efficient aggregation of subnet routing prefixes to occur at routing nodes. As a
result, routing table sizes are smaller, and the smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet
for 264 hosts, which is the size of the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels,
actual address utilization rates will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also
provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment--that is
the local administration of the segment's available space--from the addressing prefix used to
route external traffic for a network. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing
prefix of entire networks should the global connectivity or the routing policy change without
requiring internal redesign or renumbering.
The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and,
where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is not
the need to have complex address conservation methods as used in classless inter-domain routing
(CIDR).
All modern[update] desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the
IPv6 protocol, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as home networking
routers, voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals.
Example of an IPv6 address:
2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7334
[edit] IPv6 private addresses
Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private or internal networks, there are blocks of addresses set
aside in IPv6 for private addresses. In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses
(ULA). RFC 4193 sets aside the routing prefix fc00::/7 for this block which is divided into two /
8 blocks with different implied policies (cf. IPv6) The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom
number that minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted.
Early designs (RFC 3513) used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed site-local
addresses. However, the definition of what constituted sites remained unclear and the poorly
defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. The address range specification was
abandoned and must no longer be used in new systems.
Addresses starting with fe80: — called link-local addresses — are assigned only in the local link
area. The addresses are generated usually automatically by the operating system's IP layer for
each network interface. This provides instant automatic network connectivity for any IPv6 host
and means that if several hosts connect to a common hub or switch, they have an instant
communication path via their link-local IPv6 address. This feature is used extensively, and
invisibly to most users, in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration (cf. Neighbor
Discovery Protocol).
None of the private address prefixes may be routed in the public Internet.
[edit] IP subnetworks
Main article: Subnetwork
The technique of subnetting can operate in both IPv4 and IPv6 networks. The IP address is
divided into two parts: the network address and the host identifier. The subnet mask (in IPv4
only) or the CIDR prefix determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts.
The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the Classless
Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash
and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For
example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively.
The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits
of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.
[edit] Static and dynamic IP addresses
When a computer is configured to use the same IP address each time it powers up, this is known
as a Static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer's IP address is assigned
automatically, it is known as a Dynamic IP address.
[edit] Method of assignment
Static IP addresses are manually assigned to a computer by an administrator. The exact
procedure varies according to platform. This contrasts with dynamic IP addresses, which are
assigned either by the computer interface or host software itself, as in Zeroconf, or assigned by a
server using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Even though IP addresses assigned
using DHCP may stay the same for long periods of time, they can generally change. In some
cases, a network administrator may implement dynamically assigned static IP addresses. In this
case, a DHCP server is used, but it is specifically configured to always assign the same IP
address to a particular computer. This allows static IP addresses to be configured centrally,
without having to specifically configure each computer on the network in a manual procedure.
In the absence of both an administrator (to assign a static IP address) and a DHCP server, the
operating system may assign itself an IP address using state-less autoconfiguration methods,
such as Zeroconf.
[edit] Uses of dynamic addressing
Dynamic IP addresses are most frequently assigned on LANs and broadband networks by
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) servers. They are used because it avoids the
administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also
allows many devices to share limited address space on a network if only some of them will be
online at a particular time. In most current desktop operating systems, dynamic IP configuration
is enabled by default so that a user does not need to manually enter any settings to connect to a
network with a DHCP server. DHCP is not the only technology used to assigning dynamic IP
addresses. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-
Point Protocol.
[edit] Sticky dynamic IP address
A sticky dynamic IP address or sticky IP is an informal term used by cable and DSL Internet
access subscribers to describe a dynamically assigned IP address that does not change often. The
addresses are usually assigned with the DHCP protocol. Since the modems are usually powered-
on for extended periods of time, the address leases are usually set to long periods and simply
renewed upon expiration. If a modem is turned off and powered up again before the next
expiration of the address lease, it will most likely receive the same IP address.
[edit] Address autoconfiguration
RFC 3330 defines an address block, 169.254.0.0/16, for the special use in link-local addressing
for IPv4 networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address
assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the fe80::/10 subnet.
These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point
connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private
addresses cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet.
When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of
address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation that called
Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). Due to Microsoft's market power, APIPA has been
deployed on millions of machines and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry.
Many years later, the IETF defined a formal standard for this functionality, RFC 3927, entitled
Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses.
[edit] Uses of static addressing
Some infrastructure situations have to use static addressing, such as when finding the Domain
Name System host that will translate domain names to IP addresses. Static addresses are also
convenient, but not absolutely necessary, to locate servers inside an enterprise. An address
obtained from a DNS server comes with a time to live, or caching time, after which it should be
looked up to confirm that it has not changed. Even static IP addresses do change as a result of
network administration (RFC 2072)

[edit] Modifications to IP addressing

[edit] IP blocking and firewalls
Main articles: IP blocking and Firewall
Firewalls are common on today[update]'s Internet. For increased network security, they control
access to private networks based on the public IP of the client. Whether using a blacklist or a
whitelist, the IP address that is blocked is the perceived public IP address of the client, meaning
that if the client is using a proxy server or NAT, blocking one IP address might block many
individual people.
[edit] IP address translation
Main article: Network Address Translation
Multiple client devices can appear to share IP addresses: either because they are part of a shared
hosting web server environment or because an IPv4 network address translator (NAT) or proxy
server acts as an intermediary agent on behalf of its customers, in which case the real originating
IP addresses might be hidden from the server receiving a request. A common practice is to have
a NAT hide a large number of IP addresses in a private network. Only the "outside" interface(s)
of the NAT need to have Internet-routable addresses[5].
Most commonly, the NAT device maps TCP or UDP port numbers on the outside to individual
private addresses on the inside. Just as a telephone number may have site-specific extensions, the
port numbers are site-specific extensions to an IP address.
In small home networks, NAT functions usually take place in a residential gateway device,
typically one marketed as a "router". In this scenario, the computers connected to the router
would have 'private' IP addresses and the router would have a 'public' address to communicate
with the Internet. This type of router allows several computers to share one public IP address.
[edit] See also
• Classful network
• Geolocation
• Geolocation software
• hostname: a human-readable alpha-numeric designation that may map to an IP address
• Internet
• IP address spoofing
• IP blocking
• IP Multicast
 • IP2Location, a geolocation system using IP addresses.
• List of assigned /8 IP address blocks
• MAC address
• Ping
• Private network
• Provider Aggregatable Address Space
• Provider Independent Address Space
• Regional Internet Registry
○ African Network Information Center
○ American Registry for Internet Numbers
○ Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre
○ Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry
○ RIPE Network Coordination Centre
• Subnet address
• Virtual IP address
[edit] References
• Comer, Douglas (2000). Internetworking with TCP/IP:Principles, Protocols, and
Architectures --4th ed.. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-018380-6.
http://www.cs.purdue.edu/homes/dec/netbooks.html.
1. ^ a b c RFC 760, "DOD Standard Internet Protocol". DARPA Request For Comments. Internet
Engineering Task Force. January 1980. http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc0760.txt. Retrieved on 2008-
07-08.
2. ^ a b RFC 791, "Internet Protocol". DARPA Request For Comments. Internet Engineering Task
Force. September 1981. 6. http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc791.txt. Retrieved on 2008-07-08.
3. ^ a b RFC 1883, "Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification". Request For Comments. The
Internet Society. December 1995. http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1883.txt. Retrieved on 2008-07-08.
4. ^ a b RFC 2460, Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification, S. Deering, R. Hinden, The
Internet Society (December 1998)
5. ^ Comer pg.394