The Complex Form

_
`

23.6
Introduction
In this Section we show how a Fourier series can be expressed more concisely if we introduce the
complex number i where i
2
= 1. By utilising the Euler relation:
e
i
cos + i sin
we can replace the trigonometric functions by complex exponential functions. By also combining the
Fourier coecients a
n
and b
n
into a complex coecient c
n
through
c
n
=
1
2
(a
n
ib
n
)
we nd that, for a given periodic signal, both sets of constants can be found in one operation.
We also obtain Parsevals theorem which has important applications in electrical engineering.
The complex formulation of a Fourier series is an important precursor of the Fourier transform which
attempts to Fourier analyse non-periodic functions.
_

Prerequisites
Before starting this Section you should . . .
know how to obtain a Fourier series
be competent working with the complex
numbers
be familiar with the relation between the
exponential function and the trigonometric
functions
_
`

Learning Outcomes
On completion you should be able to . . .
express a periodic function in terms of its
Fourier series in complex form
understand Parsevals theorem
HELM (2005):
Section 23.6: The Complex Form
53
1. Complex exponential form of a Fourier series
So far we have discussed the trigonometric form of a Fourier series i.e. we have represented functions
of period T in the terms of sinusoids, and possibly a constant term, using
f(t) =
a
0
2
+

n=1
_
a
n
cos
_
2nt
T
_
+ b
n
sin
_
2nt
T
__
.
If we use the angular frequency

0
=
2
T
we obtain the more concise form
f(t) =
a
0
2
+

n=1
(a
n
cos n
0
t + b
n
sin n
0
t).
We have seen that the Fourier coecients are calculated using the following integrals:
a
n
=
2
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t) cos n
0
t dt n = 0, 1, 2, . . . (1)
b
n
=
2
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t) sin n
0
t dt n = 1, 2, . . . (2)
An alternative, more concise form, of a Fourier series is available using complex quantities. This
form is quite widely used by engineers, for example in Circuit Theory and Control Theory, and leads
naturally into the Fourier Transform which is the subject of 24.
2. Revision of the exponential form of a complex number
Recall that a complex number in Cartesian form which is written as
z = a + ib,
where a and b are real numbers and i
2
= 1, can be written in polar form as
z = r(cos + i sin )
where r = |z| =

a
2
+ b
2
and , the argument or phase of z, is such that
a = r cos b = r sin .
A more concise version of the polar form of z can be obtained by dening a complex exponential
quantity e
i
by Eulers relation
e
i
cos + i sin
The polar angle is normally expressed in radians. Replacing i by i we obtain the alternative
form
e
i
cos i sin
54 HELM (2005):
Workbook 23: Fourier series
Task
Write down in cos i sin form and also in Cartesian form (a) e
i/6
(b) e
i/6
.
Use Eulers relation:
Your solution
Answer
We have, by denition,
(a) e
i/6
= cos
_

6
_
+ i sin
_

6
_
=

3
2
+
1
2
i (b) e
i/6
= cos
_

6
_
i sin
_

6
_
=

3
2

1
2
i
Task
Write down (a) cos
_

6
_
(b) sin
_

6
_
in terms of e
i/6
and e
i/6
.
Your solution
Answer
We have, adding the two results from the previous task
e
i/6
+ e
i/6
= 2 cos
_

6
_
or cos
_

6
_
=
1
2
_
e
i/6
+ e
i/6
_
Similarly, subtracting the two results,
e
i/6
e
i/6
= 2 i sin
_

6
_
or sin
_

6
_
=
1
2 i
_
e
i/6
e
i/6
_
(Dont forget the factor i in this latter case.)
Clearly, similar calculations could be carried out for any angle . The general results are summarised
in the following Key Point.
HELM (2005):
Section 23.6: The Complex Form
55
Key Point 8
Eulers Relations
e
i
cos + i sin , e
i
cos i sin
cos
1
2
_
e
i
+ e
i
_
sin
1
2 i
_
e
i
e
i
_
Using these results we can redraft an expression of the form
a
n
cos n + b
n
sin n
in terms of complex exponentials.
(This expression, with =
0
t, is of course the n
th
harmonic of a trigonometric Fourier series.)
Task
Using the results from the Key Point 8 (with n instead of ) rewrite
a
n
cos n + b
n
sin n
in complex exponential form.
First substitute for cos n and sin n with exponential expressions using Key Point 8:
Your solution
Answer
We have
a
n
cos n =
a
n
2
_
e
in
+ e
in
_
b
n
sin n =
b
n
2 i
_
e
in
e
in
_
so
a
n
cos n + b
n
sin n =
a
n
2
_
e
in
+ e
in
_
+
b
n
2 i
_
e
in
e
in
_
56 HELM (2005):
Workbook 23: Fourier series
Now collect the terms in e
in
and in e
in
and use the fact that
1
i
= i:
Your solution
Answer
We get
1
2
_
a
n
+
b
n
i
_
e
in
+
1
2
_
a
n

b
n
i
_
e
in
or, since
1
i
=
i
i
2
= i
1
2
(a
n
ib
n
)e
in
+
1
2
(a
n
+ ib
n
)e
in
.
Now write this expression in more concise form by dening
c
n
=
1
2
(a
n
ib
n
) which has complex conjugate c

n
=
1
2
(a
n
+ ib
n
).
Write the concise complex exponential expression for a
n
cos n + b
n
sin n:
Your solution
Answer
a
n
cos n + b
n
sin n = c
n
e
in
+ c

n
e
in
Clearly, we can now rewrite the trigonometric Fourier series
a
0
2
+

n=1
(a
n
cos n
0
t + b
n
sin n
0
t) as
a
0
2
+

n=1
_
c
n
e
in
0
t
+ c

n
e
in
0
t
_
(3)
A neater, and particularly concise, form of this expression can be obtained as follows:
Firstly write
a
0
2
= c
0
(which is consistent with the general denition of c
n
since b
0
= 0).
The second term in the summation

n=1
c

n
e
in
0
t
= c

1
e
i
0
t
+ c

2
e
2 i
0
t
+ . . .
can be written, if we dene c
n
= c

n
=
1
2
(a
n
+ ib
n
), as
c
1
e
i
0
t
+ c
2
e
2 i
0
t
+ c
3
e
3 i
0
t
+ . . . =

n=1
c
n
e
in
0
t
Hence (3) can be written c
0
+

n=1
c
n
e
in
0
t
+

n=1
c
n
e
in
0
t
or in the very concise form

n=
c
n
e
in
0
t
.
HELM (2005):
Section 23.6: The Complex Form
57
The complex Fourier coecients c
n
can be readily obtained as follows using (1) and (2) for a
n
, b
n
.
Firstly
c
0
=
a
0
2
=
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t) dt (4)
For n = 1, 2, 3, . . . we have
c
n
=
1
2
(a
n
ib
n
) =
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t)(cos n
0
t i sin n
0
t) dt i.e. c
n
=
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt (5)
Also for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . we have
c
n
= c

n
=
1
2
(a
n
+ ib
n
) =
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt
This last expression is equivalent to stating that for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
c
n
=
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt (6)
The three equations (4), (5), (6) can thus all be contained in the one expression
c
n
=
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
The results of this discussion are summarised in the following Key Point.
Key Point 9
Fourier Series in Complex Form
A function f(t) of period T has a complex Fourier series
f(t) =

n=
c
n
e
in
0
t
where c
n
=
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt
For the special case T = 2, so that
0
= 1, these formulae become particularly simple:
f(t) =

n=
c
n
e
int
c
n
=
1
2
_

f(t)e
int
dt.
58 HELM (2005):
Workbook 23: Fourier series
3. Properties of the complex Fourier coefcients
Using properties of the trigonometric Fourier coecients a
n
, b
n
we can readily deduce the following
results for the c
n
coecients:
1. c
0
=
a
0
2
is always real.
2. Suppose the periodic function f(t) is even so that all b
n
are zero. Then, since in the complex
form the b
n
arise as the imaginary part of c
n
, it follows that for f(t) even the coecients c
n
(n = 1, 2, . . .) are wholly real.
Task
If f(t) is odd, what can you deduce about the Fourier coecients c
n
?
Your solution
Answer
Since, for an odd periodic function the Fourier coecients a
n
(which constitute the real part of c
n
)
are zero, then in this case the complex coecients c
n
are wholly imaginary.
3. Since
c
n
=
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt
if f(t) is even, c
n
will be real, and we have two possible methods for evaluating c
n
:
(a) Evaluate the integral above as it stands i.e. over the full range
_

T
2
,
T
2
_
. Note
carefully that the second term in the integrand is neither an even nor an odd function so
the integrand itself is
( even function) ( neither even nor odd function) = neither even nor odd function.
Thus we cannot write c
n
=
2
T
_
T/2
0
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt
(b) Put e
in
0
t
= cos n
0
t i sin n
0
t so
f(t)e
in
0
t
= f(t) cos n
0
t if(t) sin n
0
t = ( even)( even) i( even)( odd)
= ( even) i( odd).
Hence c
n
=
2
T
_ T
2
0
f(t) cos n
0
t dt =
a
n
2
.
4. If f(t +
T
2
) = f(t) then of course only odd harmonic coecients c
n
(n = 1, 3, 5, . . .)
will arise in the complex Fourier series just as with trigonometric series.
HELM (2005):
Section 23.6: The Complex Form
59
Example 4
Find the complex Fourier series of the saw-tooth wave shown in Figure 24:
T T 2T
A
f(t)
t
Figure 24
Solution
We have
f(t) =
At
T
0 < t < T f(t + T) = f(t)
The period is T in this case so
0
=
2
T
.
Looking at the graph of f(t) we can say immediately
(a) the Fourier series will contain a constant term c
0
(b) if we imagine shifting the horizontal axis up to
A
2
the signal can be written
f(t) =
A
2
+ g(t), where g(t) is an odd function with complex Fourier coecients that
are purely imaginary.
Hence we expect the required complex Fourier series of f(t) to contain a constant term
A
2
and
complex exponential terms with purely imaginary coecients. We have, from the general theory,
and using 0 < t < T as the basic period for integrating,
c
n
=
1
T
_
T
0
At
T
e
in
0
t
dt =
A
T
2
_
T
0
te
in
0
t
dt
We can evaluate the integral using parts:
_
T
0
te
in
0
t
dt =
_
te
in
0
t
( in
0
)
_
T
0
+
1
in
0
_
T
0
e
in
0
t
dt
=
Te
in
0
T
( in
0
)

1
( in
0
)
2
_
e
in
0
t
_
T
0
60 HELM (2005):
Workbook 23: Fourier series
Solution (contd.)
But
0
=
2
T
so
e
in
0
T
= e
in2
= cos 2n i sin 2n
= 1 0 i = 1
Hence the integral becomes
T
in
0

1
( in
0
)
2
_
e
in
0
T
1
_
Hence
c
n
=
A
T
2
_
T
in
0
_
=
iA
2n
n = 1, 2, . . .
Note that
c
n
=
iA
2(n)
=
iA
2n
= c

n
as it must
Also c
0
=
1
T
_
T
0
At
T
dt =
A
2
as expected.
Hence the required complex Fourier series is
f(t) =
A
2
+
iA
2

n=
n=0
e
in
0
t
n
which could be written, showing only the constant and the rst two harmonics, as
f(t) =
A
2
_
. . . i
e
i2
0
t
2
ie
i
0
t
+ + ie
i
0
t
+ i
e
i2
0
t
2
+ . . .
_
.
The corresponding trigonometric Fourier series for the function can be readily obtained from this
complex series by combining the terms in n, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
For example this rst harmonic is
A
2
_
ie
i
0
t
+ ie
i
0
t
_
=
A
2
{ i(cos
0
t i sin
0
t) + i(cos
0
t + i sin
0
t)}
=
A
2
(2 sin
0
t) =
A

sin
0
t
Performing similar calculations on the other harmonics we obtain the trigonometric form of the
Fourier series
f(t) =
A
2

A

n=1
sin n
0
t
n
.
HELM (2005):
Section 23.6: The Complex Form
61
Task
Find the complex Fourier series of the periodic function:
f(t) = e
t
< t <
f(t + 2) = f(t)
f(t)
t

3
Firstly write down an integral expression for the Fourier coecients c
n
:
Your solution
Answer
We have, since T = 2, so
0
= 1
c
n
=
1
2
_

e
t
e
int
dt
Now combine the real exponential and the complex exponential as one term and carry out the
integration:
Your solution
Answer
We have
c
n
=
1
2
_

e
(1 in)t
dt =
1
2
_
e
(1 in)t
(1 in)
_

=
1
2
1
(1 in)
_
e
(1 in)
e
(1 in)
_
62 HELM (2005):
Workbook 23: Fourier series
Now simplify this as far as possible and write out the Fourier series:
Your solution
Answer
e
(1 in)
= e

e
in
= e

(cos n i sin n) = e

cos n
e
(1 in)
= e

e
in
= e

cos n
Hence c
n
=
1
2
1
(1 in)
(e

) cos n =
sinh

(1 + in)
(1 + n
2
)
cos n
Note that the coecients c
n
n = 1, 2, . . . have both real and imaginary parts in this case as the
function being expanded is neither even nor odd.
Also c
n
=
sinh

(1 in)
(1 + (n)
2
)
cos(n) =
sinh

(1 in)
(1 + n
2
)
cos n = c

n
as required.
This includes the constant term c
0
=
sinh

. Hence the required Fourier series is

f(t) =
sinh

n=
(1)
n
(1 + in)
(1 + n
2
)
e
int
since cos n = (1)
n
.
HELM (2005):
Section 23.6: The Complex Form
63
4. Parsevals theorem
This is essentially a mathematical theorem but has, as we shall see, an important engineering in-
terpretation particularly in electrical engineering. Parsevals theorem states that if f(t) is a periodic
function with period T and if c
n
(n = 0, 1, 2, . . .) denote the complex Fourier coecients of f(t),
then
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f
2
(t) dt =

n=
|c
n
|
2
.
In words the theorem states that the mean square value of the signal f(t) over one period equals the
sum of the squared magnitudes of all the complex Fourier coecients.
Proof of Parsevals theorem.
Assume f(t) has a complex Fourier series of the usual form:
f(t) =

n=
c
n
e
in
0
t
_

0
=
2
T
_
where
c
n
=
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt
Then
f
2
(t) = f(t)f(t) = f(t)

c
n
e
in
0
t
=

c
n
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt
Hence
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f
2
(t) dt =
1
T
_ T
2

T
2

c
n
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt
=
1
T

c
n
_ T
2

T
2
f(t)e
in
0
t
dt
=

c
n
c

n
=

n=
|c
n
|
2
which completes the proof.
Parsevals theorem can also be written in terms of the Fourier coecients a
n
, b
n
of the trigonometric
Fourier series. Recall that
c
0
=
a
0
2
c
n
=
a
n
ib
n
2
n = 1, 2, 3, . . . c
n
=
a
n
+ ib
n
2
n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
so
|c
n
|
2
=
a
2
n
+ b
2
n
4
n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
so
64 HELM (2005):
Workbook 23: Fourier series

n=
|c
n
|
2
=
a
2
0
4
+ 2

n=1
a
2
n
+ b
2
n
4
and hence Parsevals theorem becomes
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f
2
(t)dt =
a
2
0
4
+
1
2

n=1
(a
2
n
+ b
2
n
) (7)
The engineering interpretation of this theorem is as follows. Suppose f(t) denotes an electrical signal
(current or voltage), then from elementary circuit theory f
2
(t) is the instantaneous power (in a 1
ohm resistor) so that
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f
2
(t) dt
is the energy dissipated in the resistor during one period.
Now a sinusoid wave of the form
Acos t ( or Asin t)
has a mean square value
A
2
2
so a purely sinusoidal signal would dissipate a power
A
2
2
in a 1 ohm
resistor. Hence Parsevals theorem in the form (7) states that the average power dissipated over 1
period equals the sum of the powers of the constant (or d.c.) components and of all the sinusoidal
(or alternating) components.
Task
The triangular signal shown below has trigonometric Fourier series
f(t) =

2

4

n=1
( odd n)
cos nt
n
2
.
[This was deduced in the Task in Section 23.3, page 39.]
f(t)
t

Use Parsevals theorem to show that

n=1
(n odd)
1
n
4
=

4
96
.
HELM (2005):
Section 23.6: The Complex Form
65
First, identify a
0
, a
n
and b
n
for this situation and write down the denition of f(t) for this case:
Your solution
Answer
We have
a
0
2
=

2
a
n
=
_

4
n
2

n = 1, 3, 5, . . .
0 n = 2, 4, 6, . . .
b
n
= 0 n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
Also
f(t) = |t| < t <
f(t + 2) = f(t)
Now evaluate the integral on the left hand side of Parsevals theorem and hence complete the problem:
Your solution
66 HELM (2005):
Workbook 23: Fourier series
Answer
We have f
2
(t) = t
2
so
1
T
_ T
2

T
2
f
2
(t) dt =
1
2
_

t
2
dt =
1
2
_
t
3
3
_

=

2
3
The right-hand side of Parsevals theorem is
a
2
0
4
+

n=1
a
2
n
=

2
4
+
1
2

n=1
(n odd)
16
n
4

2
Hence

2
3
=

2
4
+
8

n=1
(n odd)
1
n
4

8

n=1
(n odd)
1
n
4
=

2
12

n=1
(n odd)
1
n
4
=

4
96
.
Exercises
Obtain the complex Fourier series for each of the following functions of period 2.
1. f(t) = t t
2. f(t) = t 0 t 2
3. f(t) = e
t
t
Answers
1. i

(1)
n
n
e
int
(sum from to excluding n = 0).
2. + i

1
n
e
int
(sum from to excluding n = 0).
3.
sinh

(1)
n
(1 + in)
(1 + n
2
)
e
int
(sum from to ).
HELM (2005):
Section 23.6: The Complex Form
67